Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

STRATEGIC MANOEUVRING IN ARGUMENTATIVE CONFRONTATIONS,

Panel convened by Frans van Eemeren & Peter Houtlosser. Discussant: Igor Z. Zagar, Educational Research Institute & University of Primorska
E-mail: igor.zagar@guest.arnes.si WWW: www.igorzagar.net
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

- In pragma-dialectics dialectic is defined pragmatically as a method for dealing systematically with critical exchanges in verbal communication and interaction that amounts to the pragmatic application of logic, a collaborative method of putting logic into use so as to move from conjecture and opinion to more secure belief (van Eemeren et al., 1996: 214).
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

As far as it is pertinent to pragmadialectics, rhetoric is the theoretical study of the potential effectiveness of argumentative discourse in convincing or persuading an audience in actual argumentative practice. (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007)

Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring ...the gap between dialectic and rhetoric can be

...the gap between dialectic and rhetoric can be bridged by introducing the theoretical concept of strategic manoeuvring (van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2002). Strategic manoeuvring refers to the efforts arguers make in argumentative discourse to reconcile aiming for rhetorical effectiveness with maintaining dialectical standards of reasonableness. (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007)

Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

SM and (some) historical background: Plato and Aristotle or Plato vs. Aristotle - Plato: search for truth - two kinds of rhetoric: sophistical rhetoric (logographia) > rhetoric of probability/illusion (Gorgias) philosophical rhetoric (psukhagogia) > dialectics (Phaidros)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

dialectic (as education of souls) = eroticized rhetoric - eroticized rhetoric the gist of the Socratic method - principles of Socratic method?
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

Aristotle: search for knowledge - the inventory of (almost) everything (map of learning) - Logic: universal and necessary - Dialectic: general and possible - Rhetoric: particular and probable
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BUT: there is no gap between rhetoric and dialectic, or between dialectic and logic. RATHER: dialectic is necessary to consolidate (among other things) the first principles of logic/science; while rhetoric (in a way) gives grounds for dialectical enterprise.
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The two Zenos:

Zeno the Stoicist (after Plato and Aristotle) rhetoric = an open hand (palm) dialectic = a fist - difference of method, because the addressees are different, while the goal is the same: to persuade (about what?)
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Zeno of Elea credited by Aristotle as the inventor of dialectical arguments Dialectical arguments vs. dialectical method/art Dialectic (according to Aristotle): a technique/method of arguing from a special class of premises called endoxa (common beliefs).

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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

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A rather famous quote about dialectical method (from Eudemian Ethics): We must try, by argument, to reach a convincing conclusion (zetein ten pistin) on all these questions, using, as testimony and by way of example, what appears to be the case. For it would be best if everyone should turn out to agree with (phainesthai sunomologountas) what we are going to say; if not that, that they should all agree in a way and will agree after a change of mind (hoper metabibazomenoi poiesousin); for each man has something of his own to contribute to the finding of the truth (echei gar hekastos oikeion ti pros ten aletheian); and it is from such <starting-points> that we must demonstrate: beginning with things that are correctly said, but not clearly, as we proceed we shall come to express them clearly, with what is more perspicuous at each stage superseding what is customarily expressed in a confused fashion. (1216b26-35)

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From the Topics: Sometimes, even if a falsehood has been supposed, it should be refuted by means of falsehoods. For nothing prevents things which are not so seeming more so to some individual than what is true, so that if the argument arises from what seems so to that person, he will be more effectively persuaded or benefited. And whoever changes minds (metabibazonta) well must change them dialectically, not contentiously (just as the geometer must do so geometrically), no matter whether the conclusion drawn is false or true. (161a30-36)

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The point of the passage: dialectical arguments are always directed at someone and rely on that person's opinions. If my goal is to persuade you, it will do me no good to use true premises which you do not believe. Which is to say: To 'change minds' is to lead people to have different beliefs, and that can only be accomplished rationally by beginning with beliefs they actually do have. Rhetorical strategy par excellence: not discovering the truth but persuading others to believe (it).
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

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Another definition of dialectical method (Topics, first sentence): ...a method from which we will be able to syllogize from common beliefs (endoxa) about every topic proposed to us, and will say nothing conflicting when we give an account ourselves. - One of the definitions of rhetoric (in Rhetoric): rhetorical art is a kind of hybrid of the dialectical art (dialektike) and ethics: orations are directed at individuals, and we must understand the opinions they have in order to persuade them.

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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

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But, what is persuasive? Rhetoric (1356b28-35): For since what is persuasive is persuasive to someone (and sometimes is directly persuasive and convincing through itself, sometimes because of appearing to be proved through such things), but no art investigates the particular (e.g., medicine does not investigate what is healthful for Socrates or Callias, but rather what is so for this type or these types of personfor this is artful, but the individual is infinite (apeiron) and not knowable (episteton)), then neither will rhetoric study what is individually acceptable (to kath' hekaston endoxon), e.g., to Socrates or to Hippias, but rather what is so <sc. endoxon> to suchand-such people (tois toioisdi), just like dialectic.

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What is the difference between demonstration, dialectic, and rhetoric? Demonstration: starting from the first principles, conclusion entailed by its premises, no dialog (two parties) needed; Dialectic: discusses, not establishes, these first principles (among other things); Rhetoric: provides the tools and means for any kind of discussion (dialectical as well).

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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

- Strategic manoeuvring manifests itself in argumentative discourse in the choices that are made from the topical potential available at a certain stage in the discourse, in audience-directed framing of the argumentative moves, and in the purposive use of presentational devices. (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

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Five canons of rhetoric (officia oratoris): INVENTIO (finding arguments) DISPOSITIO (arranging arguments) ELOCUTIO (putting arguments into words) MEMORIA (memorizing the speech) ACTIO (delivering the speech)
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INVENTIO (in three steps):

Stasis (status causae) 2. Rhetorical analysis 3. Questions and topics

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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

Ad 1/1: Stasis
1) 2) 3) 4)

Stasis of conjecture/fact Stasis of definition Stasis of quality Stasis of place

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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

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Ad 1/2: Illustration from pseudo-Augustine (RLM 143.25 145.33 Halm):

P(rosecutor): The general is guilty of murder. D(efendant): The killing was lawful. J(ury): Was the killing lawful? P: He killed a soldier. D: I killed him because he swore he would desert. J: Was it lawful for the general to kill the soldier he swore he would desert?
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Ad 2: Rhetorical analysis (in three steps):

1) Kairos 2) The public 3) Decorum

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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

- Ad 2/2: decorum (four elements): Correctness 2) Clarity 3) Vividness 4) Ornateness Categories of change?
1)
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Ad 2/3: Caveat in relation to SM:

... Among the modes of expression that can be used as presentational devices, par excellence, are the various kinds of figures known from classical rhetoric and dialectic. (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007)
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Ad 3: Topics: Topics: Common Topics Definition Genus / Species Division Whole / Parts Subject / Adjuncts Comparison Similarity / Difference Degree Relationship Cause / Effect Antecedent / Consequence Contraries Contradictions Circumstances Possible / Impossible Past Fact / Future Fact Testimony Authorities Witnesses Maxims or Proverbs Rumors Oaths Documents Law Precedent The supernatural Notation and Conjugates

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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

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Ad 3/2: Topics:

Judicial justice (right) injustice (wrong) Deliberative the good the unworthy the advantageous the disadvantageous Ceremonial virtue (the noble) vice (the base)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring

Could be continued ...

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The point of all these comments?

1. Systematic integration of rhetorical insight into pragma-dialectical framework is (more than) necessary and welcome.

BUT
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Manoeuvring 2. There is much more in (classical) rhetoric that pragma-dialectic could take and profit from in order to become more flexible and, consequently, more applicable.

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For this very occasion the references are ommited... Many thanks!
igor.zagar@guest.arnes.si www.igorzagar.net
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