TOPIC 4 : ECOLOGY

4. 1.1/2 SPECIES CAN INTERBREED ,

POPULATIONS

SPECIES -

group of organisms thar can produce fertile viable , offspring when interbreed

POPULATION -

group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time

organism living in dif regions are reproductively isolated & UNLIKELY to breed (but possible because same species)

INTERBREED -

Members of the SAME species mare

CROSSBREED -

Members of different species mating

organisms of different species cannot Produce fertileoffspring ( Stevie)

4,1 .
7 COMMUNITIES

COMMUNITY -

Group of populations living together in a given area

↳ Many different other

many species interacting with each

HABITAT -
The environment in which species normally live

4. 1. 3 AUTOTROPHIC & HETEROTROPHIC

AUTOTROPHS -
Able to synthesise their organic molecules from simple inorganic substances .
Self feed
↳ the energy comes from SUN Cpnorosynnesis) or OXIDATION OF INORGANIC MOLECULES
PRODUCERS

HETEROTROPHS -

obtains organic molecules from other organisms ,

Feed on others

CONSUMERS

M / ✗ OTROPHS -
unicellular organisms may have different methods of obtaining organic molecules depending
of the availability of resources .
Occasionally using both forms
Unicellular Organism Euglena Gracilis can
photosynthesis e as ir has chloroplasts bur can

also feed on even smarter organisms Detritus by endocytosis

4. 1.4 CONSUMERS

CONSUMERS -

Is a
type of heterotroph .
Consumers ingest their food , absorbing the
organic from the as the undigested material
molecules organism as well

( PARAMECIUM)
COWS unicellular organism take it in

HERB/ VOURS -

organisms that feed on plant matter by ENDOCYTOSIS .

also a consumer

WOLVES
CARNIVOURS -

organisms that feed on animal matter

Humans
OMNIVOURS -

principle diet made up of born plant & animal

CROWS ,
HYENAS
SCAVENGERS -

consumer that feed on dead & decaying carcass

4. 1.5 DETRITIVORE

DETRITIVORES -

type of heterotroph . Detritivores obtain nutrients from non living organic sources
-
dead leaves ,
bark ( Humus)
-
feather . hair CRABS ,
SNAILS
-
feces from Animals ( Detritus]

4. 1.6 SAPROTROPHS

SAPROTROPHS -

feed on non living organic matter . by secreting digestive enzymes into the dead

organic material ,
it gets digested externally .
Then they absorb the nutrients

DECOMPOSERS ,
break down C
compounds & release N into
ecosystem .

MUSHROOMS ,
MOLD

APPLICATION How to identify modes of Nutrition

START
Feed on living org

enzyme nor secreted = CONSUMERS

only need simple compounds
µ
= AUTOTROPHS cell wall present ingest organic matter

"° insertion of organic matter through endocytosis or

in , g,,
secretes enzymes into ✗ no gut
Feed on dead org matter
environment to digest
dead organic matter =
DETRITIVORE
= SAPROTROPHS
4. 1.8 COMMUNITY & ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT

ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT -

Nonliving surrounding , Air ,

Water ,
soil , rocks .
Crucial in the

habitats of species . nor only does environment influence Ors

i 't can be the other way round too .

ECOSYSTEM -

A community & it 's abiotic environment es SAND DUNES

HABlTAT_
.
.

the interactions betelh

the 2

4. 1.9 AUTOTROPHS

Autotrophs obtain nutrients from SUNLIGHT or OXIDATION (Chemosynthesis)

the inorganic substance required for this process is taken from the environment

↳ C ,
N , H ,
O ,
P

4. 1,10 NURIENT CYCLE

chemical elements ger recycled constantly

material the releases inorganic byproduct
Heterotroph ingest organic
saprtropns decompose
theremains & c s
↑
free inorganic
'
manner into soit

Return of inorganic
Dm
nutrients to soil to
autotrophs obtain nutrient from environment
tontine Dyle

4.1.11 ECOSYSTEMS CAN BE SUSTAINABLE

itself for advantage of
Ecosystems can only sustain long periods of time by taking the
recycling syrens
Humans fossil fuels is example of unsustainable
activity
using an .

3 requirements for sustainability

•
Nutrient availability
↳ can be recycled
should not be a lack of chemical elements on which life is based

saprotrophic deeomp ensure constant recycling

•
Detoxification of waste products
↳ Waste of one organism can be exploited by another for
energy

Energy availability
•

depends energy supply to ecosystem

↳ Sustainability on continued

it initial
from sun , provides energy

Application

MESOCOSMS -
enclosed environments allowing small part of a natural environment to be observed
TERRARIUM -

small transparent container in which organisms are kept & Observed

7 .
Verdant foundation
.
pebbles ,
gravel or sand ,
this is for drainage
-
activated charcoal -

prevent mold .
aerate the soil

.
Sphagnum moss
creating barrier between layers
pre moistened growing medium
-

2 .
Plants
. Slow growing
-

plants good in
humidity

3 Contitions
'

sunlight avaiiiabiiiry
'
stable temperatures
.

pruning
 Skill Chi Square Test & Quadrant

interactions between species will determine the presence of species

POSITIVE ASSOCIATION -

2 species typically found in the same habitat

↳ relationships included Predator or
Prey / symbiotic

NEGATIVE ASSOCIATION 2 species found in same environment

-

not

usually occurs when there is a competition for food ( resources)

↳ 1 more effective / efficient COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION
Species may change environment to avoid direct wmp
RESOURCE PARTITIONING
Quadrant Sampling
Rectangular frame ( known dimensions) used to establish population densities
-
defined area
-
random arrangement
Number counted or estimated by % coverage
•
Repeat

CHI SQUARE TEST

used to determine if there is statistically significant association between the distribution of 2 species
5 Steps
1 .

Hypothesis identified ( null or alternative)

2. Construct a table of frequencies ( observed vs expected )
3 .
Apply CST formula
4 . Find degree of freedom ( df )
5. Identify P value ( should < 0,05 )

example

presence of scallops was recorded in fifty quadrants Clm )

'

Both = 6 Queen = 20 STEP 1 : Ho : NO Sig dif in distribution [random)

15 None 9 Hypo H : Yes Sig dif ( associated ]
King = = ,

STEP 2 ; dentifies expected distributed frequencies

1 Table

Expected frequency formula

( Row total ✗ Column total ]

Grand total

STEP 3 :

formula
2
(O - E)
2
✗ = E. E-

E. = Sum

0 = Observed freq
E = expected freq

✗ = 719

m= no of rows
STEP 4 : DF =
Cm 1) (-
n -
1) h = no
'
of column

DF Should be 7 it 2 compared

DF =
Math restriction that designates what range of valves fall in
each significance level
 STEP 5 :

p valve

if DF =
1 then xz valve has to be larger than 3.841
in order for it to be considered statistically significant
2
✗ = 7,9 therefore , Sis dif H ,
accepted

4. 2. 1/2 SUNLIGHT IS ENERGY

3 groups of Autotrophs carny out Photosynthesis PLANTS
EUKARYOTIC ALGAE ( seaweed)
CYANOBACTERIA

by absorbing Sun w/ chlorophyll the energy covered to chemical

, is energy
thus
making maroomolewhes ( organic compounds ) from inorganic sources

Heterotrophs ATP
f-
use sun indirectly .
consumers
ingest organic compounds
to derive

saprotropns Ken respiration]

Detritivores

4. 2. 3 FOOD CHAINS
FOOD CHAINS -

sequence of organisms ,
each of which feeds on the previous one

TROPHIC LEVEL -

position an organism occupies within a

feeding sequence

M
Bsf
TL 1 PRODUCERS ^^
-¥
TL 2 PRIMARY CONSUMER
Et
→
→ →

TL 3 SECONDARY CONSUMER ¥ ¥ ' i . . .

Carrot Plant
TL 4 TERTIARY CONSUMER Rabbit CAT tox

PRODUCERS PRIMARY CONSUMER SECONDARY CONSUMER TERTIARY CONSUMER

Arrows = transfer of energy ( points in direction of e flow]

4.2.4 ENERGY & RESPIRATION

Energy is used for

]
-
molecular synthesis ATP
Needs curate by cell ) ) by respiration
-
membrane transport -

-
Movement when ATP is used as fuel , THERMAL ENERGY is released
-

growth

Nor all energy is transferred because of excreted on in unconsumed parts of org

4. 2.5/6 HEAT ENERGY

organisms can convert →

Light to chemical in photosynthesis

chemical to kinetic in Muscles
chemical to electrical in Nerves [ synapse ]
Chemical to heat in Heat converting Adipose tissue

Heat cannot be transferred / convent into other forms in organism

Reaction in the body is exothermic therefore energy is released as heat

heat is loss to surroundings
 4. 2.7 ENERGY LOSS

BIOMASS -

total mass of a group of organisms ( all C compounds ]

Compounds stove
energy i. the
energy added can be measure

Energy transfer between trophic levels are not efficient ,

it is
always less than the one before
↳ 10 % efficient with 90% lost
only ,

REASONS
•
Respiration
energy is released during respiration used in cell activities

org in next level can chemical energy in carbs & C compounds that haven't been
only use

used in respiration

Not entirely consumed

Hair teeth bone etc

energy in these parts Pass to sapntwphs or detritivores instead of til next level

•
lndegisrible food
nor all the food is digested
eg , cellulose in humans ( becomes fibre]
egested in feces
↳ energy here pass to sapntwphs or detritivores

Due to this , no
'

of trophic levels limited

org of higher trophic levels needs to eat higher avanti ties to how eiovsn energy
Higher topic tells
also use more energy hunting . if energy needed to hunt is higher

energy available ,
then
org becomes viable
(trophic level )

Application FOOD PYRAMID

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID -
relative amount of a specific component at the dif trophic levels of ecosystem

PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
↳ shows the relative number of org at each stages of food chain

-2 -1
this
usually shape
KJM
in
m
Must be more
year
prey than predator
* Shape different if size is
disproportionately large
of caterpillars 1
M eg .
alot eating thee
-

fleas feeding off 1 dog host

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS
↳ total mass of organisms at each stage

1 always upright . Biomass decreases / diminishes along food chain as coz & waste released

* exception in Marine ecosystem

larger biomass than Phytoplankton
zooplankton
↳ can replace biomass rapidly , consume

larger biomass of Zooplankton

PYRAMID OF ENERGY
↳ amount of energy trapped per area in a give time period ar each stage

upright food
4- always , energy lost along chain
level proceeding level
each
410 the size of
 4.3.1 CO2 INTO CARBS

Autotrophs absorb the CO2 from the atmosphere & converts it into carbohydrates ,
lipids erc .

↳ plants & aigea via PHOTOSYNTHESIS

therefore this help } W/ reducing the overall levels of CO2 in the atmos

413.2 DISSOLVED GAS

In Aquatic ecosystems , coz exists as dissoved gas

coz + H2O ¥ 1-1203

↓ ↳ carbonic acid
When coz dissolves

cavbonare.io#
=
-

Hzco } HW } t

Dissociates into
Hydrogen
✓

releases Ht therefore making the water acidic

Aquatic Autotrophs CO2 HCO ] form compounds

-

absorbs both & to organic

413.3 CO2 DIFFUSES

As Autotrophs are using the 02 to form organic molecules

the levels of Wz inside MUST the

the plant be lower than
surrounding

OUTSIDE High
V02 INSIDE THE
how PLANT
coz

therefore a concentration is established & CO2 passively diffuses into the plant

land plants → stomata Aquatic plants →

directly into

4. 3.4 PRODUCTION OF CO2

CO2 produced via CELL RESPIRATION

( Due to conc gradient , Wz diffuses our ]
Sugars +
Oz → H2O -1 CO2

1h plants ,
we production Vare is similar to its co , usage .
When intake = output ( her coz =
07
COMPENSATION POINT

413.5 METHANOGENS IS
METHANE CH4 -

inflammable gas produced in Anaerobic conditions

METHANOGENS -

archean micro -

org thar produces methane as a byproduct of anarobic

rep

Arameans produce Etty by 1) Coz -1 442 → CH4 1- 2h20

1- It Cha 1- Coz
-

2) CH } COO t →

↓ Acetic Acid

found in swamps ( wetlands )

Marine sediments
Digestive tract of Ruminant animals ( cows , goats )
4. 3,6 METHANE →
WATER 1- OXYGEN

Methane naturally oxidizes in the stratosphere ( 12 years] . Amounts of Chu nor too high
Monotonic O & OH •
& involved

Chu t 202 →
coz 1- H2O

4. 3,7 PEAT c☐au☐soN )

when water can't be drained from soil , it is said to be WATERLOGGED & anaerobic
hence Aerobic organisms like plants cannot survive & dies . The Crich molecules remain called
PEAT

4.3.8 COAL

After years of pressure & hear , the carbon molecules form coal

↓
Organic matter that underwent incomplete combustion

oil & Gas

↳ form or the bottom of seas
anaerobic environments i.
incomplete decamp

sediment deposited gets buried & compressed & neared

↳ causing chemical change / forming HYDROCARBONS = oil & gag

4. 3.9 COMBUSTION

when organic material is neared in Oz it will produce wz & HD ( SH = -

ve )

source of combustion

1. FOSSIL FUEL 2 .
Biomass

As organic hnarrer becomes compacted .

HC are produced by orgs as part of biomass
it becomes rich in Hydrocarbons
HC can be extracted & used
-
Hear & pressure
-

Fossil fuels = coal ,

Oil ,
995
 413.10 LIMESTONE

when HCO ] t sediments they acquire

-

win metal ions

Caws forms in Limestone develops

•
Mollusks
Hard coral
smell
secretes Caco ] to make exoskeleton
] -
when

bur in
die
/
Neutral
Caw ]
or
Can

bases
dissolve

it deposits
in Acid

forming Limestone

Application CARBON CYCLE

CO2 in ATMOSPHERE
,

÷
/ )
.in

:* . sapwhopns & detritivores

. cell respiration
C in Fossil Fuel

1
C in consumers C in Dead organic matter

incomplete
decomp
&
feeding
fossil i cation
C in producers

4. 4.112 Coz & WATER VAPOUR & METHANE

GREENHOUSE GAS -

Gases thar retain heat within the earth like aglass greenhouse
they absorb & emit LONG -
WAVE ( infrared ) radiation
1%01 Atmosphere

WATER VAPOUR CARBON DIOXIDE

•
evap of waver bodies or transpiration
-

cellrespiration & combustion of fuel

•
Removed by precipitation RAIN •
Removed by photosynthesis & Ocean absorption

H2O hear it condenses to form

↑
retain when
1-110 droplets in clouds & the heat is
.
← Most Significant Greenhow Gases
radiated back to surface . ↑
Most abundant but not from human activities

METHANE NITROUS OXIDES

-
waterlogged habitats & landfills & ruminants •
Naturally by bacteria & agricultural & exhausts
extraction of fossil fuels & melting ice polar
4. 4,3 ABSORPTION OF RADIATION

2 factors determine Impact of Gas combination of 2

1. Ability to absorb Longwave radiation

↳ greater capacity to absorb =
↑ impact per molecule

2 .
Concentration in Atmosphere
↳ ↑ conc =
warming impact
↑
-
conc determined by rare of release & persistence in atmosphere

Methane cause warming Pfm than CO2 but cone is so little impact is therefore ↓
eg . more ,

H2O enters very very fast bur remains for show time .
Methane & Wz much longer ( ↑ persistence]

4.4.4 WARMER EARTH = LONGER RADIATION

WARMER EARTH absorbs short ✗ & re emirs

'

energy t as high ✗ energy

( infrared light )
solar radiation = 400hm Re -

emitted infrared light = 10000hm

Range of c) of solar radiation

passing through atmosphere

/
Solar

warming
radiation
the earth
[ pass our
og atmosphere

4.4.5 LONG ✗ REABSORBED

greenhouse gas needed to maintain moderate temp for orgs ( homeostasis )

as the at retain hear even with no direct sunlight .

25 -
30% of short 7 radiation is absorbed 134 reaching surface .
The ULTRAVIOLET light
hear
is absorbed by OZONE 03 . 70 -75% of solar radiation reaches surface as

↑ % of long ✗ re -
emitted by surface is absorbed .
70 -
85% is captured by Greenwvs gas
Thus global warming
GG absorbing only these specific ✗ of energy
4,4 , 6 GLOBAL WARMING →
GREENHOUSE GAS
Man made activities

↳ Deforestation ( less photosynthesis )

↑ farming (↑ ruminant animals )

coz ↑ the fastest ,

Main cause = combustion

fossil fuel releases energy when combusted & coz released

•
More ff means ↑ Coz ,
38 % CO2 levels increase

link seen by analysing data

provides evidence at the of

•
Ice core tone
freezing
•
gas bubbles trapped

strong -1 correlation between coz & temp

fluctuating cycle of Oz cone

GG trap hear so ↑GG =

↑ hear
Not directly proportional
-

Climate change also influenced by GG,

Higher hear =
Higher evaporation rare Move rain
-

. .

↳ higher hear of ocean = move freavenr tropical storm & hurricane

more areas more drought affected as hear win not increase evenly

41418 Wz ↑ → INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

strong correlation
↑ FF & ↑ CO2

38% since preindustrial ↑ Coz = ↑ temps

40%0 > remained

41419 ↑ Coz → ↑ FF