CORROSION & EROSION

Corrosion

• Corrosion is a naturally occurring phenomenon commonly defined as the deterioration of a

substance (usually a metal) or its properties because of a reaction with its environment.
• Corrosion occurs as a result of an electrochemical reaction driven by a potential difference
between two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, connected by an electronic path and
immersed in the same electrolyte.
• The tendency of a metal to corrode depends on the grain structure of the metal, its
composition as formed during alloying, and the temperature or deformation of a single metal
surface developed during fabrication.

Consequences of Corrosion

• The consequences of corrosion are many and varied and the effects of these on the safe,
reliable and efficient operation of equipment or structures are often more serious than the
simple loss of mass of metal. Failures of various kinds and the need for expensive
replacements may occur even though the amount of metal destroyed is quite small. Some of
the major harmful effects of corrosion can be summarized as follows:
▪ Reduction of metal thickness leading to loss of mechanical strength and structural failure
or breakdown. When the metal is lost in localized zones so as to give a crack like failure,
very considerable weakening may result from quite a small amount of metal loss.
▪ Hazards or injuries to people arising from structural failure or breakdown (e.g., bridges,
cars, aircraft)
▪ Loss of time in availability of profile-making industrial equipment
▪ Reduced value of goods due to deterioration of appearance
▪ Contamination of fluids in vessels and pipes
▪ Perforation of vessels and pipes allowing escape of their contents and possible harm to
the surroundings.
▪ Loss of technically important surface properties of a metallic component. These could
include frictional and bearing properties, ease of fluid flow over a pipe surface, electrical
conductivity of contacts, surface reflectivity or heat transfer across a surface.
▪ Mechanical damage to valves, pumps etc or blockage of pipes by solid corrosion
products
 ▪ Added complexity and expense of equipment which needs to be designed to withstand
a certain amount of corrosion, and to allow corroded components to be conveniently
replaced

Types of Corrosion

Corrosion was classified by the nature, environment chemical composition and electro chemical
properties, temperature, corrosion attack, and attack rate. Different forms of corrosion are

• Uniform attack
• Galvanic corrosion
• Pitting
• Crevice Corrosion
• Stress corrosion cracking
• Intergranular corrosion
• Selective leaching
• Erosion corrosion
• Hydrogen damage

Group-1: Corrosion detected by visual examinations are

• Uniform corrosion characterized by uniform loss of metal from the surface

• Localized corrosion mostly occurring on discrete surface areas resulting in pitting or stain
corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion by electrical contact between metals with different standard potentials
in an electrolyte

Group-II Corrosion distraction that requires a means of examination and identification

• Erosion corrosion caused by high velocity flow, fretting caused by vibration of two surfaces
in close contact, and cavitation caused by very high flow
• Intergranular corrosion at metal grain boundaries
• Dealloying resulting in alloy composition change due to the selective dissolution
• Environmental cracking with induced brittle failure in ductile material under stress and
corrosion fatigue
• Microbial activities producing sulphides, organic, or inorganic acids causing direct metal
oxidation.
Uniform Corrosion

• Uniform corrosion proceeds over a large fraction of the metal surface area and results in
uniform thickness reduction.
• The corroding metal must be compositionally and metallurgical uniform. Because there
are not preferential corrosion sites, both the cathode and anode are not a fixed location,
resulting in uniform corrosion. Corrosion rates are measured by electrochemical corrosion
techniques or weight loss.
• This type of corrosion is controlled by corrosion inhibitors, metallic and organic coatings,
and cathodic protection
• An example of uniform corrosion is atmospheric corrosion.
• The spontaneous corrosion of materials in atmospheric corrosion is controlled by
temperature, relative humidity, time of wetness, pH of the electrolyte, presence of
contaminants such as chlorides, NH3, SO2, NO2, and acidic fogs.

Galvanic Corrosion

• The potential difference established when two metals (alloys) are electrically connected in
a conducting medium produces electron flow and causes the metal (alloy) with more
negative potential to preferentially corrode.
• The more positive metal (alloy) becomes a cathode and is protected by the negative metal
(alloy), which becomes an anode. Because the driving force for corrosion is the potential
difference between the metals (alloys), this form of corrosion is called galvanic corrosion.
• Steel fasteners in an aluminium foil, the solder on a copper pipe, and stainless steel in
contact with galvanized steel are examples of galvanically coupled dissimilar metals.
Galvanic corrosion also occurs when the same metal is in contact with an electrolyte of
two different concentrations or with different levels of aeration (differential aeration cell)

Pitting Corrosion

• Pitting represents an extremely localized attack that produces holes in the metal or alloy.
• It is one of the most destructive, localized forms of corrosion.
• The pits are small cavities or holes with a depth greater than or equal to the surface
diameter
• They penetrate the metal, causing equipment failure due to perforation with minimal
weight loss.
 • The severity of pitting corrosion is controlled by environment, chloride concentration,
electrolyte acidity, oxidizer concentration, temperature, structural characteristics, metal or
alloy composition, dissolved oxygen concentration, potential, and potential scan rates.
• Pitting can be inhibited by
(i) Decreasing environment aggressiveness
(ii) Alloy composition
(iii) Temperature
(iv) Alloy structure
(v) Alloy protection with conversion coatings
(vi) Cathodic or anodic protection, and
(vii) Inorganic inhibitors.

Crevices Corrosion

• Crevices are formed at welds, in condensers, and between metal surfaces and valves.
• This type of carrion is initiated by small volumes of solution captured in crevices under bolt
gasket reverts or surface deposits.
• It destroys mechanical joint integrity in structures constructed from stainless steel,
aluminium, titanium, and copper.
• For corrosion to occur, the aggressive solution must permeate the crevice and be
sufficiently narrow to keep corrosion products inside the crevice.
• Electro polished surfaces mitigate crevice corrosion by lowering cathodic current densities
during polarization in sea water.
• Pickling also removes chromium-depleted layers formed during annealing at high
temperature and decreases crevice corrosion susceptibility.

Filiform Corrosion

• Filiform corrosion is observed under thin organic coatings on aluminium, steel, aircraft
structures exposed to humid atmosphere, beverage cans, flanges, gaskets, dis-bonded
underlying metals coated with organic coatings weld zones, and so forth.
• Corrosion resistant alloys of stainless steel, copper, and titanium are not susceptible to
Filiform corrosion.

Stress Corrosion Cracking

 • Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is defined as crack growth due to simultaneous tensile
stress and corrosive environments on active metals or alloys.
• It is a type of environmentally-assisted cracking or the formation of cracks caused by
various factors combined with the environment surrounding the pipeline.
• It occurs as a result of a combination between corrosion and tensile stress. Corrosion is
related to the susceptibility of the material to the environment, while stresses may be
residual, external or operational.
• The most obvious identifying characteristics of SCC in pipelines, regardless of pH, is the
appearance of patches or colonies of parallel cracks on the external surface of the pipe.
• SCC is usually oriented longitudinally, and the dominant stress that causes it is usually
internally pressure.
• How Crack growth occurs
▪ Stress corrosion cracking in pipelines begins when small cracks develop on the
external surface of buried pipelines. These cracks are not visible initially, but as
time passes, these individual cracks may grow and form colonies, and many of
them join together to form longer cracks.
▪ The SCC phenomenon
• Conditions that lead to Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) phenomenon has four key stages
1. The initiation of stress corrosion cracks
2. The slow growth of cracks
3. The coalescence of cracks
4. Crack propagation and structural failure

METHODS TO CONTROL CORROSION

There are five primary methods of corrosion control

• Material Selection
• Coatings
• Inhibitors
• Cathodic Protection
• Design

Material Selection

• Each metal and alloy have unique and inherent corrosion behaviour that can range from
the high resistance of noble metals, for example, gold and platinum, to the low corrosion
 resistance of active metals, for example, sodium and magnesium. Furthermore, the
corrosion resistance of metal strongly depends on the environment to which it is exposed,
that is, the chemical composition, temperature, velocity and so forth. The general relation
between the rate of corrosion, the corrosivity of the environment, and the corrosion
resistance of a metal is:

(Corrosivity of environment) / Corrosion resistance of metal = Rate of corrosive attack

• For a given corrosion resistance of the material, as the corrosivity of the environment
increases, the rate of corrosion increases.
• For a given corrosivity of the environment as the corrosion resistance of the material
increases, the rate of corrosion decreases.
• Often here are several competing materials that can meet the corrosion requirements,
and the material selection process becomes one of the determining which of the
candidate materials provides the most economical solutions for the particular service.
• Consideration of corrosion resistance is often as important in the selection process as the
mechanical properties of the alloy. A common solution to a corrosion problem is to
substitute and alloy with greater corrosion resistance for the alloy that has corroded.

Coatings

• Coatings for corrosion protection can be divided into two broad groups - metallic and non-
metallic (organic and inorganic). With either type of coating the intent is the same, that is,
to isolate the underlying metal from the corrosive media.
• Metallic coatings - The concept of applying a more noble metal coating on an active metal
takes advantage of the greater corrosive resistance of the noble metal. Organic coatings
primary function in corrosion protection is to isolate the metal from the corrosive
environment. In addition to forming a barrier layer to stifle corrosion, the organic coatings
can contain corrosion inhibitors. Inorganic coatings include porcelain enamels, chemical-
setting silicate cement linings, glass coatings and lining, and other corrosion resistant
ceramics. Like organic coatings, inorganic coatings for corrosion applications serve as
barrier coatings. Some ceramic coatings, such as carbides and silicides are used for wear-
resistant and heat resistant applications, respectively.

Inhibitors
 • Just as come chemical species (e.g., salt) promote corrosion, other chemical species
inhibit corrosion. Chromates, silicates, and organic amines are common inhibitors.
• The mechanism of inhibition can be quite complex. In the case of the organic amines, the
inhibitor is absorbed on anodic and Cathodic sites and stifles the corrosion current. Other
inhibitors specifically affect either the anodic or Cathodic process. Still others promote the
formation of protective films on the metal surface.
• The use of inhibitors is favoured in closed systems where the necessary concentration of
inhibitor is more readily maintained. The increased use of cooling towers stimulated the
development of new inhibitor/water treatment packages to control corrosion a d bio fouling.
• Inhibitors can be incorporated in a protective coating or in a primer for the coating. At a
defect in the coating, the inhibitor leaches from the coating and controls the corrosion.

Cathodic Protection

• Cathodic protection is one method used to prevent corrosion in pipelines, ships, offshore oil
platforms, and other steel structures
• Corrosion is a naturally occurring phenomenon commonly defined as the deterioration of a
substance (usually a metal) or its properties because of a reaction with its environment. The
tendency of a metal to corrode depends on the grain structure of the metal, its composition as
formed during alloying, and the temperature or deformation of a single metal surface
developed during fabrication.
• Corrosion occurs as a result of an electrochemical reaction driven by a potential difference
between two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, connected by an electronic path and
immersed in the same electrolyte.
• There are various time-proven methods for preventing and controlling corrosion. One of these
is Cathodic Protection (CP).
• Cathodic Protection
▪ The metallic surfaces exposed to an electrolyte have a multitude of microscopic
anodic and Cathodic sites. Where anodes are more electronegative than
cathodes, a potential difference is created between them, allowing for corrosion
to occur.
▪ The function of Cathodic protection is to reduce the potential difference between
anodes and cathodes to a neglected value. This reduction is due to polarization
of cathodes to the potential of most active anodes. In this way, corrosion current
is mitigated according to ohm's law.
 ▪ Cathodic protection can be accomplished by sending a current into the structure
from an external electrode and polarizing the Cathodic sites in an electronegative
direction.

Design

• The application of rational design principles can eliminate many corrosion problems and
greatly reduce the time and cost associated with corrosion maintenance and repair.
• Corrosion often occurs in dead spaces or crevices where the corrosive medium becomes
more corrosive.
• These areas can be eliminated or minimized in the design process. Where stress-corrosion
cracking is possible, the components can be designed to operate at stress levels below the
threshold stress for cracking.
• Where corrosion damage is anticipated, design can provide for maximum
interchangeability of critical components and standardization of components. Interchange
ability and part standardization reduce the inventory of parts required. Maintenance and
repair can be anticipated and easy access can be provided. Furthermore, the large items
that are critical to the entire operation, such as primary pumps or large fans, redundant
equipment is installed to permit maintenance on one unit while the other is operating.
These practices are a sampling of rational design principles.

CORROSION TYPES WITH PREVENTION STRATEGIES

Types of Corrosion Prevention Strategies

Stress Corrosion Cracking
Corrosion Fatigue
Hydrogen embrittlement
Galvanic Corrosion
More resistant alloys. Remove tensile stress, control
of environment (elimination of chlorides)
Eliminate cyclic stress and corrosive environment
More rigid design to reduce stresses due to vibrations
Avoid stress concentration in design
Choice of less – susceptible alloy / coatings. Avoid
cathodic protection (steels in acid environments)
Selection of metals / alloys closer in galvanic series.
Favourable cathode to anode ration. Coating taking

Crevice Corrosion
Erosion Corrosion and Cavitation
care not to create smaller anodes with larger
cathodes, insulation of dissimilar joints.
Proper design of junctions and joints to minimize
crevices. Welded joints preferable to rivets and bolts.
Pitting and crevice corrosion are enhanced in
stagnant / slow flowing solution. Provide drainages
Design to reduce velocity and turbulence, avoid
abrupt changes in flow directions.
EROSION

• Erosion is the destruction of a metal by the combined action of corrosion and abrasion or
attrition caused by the flow of liquid or gas (with or without suspended solids). If the
suspended particles are harder than the metal, erosion is caused by the combined action of
corrosion and abrasion. If there are no suspended solids or if the suspended solids are softer
than the metal, then erosion is caused by corrosion and attrition. Use of harder metals,
reduced velocity or changed environment and addition of inhibitors are methods used to
prevent erosion attack.
• Many biological industries deal with grain mashes and other suspensions of solids and these
may have to be mixed or pumped at high velocities. Commodities like gums frequently contain
small amounts of sand-and other debris and all these can lead to physical abrasion of
equipment at high velocity flows. This may be a simple grinding effect or the passive film on
the metals may be scoured off permitting much more rapid chemical corrosion. Even in the
absence of solids, too high velocities result in erosion of glass and plastic-lined equipment or
even metallic parts.
• Cavitation erosion - Formation of vacuum bubbles in a liquid stream passing over a surface is
called cavitation. Collapse of such vacuum bubbles results in considerable mechanical
damage to the metal surface due to the severe impact. This corrosion is accelerated due to
destruction of protective films and is often encountered around propellers and in pumps.
Redesign or use of a more resistant metal avoids this problem.

References

• https://books.google.co.in/books?id=FiAtBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=corrosion+en
gineering+articles+in+india&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDIQ6AEwBGoVChMIqczkpa2FyAIVhMS
OCh07_gP5#v=onepage&q&f=false
• Corrosion: Understanding the Basics Edited by J.R. Davis, Davis & Associates; Published by
ASM International