Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements in Germany

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Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements in Germany

To cite this article: B Hristov et al 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 1075 012021
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International Conference on Road and Airfield Pavement Technologies 2019 (ICPT 2019) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1075 (2021) 012021 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1075/1/012021
Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements in Germany
B Hristov1,*, F Wellner2, G C Falla2 and S Leischner2

1
Department of Engineering Sciences, Chair in Transportation, University of Applied
Sciences (HTW Berlin), Wilhelminenhofstraße 75A, 12459 Berlin, Germany
2
Department of Pavement Engineering, Technical University of Dresden (TU
Dresden), Georg-Schumann-Straße 7, 01187 Dresden, Germany
*
Corresponding author: Borislav.Hristov@HTW-Berlin.de
Abstract. The motivation for this research comes from the inadequacy of the methods
currently used for sizing and optimization of building materials used in pavement construction
based on increasing traffic loading and changing climatic conditions. Using examples, the
paper highlights how deficits can be identified by a detailed investigation of the relationships
in order to form a foundation for solving these deficits.
1. Introduction
Pavement design in Germany has so far been standardized according to the experience based on layer
thickness specifications instead of being dimensioned on the basis of calculations, as it is in the rest of
civil engineering. The assessment of the quality of the building materials itself is empirical and based
on past experiences. The quality of materials like asphalt is evaluated by assessing the mix
constituents. Typical examples for that are Needle penetration test, Ring and Ball softening point (for
bitumen) or grain size distribution (for aggregates) and mix composition requirements (binder content,
void content, etc.). An examination of the materials behavior under use-relevant stresses is not
considered or it is only very simplified to derive any meaningful results.
Rapid globalization of economies and improving trade relations between countries has promoted a
huge demand for mobility in the world. This combined with the increasing industrialization (road as
“storage area” of the industry) has resulted in increased traffic load during the past few decades. Road
freight traffic in Germany quadrupled from less than 100 billion tonne-kilometre (tkm) in 1980 to 500
billion tkm in 2010. The forecast for the next 30 years shows a similar trend with a road freight traffic
increase between 200-300%. In addition to the changes in climatic and loading conditions, financial
pressure is also supposed to increase as absence of cheap resources increases the cost of pavement
construction.
All factors described above lead to an urgent need for a scientific and mechanical approach towards
pavement structure to make it sustainable. These factors also highlight a need for complete
optimization strategy that must be employed on the building materials and the entire structure in order
to achieve high load bearing pavement structures.
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Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
2. State of the art
2.1 Design according to current guidelines

An example of an asphalt pavement structure is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Pavement structure [1]
Asphalts are conventionally designed based on very extensive set of rules according to the
guidelines. These regulations apply not only to the composition of asphalt but also to simple properties
of layers in the built-in state (void content, degree of compaction) [2, 3]. The design of pavement
structure based on the requirements of building materials can be done in two ways. The first relatively
simple way is the standardization according to [1]. In this method the layer thicknesses are specified
for certain load, climatic and substrate conditions. Secondly, mechanistic design based on various
evidence of the resistance of the structure against fatigue cracking [4]. To ensure frost resistance, the
thickness of the overall structure depends on the composition of the upcoming layers and the layers of
the substructure. The layer thicknesses as well as the total thickness of the pavement structures were
determined empirically based on past experience. This standardized method is almost exclusively used
today.
The mathematical procedure described below is only used in exceptional cases (side offers, PPP
projects, functional construction contracts). The guidelines introduced for this purpose [4], currently
contain a procedure, which includes the computational verification of the individual layers according
to the criteria of fatigue and deformation resistance. For building materials, a linear-elastic behavior
along with a temperature or a frequency dependency is assumed. The material properties required for
the verification in the asphalt layers are described by the temperature-stiffness modulus function and
the fatigue function, which are determined using test procedures as standardized in [5]. To calculate
the total axle load and temperature spectrum over a year, simplified assumptions are made for the load.
A rough classification of the axle loads at the corresponding geographical location (11 axle load
classes of 0-2 t, 2-4 t … > 22 t) with a traffic condition similar to the frequency distributions of the
classes and only a few temperature profiles over the asphalt layer (13 gradients for the temperature
2
classes from -15°C to -10°C, -10°C to -5°C and +45°C to +50°C) is done. However, this results in at
least 143 load states, which must be taken into account in the design/forecast calculations. The
evaluation of the individual load cycles with individual load conditions with respect to ‘consumption’
of service life then takes place according to Miner’s hypothesis. The model-related deviations of the
calculated and observed results are currently covered with the help of a safety factor. The required
safety factors (total safety factors) were determined by calibration calculations on the currently
standardized thickness of the pavement structure, on the assumption that these pavements reach a
service life of 30 years for certain calibration conditions (assumptions for material properties, loads
and temperatures).
2.2 Evaluation and further procedure for the regulations

An important question is, whether the method described for the design (catalogue design according to
[1]) and the corresponding additional rules for determining the mixture composition or requirements
[3, 6] provide a sufficiently reliable procedure for achieving the durability, particularly with respect to
the deformation and fatigue resistance of the constituent materials, and the whole pavement is
possible. Regulations, for example: the deformation or fatigue behavior of the asphalt are not yet
defined despite the newly established rules for computational design [4].
Due to the use of bitumen as a “binder” and crushed rock as aggregate, the asphalt mix shows
stress-dependent elastic and viscous plastic material behavior. Due to the strong temperature-
dependent viscosity of the binder, the same loads on the same pavement produce distinctly different
stress states and load reactions at different temperatures. Nevertheless, initially linear-elastic,
temperature and frequency dependent material behavior is assumed for asphalt. Also, for the
unbounded layers, linear-elastic behavior is initially assumed, although the non-linear behavior of this
is long known. To evaluate the damage caused by individual load cycles under different loading
conditions, the use of Miner’s hypothesis remains in discussion. Although, studies conducted at
Institute of Urban and Pavement Engineering at Technische Universität Dresden have shown that
acceptable results can be calculated with this hypothesis [7], however there is a need for further in-
depth research.
In order to bring it closer to reality, the axle load classes described in Chapter 2.1 should be
modified. Now, 22 axle load classes (from 1 t to 22 t with increment of 1 t per class) instead of 11 axle
load classes and assigned frequencies of occurrence should be taken into account during the pavement
design process. The temperatures which occur in the asphalt layers during the year and during the day
should be described in order to improve the reliability. As a next step, at least 200 different
temperature profiles at defined surface temperatures and frequencies of occurrence are created.
Combining these with the axle load conditions result in 4400 loading conditions. Nevertheless, the
computational time and effort must be kept within practice-relevant limits.
Usually, during the construction process of the asphalt, layers are paved as “hot on cold”. In the
pavement structure shown in Figure 1, this results in layer boundaries between the asphalt surface
course and the asphalt binder course, between the asphalt binder course and the asphalt base course as
well as in the middle of the asphalt base course (when the total thickness exceeds 18 cm) since it is
paved in two separate steps to ensure a proper compaction of the asphalt base course.
The bond between the layers is currently created by spraying the surface of the lower layer with
bitumen emulsion (tack coat) prior to the paving of the top layer. The process ensures a largely rigid
and permanent bonding between the layers. However, the bitumen emulsion used for gluing is a liquid
with temperature and frequency dependent viscosity. Road surface temperatures of 50 °C to 60 °C can
be reached during summer time at intense sunlight. In approximately 4 cm depth below the surface
layer, the temperatures between the surface and binder course are not significantly different from those
on the surface. Does the bitumen act as an adhesive or as lubricant in these conditions? Assuming the
latter, what impact does it have on the stresses and on the deformation and fatigue resistance of the
asphalt pavement? In order to achieve answers to these questions, investigations have been carried out
3
at the Institute of Urban and Pavement Engineering at Technische Universität Dresden, Germany that
will be discussed in the following parts of the paper.
3. State of research
3.1 Preliminary remarks

Ten years ago an intensive research activities have been carried out both internationally and in
Germany to develop improved pavement design methods and assumptions related to traffic and
climatic loading in order to predict accurately the structural response of the pavement structure. The
research has already led to better understanding of material behavior and its impact on interlayer
stresses and therefore ultimately on the service life of the pavement.
3.2 Assessment with the help of previous simplified approaches – fatigue criteria
Using the procedure mentioned above, tests were carried out for three asphalt samples produced in the
laboratory under the following assumptions: same traffic load, same pavement structure (same layer
thickness), same temperature conditions and same asphalt composition according to the regulations.
The aggregates consisted of only one quarry stone material with particle size distribution produced in
the lab by sieving. The only difference between these asphalts was the different origin of the bitumen
50/70 (according to the same classification regulation). Test specimens were prepared based on these
asphalts, the stiffness modulus as a function of temperature and fatigue was determined in accordance
with the valid instructions for the performance of splitting tensile tests [5] and based on the
calculations. Figure 2 shows the result of the calculations. Although the bitumen belonged to the same
grade (50/70), subjected to identical test conditions, differences in the service life from 10 to 30 years
were observed. Taking into account the fact that the common practice of mixing plants nowadays is to
change the bitumen supplier mainly for financial reasons without checking or changing the asphalt
composition, it is clear that a desired or predetermined service life cannot be achieved with empirical-
based dimensioning methods in combination with the requirements defined in the set of rules.
Origin A (50/70)
Average fatigue [%]
10 years
Origin B (50/70)
Origin C (50/70)
20 years
30 years
Figure 2. Calculated service life of asphalt pavements with binders of different proveniences by
identical other mixture parameters
Starting from this first example, the aim of further investigation at the Institute of Urban and
Pavement Design [10] was to determine the influence of the asphalt mix composition on its
performance and durability of the pavement structure based to fatigue criterion. Based on the fatigue
and stiffness modulus, temperature functions were obtained by trial and error method, the calculations
were then made on the selected pavement variants. A total of 18 asphalt base course variants of the
AC 22 T S specimen were produced. The variations of the particle size distribution, the binder content,
the binder viscosity and the binder manufacturer were carried out. In order to be able to analyze the
4
influence of the particle size distribution of an asphalt base course mixtures, the passage of the rock
aggregate at 0.063 mm, 2.0 mm and 16.0 mm grain size was determined so that it was exactly in the
middle of the required tolerance range of [3] (mean grain size distribution = mKGV), secondly on the
lower limit (coarse grain size distribution = gKGV) and thirdly on the upper limit of the grain size
range (fine particle size distribution = fKGV) of an AC 22 TS. The required minimum binder content
(Bmin = 3.5 M.-%) was calculated according to TL asphalt on the basis of the bulk density of the
aggregate mixture (amphibolite) used for all grain size distributions. Then the binder contents were
increased in 0.5 M.-% or in 1.0 M.-% steps to max. 6.5 M.-%. The binders used were paving grade
bitumen 50/70 from two binder manufacturers (A and B) and bitumen 30/45 (A) from manufacturer A.
Table 1 shows an overview of the tested asphalt base course variants.
Table 1. Tested asphalt mixtures

Grain size Binder
Binder type Binder content
distribution manufacturer
3,5 M.-%; 4,0 M.-%; 4,5 M.-%; 5,0 M.-
medium
% 5,5 M.-%
coarse 50/70 3,5 M.-%; 4,5 M.-%; 5,5 M.-%
A
3,5 M.-%; 4,5 M.-%; 5,5 M.-%; 6,5 M.-
%
fine 30/45 3,5 M.-%; 4,5 M.-%; 5,5 M.-%
50/70 B 3,5 M.-%; 4,5 M.-%; 5,5 M.-%
From this table the designation of the respective mixture variant results in the following way:
mKGV 3,5 M-% 50/70 A means: Average particle size distribution, binder content 3,5 M-%, bitumen
50/70 of the manufacturer A. These designations / Abbreviations can be found in the following
figures. The stiffness module-temperature functions determined for these mixture variants are shown
in Figure 3, the fatigue functions in Figure 4.
Stiffness modulus [MPa]
Temperature [°C]
Figure 3. Stiffness-temperature function for all tested asphalt mixes
5
The mixture variants show significant differences in stiffness. The "softest" asphalt at 10 ° C has
only 7,500 MPa of the stiffest asphalt twice the amount of 15,000 MPa.
Load cycles NMacro [-]
Elastic initial extension [‰]
Figure 4. Fatigue function for all tested asphalt mixes
There are significant differences in the fatigue functions. The asphalt with the lowest fatigue
resistance could bear only 2,000 load cycles at 0.1 ‰ elastic initial extension until failure of the test
specimen, whereas the asphalt with the highest fatigue resistance could withstand about 12,000 load
cycles.
Fatigue status, relative [%]
Binder content [M.-%]
Figure 5. Layer thickness adaptation to achieve the same calculated service life depending on the
binder content and the grain size distribution
Figure 5 shows the layer thickness adjustment, which is necessary to obtain the same calculated
service life. The calculations were made for the pavement variant according to Figure 1. The traffic
6
load was assumed in such a way that no layer thickness adjustment is necessary for variant fKGV
30/45-A with a binder content of 5%. Two main conclusions can be drawn from these results. The
binder content, particle size distribution and binder viscosity have a significant influence on the
fatigue resistance of the asphalts and thus of the pavement even with the slightest variations. It is
obviously possible to determine the optimal binder contents for given particle size distributions and
binder viscosities by the methodology used here. The absolute differences in the required layer
thickness adjustments show very clearly that based on the conventional empirical method of
dimensioning and setting the mix compositions only on the basis of void considerations, a desired
service life cannot be achieved accurately. Detailed considerations for optimizing the asphalt are
absolutely necessary, at least for the area with high and very high loads and frequencies.
The construction of asphalt pavement in Germany generally consists of a surface course, binder
course and base course. The interlayer bond allows transfer of shear and normal stresses between the
asphalt layers. This interlayer bond is achieved through interlocking of the aggregates at the interface,
the friction between the surfaces of the two asphalt layers and adhesion between the applied tack coat
and asphalt binder of the two layers.
Sometimes, the shear stresses at the layer boundaries can be extremely high. This must be absorbed
in such a way that the horizontal sliding of the layer boundary surfaces against each other is largely
excluded. Missing or reduced interlayer bond results in a complete different stress state within the
whole pavement structure. This may result in a significant reduction in service life of the pavement
due to premature material fatigue.
A stiff and durable interlayer bond ensures all layer of the asphalt pavement can act as a single unit
when the pavement is loaded resulting in minimal or no displacement between the layers and their
interface. Research concerning this issue has been carried out at the Institute of Urban Construction
and Road Construction at Technische Universität Dresden. The aim was to experimentally determine
the effectiveness of the interlayer bond using relationship functions between shear stiffness,
temperature, stress frequency and normal stress. By using the Finite Element (FE) program SAFEM
[2], implemented in the German method for the analytical design of asphalt pavements according to
[4], further conclusions about the effect of the interlayer bond on the service life of the pavement
(fatigue criteria) can be drawn.
A new improved apparatus for cyclic testing of the interlayer bond has been used to simulate as
accurately as possible the real load conditions that exist during the service life of the pavement
structure. The effects of temperature, shear stress (cyclic), load frequency and the normal stress were
considered. The shear stiffness was then experimentally determined for different nature and degree of
contamination of the surface of the layers, bitumen emulsion types and amounts. The tests initially
revealed a clear dependence of the shear stiffness on the temperature, the frequency of the shear stress
and the normal stress. Less clear, but notable was the dependence of the shear stiffness on the surface
properties of the layers and on the degree of contamination. Initially, it was determined that bitumen
emulsion produces a very low shear stiffness (in no case above 100 MPa/mm, even at low
temperatures). The shear stiffness at the interlayer bond was 10 to 100 times lower than the asphalt
layers at comparable temperatures and load frequencies. At higher temperatures and low or non-
existent normal stress, the shear stiffness tends to zero. Based on the experimental results a sigmoidal
master functions for describing the shear stiffness for different states could be derived. The function
with the lowest shear stiffness was filtered out as a "bad case" and similarly the function with the
highest shear stiffness was called "good case". Furthermore, shear fatigue tests were carried out at
Braunschweig Pavement Engineering Centre (ISBS). The tests showed, after the fatigue-related
breakage of the interlayer bond, only friction/interlocking is effective as a function of the normal
stress. From these experiments, a function was set up as a basis for the calculations for the worst case.
All functions were then implemented in the FE program SAFEM. The fatigue status of the asphalt
pavement investigated with interlayer bonds (varying from full bound to no bound) could then be
determined using the analytical pavement design procedure according to the RDO Asphalt (Fig. 1) in
order to investigate the effects of the interlayer bond on the fatigue behavior of asphalt structures. For
7
this purpose, five different bond configurations were assumed between the surface course and binder
course, as well as between the binder course and the base course layer:
• Full interlayer bond (theoretical bond which has never been reached in the tests, upper and lower
asphalt layer are rigidly connected; does not apply to in-service asphalt pavements)
• "Good Case": best measured interlayer bond produced on test specimens in the laboratory for each
layer combination.
• “Bad Case”: worst measured interlayer bond produced on test specimens in the laboratory for each
layer combination.
• Completely fatigued interlayer bond: normal stress-dependent and temperature-independent bond
determined in long-term laboratory tests.
• Completely missing interlayer bond (theoretical bond which has never been reached in the tests,
upper and lower asphalt.
The calculations were carried out for a construction according to Fig. 1 and for a very high traffic
load and frequency (Fig. 6). Fatigue status 100% means the end of the calculated service life. The
traffic load was chosen in a way that 30 years of service life can be achieved for the "good case". It is
interesting that full interlayer bond would ensure a computational service life far beyond 30 years
under otherwise identical conditions, whereas all other realistic cases are far below 30 years.
7.9
7,9 15.6
15,6 22.9
22,9 30.0
100%
Broken Existing
Interlayer Bond Interlayer Bond
90%
80%
Fatigue status (%)
70%
60% 54.3
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Service life (years)
Good Case Bad Case
Full Interlayer Bond Completely Missing Interlayer Bond
Completely Fatigued Interlayer Bond
Figure 6. Layer thickness adaptation to achieve the same calculated service life depending on the
binder content and the grain size distribution
These results show clearly that the interlayer bond, as one of the most important factors influencing
the service life of asphalt pavements, can be estimated realistically only through detailed consideration
of the structure and on the basis of test results.
4. Outlook
As already mentioned, the illustrated examples are based on simplified assumptions. There is an
immediate need for improved methods of characterizing material behavior, shear stiffness etc., as a
basis for improved modelling of the pavement. In addition, there is a need to couple this sub-module
for the pavement with partial models for the tire and for the vehicle. As a result, interactions between
8
the pavement, tires and vehicle can be presented in addition to improving the understanding of the
relationships in the sub-models.
References
[1] Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen- und Verkehrswesen 2012 RStO 12: Richtlinien für die
Standardisierung des Oberbaus von Verkehrsflächen, Köln
[2] Wellner F and Hristov B 2015 Zyklische Schersteifigkeits- und Scherermüdungsprüfung zur
Bewertung und Optimierung des Schichtenverbundes in Straßenbefestigungen aus Asphalt,
Forschungsvorhaben Nr. 17634 BG, Abschlussbericht, Dresden
[3] Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen- und Verkehrswesen 2013 TL Asphalt-StB, Technische
Lieferbedingungen für Asphaltmischgut für den Bau von Verkehrsflächenbefestigungen,
Köln
[4] Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen- und Verkehrswesen 2009 RDO Asphalt 09, Richtlinien für
die rechnerische Dimensionierung des Oberbaus von Verkehrsflächen mit
Asphaltdeckschicht, Köln
[5] Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen- und Verkehrswesen 2009 AL Sp-Asphalt 09,
Arbeitsanleitung zur Bestimmung des Steifigkeits- und Ermüdungsverhaltens von Asphalten
mit dem Spaltzug-Schwellversuch als Eingangsgröße in die Dimensionierung, Köln
[6] Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen- und Verkehrswesen 2013 ZTV Asphalt-StB, Zusätzliche
Technische Vertragsbedingungen und Richtlinien für den Bau von
Verkehrsflächenbefestigungen aus Asphalt, Köln
[7] Wellner F and Weise C 2012 Schadensakkumulation bei unterschiedlicher Beanspruchung unter
Berücksichtigung von Heilungs- und Affinitätseinflüssen an ausgewählten Asphalten,
Forschungsvorhaben Nr. WE 1642/5-1, Abschlussbericht, Dresden

Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements in Germany

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IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering

PAPER • OPEN ACCESS

Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements in Germany

View the article online for updates and enhancements.

This content was downloaded from IP address 178.171.121.168 on 09/03/2021 at 03:31

Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements in Germany

B Hristov1,*, F Wellner2, G C Falla2 and S Leischner2

2. State of the art

2.1 Design according to current guidelines

Figure 1. Pavement structure [1]

2.2 Evaluation and further procedure for the regulations

3.1 Preliminary remarks

Table 1. Tested asphalt mixtures

50/70 B 3,5 M.-%; 4,5 M.-%; 5,5 M.-%

Figure 3. Stiffness-temperature function for all tested asphalt mixes

Elastic initial extension [‰]

Figure 4. Fatigue function for all tested asphalt mixes

Binder content [M.-%]

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