Constitution of India

Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).
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!¢«˛yl#!ï˛Ó˚ å1986ä !¢¢%ˆÏܲ!wܲ !¢«˛yÓ˚ °«˛ƒˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒË˛yˆÏÓ ~!àˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ÎyˆÏÓ–

ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÈÏã˛T˛yÓ˚ §yÊ˛°ƒ xˆÏlܲê˛y•z !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ fl%҈ϰÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl !¢«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ
!¢«˛Ü˛‡!¢!«˛Ü˛yˆÏòÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ñ ÎÑyÓ˚y !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ !¢ál §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ≤ß¿ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ ܲyˆÏç !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚
ܲ“ly¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ í˛zͧy!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓl– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ~ê˛y ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy á%Ó çÓ˚%!Ó˚ñ !¢¢%Ó˚y Î!ò
§ÙÎ˚ñ fiÌyl ~ÓÇ fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §%ˆÏÎyà ˛õyÎ˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ÓˆÏí˛¸yˆÏòÓ˚ ܲySÈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ K˛yl
!lˆÏÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚y lï%˛l xˆÏlܲ !ܲS%È §,!T˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ– ~ܲÙye ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z ˛õˆÏí˛¸•z ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÎ˚ ˛õy§ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
ÈüÈ Ù)°ï˛ ~•z ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°•z !¢«˛yÓ˚ xlƒylƒ !òܲà%ˆÏ°y §Ó≈òy í˛zˆÏ˛õ!«˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ Ë%˛ˆÏ°
ˆàˆÏ° ã˛°ˆÏÓ lyñ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §,çl¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ !Óܲy¢ ï˛ál•z §Ω˛Óñ Îál xyÙÓ˚y GˆÏòÓ˚ ~•z ˆàyê˛y
!¢ál ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye @˝Ã•#ï˛y ly ˆË˛ˆÏÓ ~ܲê˛y ˛õ)î≈ xÇ¢#òyÓ˚ ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚Ó–

ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z °«˛ƒ˛õ)Ó˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° fl%҈ϰÓ˚ ˜òl!®l ܲyÎ≈§)!ã˛ G ÓƒÓfiÌy˛õlyÎ˚ xˆÏlܲ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xy¢y x!lÓyÎ≈– fl%҈ϰÓ˚ ˜òl!®l §ÙÎ˚ §)!ã˛ ˆÎÙl lÙl#Î˚ •GÎ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛ñ !ë˛Ü˛ ˆï˛Ùl•z Óy!£Ï≈ܲ
ܲyÎ≈§)!ã˛ ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •GÎ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ÎyˆÏï˛ !¢«˛yòyˆÏlÓ˚ !òlà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇáƒyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
ly xyˆÏ§– ï˛ˆÏÓ ÓyhflψÏÓ ~•z lï%˛l ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ ܲï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ ܲyˆÏç °yàˆÏÓ– GˆÏòÓ˚ fl%Ò°ç#Ól ܲï˛ê˛y
§Ù,  ô ܲÓ˚ ˆ Ï Ó !ܲÇÓy GˆÏ ò Ó˚ fl% Ò °ç#ÓlˆÏ Ü ˛ ò% ! Ó≈ £ Ï • ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ï% ˛ °ˆÏ Ó lyñ §Óê˛y•z !lË≈ ˛ Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ ˆ Ï S È
!¢«˛Ü˛‡!¢!«˛Ü˛yÓ˚y ܲ# ˛õÂô!ï˛ xÓ°¡∫l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~•z Ó•z!ê˛ fl%҈ϰ ˛õí˛¸yˆÏÓl ~ÓÇ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ˆ§•z ˛õí˛¸yÓ˚
Ù)°ƒyÎ˚l ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓl– !Óàï˛ !òlà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ ÎyˆÏï˛˛ ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÓyV˛y Ó•zˆÏï˛ ly •Î˚ñ~•z lï%˛l
˛õyë˛ƒÜ ˛Ù ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~•z Óƒy˛õyˆÏÓ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï lçÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ !¢«˛yòyˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãò_
§ÙÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ Ùyl!§Ü˛ !ÓܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ܲÌy ÙyÌyÎ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•zˆÏÎ˚ xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛ !¢«˛yÓ˚
!Ó£ÏÎ˚Ó›à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ lï%˛l ò,!T˛Ë˛!Aà !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ%là≈ë˛l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ≤ÈÏã˛T˛yˆÏܲ xyˆÏÓ˚y ~!àˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚
ÎyÓyÓ˚ çlƒ ~•z ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ lylyÓ˚Ü˛Ù ≤ß¿ ܲÓ˚yñ lï%˛l !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˲yÓlyÈüÈ!ã˛hs˝yñ
ï˛Ü≈˛ÈüÈ!Óï˛Ü≈˛ñ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y @˝Ã%˛õ Óy!lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y ~ÓÇ •yˆÏï˛ÈüÈܲ°ˆÏÙ !¢«˛y ~•z§Ó !ܲS%ÈÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c
xyˆÏÓ˚y˛õ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–

˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z í˛zߨÎ˚l ܲ!Ù!ê˛Ó˚ òy!Î˚c≤ÃyÆ §Ü˛° Óƒ!=˛Óà≈ ÎÑyÓ˚y ܲˆÏë˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚◊Ù Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~•z Ó•z!ê˛ Ó˚)˛õyÎ˚î
ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl ïÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ ~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ ≤âǧy çylyˆÏFSÈ– ~•z ܲ!Ù!ê˛Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õˆÏܲ §!ë˛Ü˛ ˛õˆÏÌ ã˛y!°ï˛
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ §Ùyç!ÓK˛yl !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏòT˛y ܲ!Ù!ê˛Ó˚ ˆã˛Î˚yÓ˚˛õy§≈l xôƒy˛õܲ •!Ó˚ Óy§%ˆÏòÓl ~ÓÇ ~•z ˛õyë˛ƒ
Ó•zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Ù%რí˛z˛õˆÏòT˛y xôƒy˛õܲ ~Ù ~•zã˛ Ü%˛ˆÏÓ˚!¢ وϕyòÎ˚àˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ xyhs˝!Ó˚ܲ Ü,˛ï˛K˛ï˛y ~ÓÇ ôlƒÓyò
K˛y˛õl ܲÓ˚!SÈ– ~•z ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z ˛õ%là≈ë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !˛õSȈÏl Ó•% !¢«˛Ü˛‡!¢!«˛Ü˛yÓ˚ xÓòyl xlfl∫#ܲyÎ≈–

xyÙÓ˚y ˆ§•z§Ó fl%҈ϰÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl !¢«˛Ü˛ˆÏòÓ˚G !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ ôlƒÓyò çyly!FSÈ– ~•z ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÎ§Ó ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛yl ~ÓÇ §Çàë˛l ïÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ó•%Ù)°ƒ §¡õòñ í˛z˛õyòyl ~ÓÇ ˆ°yܲӰ !lˆÏÎ˚ ܲyç ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
xl%Ù!ï˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ í˛zòyÓ˚ ÙˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛Î˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈlñ ïÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §ÓyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ xyÙÓ˚y !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ Ü,˛ï˛K˛ï˛y fl∫#ܲyÓ˚
ܲÓ˚!SÈ ~ÓÇ ôlƒÓyò çyly!FSÈ– ÙylÓ §¡õò í˛zߨÎ˚l ÙsfˆÏܲÓ˚ å~Ù ~•zã˛ xyÓ˚ !í˛ä ˆã˛Î˚yÓ˚˛õy§≈l xôƒy˛õܲ
Ù,îy° !Ù!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xôƒy˛õܲ !ç !˛õ ˆò¢˛õyˆÏu˛Ó˚ ï˛_¥ÓôyˆÏl Ùyôƒ!Ùܲ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ !¢«˛y !Ó˲yà myÓ˚y !lÎ%=˛
çyï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î §!Ù!ï˛Ó˚ §ò§ƒˆÏòÓ˚ Ó•%Ù)°ƒ §ÙÎ˚ G xÓòyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ˛õ£Ï≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ïÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï
ôlƒÓyò K˛y˛õl ܲÓ˚!SÈ– !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ly ~ÓÇ ÓƒÓfiÌy˛õlyÓ˚ à%îàï˛ Ùyl §ÇflÒyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲyˆÏç !lÓ˚hs˝Ó˚
!lˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ Ìyܲy ~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ Ü˛ï,≈˛˛õ«˛ §Ó≈òy ˛õyë˛Ü˛ˆÏòÓ˚ Ùï˛yÙï˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚yÙ¢≈ˆÏܲ fl∫yàï˛ çylyÎ˚ñ
ÎyˆÏï˛ Ë˛!ӣσˆÏï˛ ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z §ÇˆÏ¢yôl# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y §Ê˛°Ë˛yˆÏÓ §¡õߨ •ˆÏï˛ õyˆÏÓ˚–

!lí˛z !ò!Õ‘ x!ôܲï≈˛y

20 !í˛ˆÏ§¡∫Ó˚ñ 2005 Ó˚yT˛…#Î˚ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ!Ó˚£Ïò
å~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ä
 TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT THE HIGHER SECOND-
ARY LEVEL

Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta, Kolkata

CHIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qureshi, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal
Nehru University, New Delhi

MEMBERS
Indu Sharma, PGT, Geography, RIE Demonstration School, Ajmer
K. Kumaraswamy, Professor, Department of Geography, Bharatidasan Univer-
sity, Tiruchirapalli
K. N. Prudhvi Raju, Professor, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu Uni-
versity, Varanasi
K. S. Sivasami, Professor (Retd.), Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
L. Cajee, Reader, Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University,
Shillong
P. K. Malik, Lecturer, Geography, Govt. College, Tavru, Gurgaon
S. R. Jog, Professor (Retd.), Department of Geography, University of Pune, Pune

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Aparna Pandey, Lecturer, Geography, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the

contribution of Ashok Diwakar, Lecturer, Geography, Govt. College, Sector-9,

Gurgaon in the development of this textbook.

The Council also gratefully acknowledges the support of individuals and

organisations as listed below for providing various photographs, and other mate-

rials such as articles used in this textbook : R. Vaidyanadhan (Fig. 6.3 and 7.1);

N. S. Saini (Fig. 6.4, 6.7 and 7.4); Y. Ramesh and Krishnam Raju, VSVG, (USA)

(Fig. 7.11); K. N. Prudhvi Raju (Fig. 7.2, 7.5, 7.7, 7.9, 7.12 and 7.15); ITDC/Min-

istry of Tourism, Govt. of India, (Fig. 11.1 and 11.2); Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Govt. of India (Fig. 16.1, 16.2, 16.3 and 16.4); The Times of India, New

Delhi (Photograph on earthquake destruction, Collage on tsunami on page 25

and global warming on page 109); Social Science Textbook for Class VIII, Part II

(NCERT, 2005), (Photographs related to volcanoes on page 26-27).

Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head, Department

of Education in Social Sciences and Humanties for her support and finalising

this textbook.

The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Ishwar Singh

and Arvind Sharma, DTP Operators; Sameer Khatana and Amar Kumar Prusty,

Copy Editors; Bharat Sanwaria, Proof Reader; Dinesh Kumar, Computer Incharge,

who have helped in giving a final shape to this book. The contribution of the Pub-

lication Department, NCERT are also duly acknowledged.

 §)!ã˛˛õe
~Ü˛Ü I : !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày° 1-12
1. !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày° 2

~Ü˛Ü II : ˛õ,!ÌÓ# 13-38

2. ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ ~ÓÇ !ÓÓï≈˛l 14
3. ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î àë˛l 21
4. Ù•y§yàÓ˚ G Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l 30

~Ü˛Ü III : Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ 39-74

5. á!lç ~ÓÇ !¢°y 40
6. Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• 45
7. Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l 58

~Ü˛Ü IV : ç°ÓyÎ˚% 75-110

8. ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyl G àë˛l 76
9. ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îñ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚˚ §Ùï˛y ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey 79
10. ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛y°l ~ÓÇ xyÓ•yGÎ˚yàï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• 88
11. ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ç° 98
12. ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% G ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l 103

~Ü˛Ü V : Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢ 111-125

13. Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢ 112
14. Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ à!ï˛≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ 120

~Ü˛Ü VI : ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#Ól 126-140

15. ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#Ól 127
16. ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ~ÓÇ §ÇÓ˚«˛î 135
¢∑ˆÏܲy¢ 141-144
 ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ lyà!Ó˚ܲˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÙÔÏ!°Ü˛ ˛x!ôܲyÓ˚
å˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ §Ç!Óôylñ ôyÓ˚y 14ÈüÈ30 32G 226ä
1ä §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚ı
D xy•zˆÏlÓ˚ ò,!T˛ˆÏï˛ §Óy•z §Ùyl ~ÓÇ xy•zl §Ü˛°ˆÏܲ §Ùyl˲yˆÏÓ Ó˚«˛y ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
D çy!ï˛ñôÙ≈ñ Óî≈ñ lyÓ˚#ÈüÈ˛õ%Ó˚%£Ïñ çß√fiÌyl ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆÏî Ó˚yT˛… ˆÜ˛yˆÏly lyà!Ó˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˜Ó£ÏÙƒÙ)°Ü˛ xyã˛Ó˚î
ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ly–
D §Ó˚ܲy!Ó˚ ã˛yÜ%˛!Ó˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÎyàƒï˛y xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §Ü˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùyl x!ôܲyÓ˚–
D xflõ,¢ƒï˛y !l!£ÏÂô ~ÓÇ xy•zl xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ò[˛l#Î˚ x˛õÓ˚yô–
2ä fl∫yô#lï˛yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚ ı
D Óy܉˛ fl∫yô#lï˛y G Ùï˛yÙï˛ ≤ÃܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚–
D ¢y!hs˝˛õ)î≈ G !lÓ˚flf˲yˆÏÓ §ÙˆÏÓï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚–
D §Çâ G §!Ù!ï˛ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚–
D ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ §Ó≈e fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ ã˛°yˆÏÊ˛Ó˚y ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚–
D ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆÎˆÏܲyˆÏly fiÌyˆÏl fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ Ó§Óy§ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚–
D ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ç#!Óܲyñ ˆ˛õ¢y Óy ÓƒÓ§y Óy!îçƒ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚–
D ç#Ól G Óƒ!=˛àï˛ fl∫yô#lï˛yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚–
3ä ˆ¢y£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚%ˆÏÂô x!ôܲyÓ˚ı
D ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Óƒ!=˛ˆÏܲ Ü ˛Î˚ñ !ÓÜ ˛Î˚ ܲÓ˚y Óy ˆÓàyÓ˚ áyê˛yˆÏly ÎyˆÏÓ ly–
D ˆã˛Ôj ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ü˛Ù ÓÎ˚flÒ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ á!lñ ܲyÓ˚áyly ˛Óy xlƒˆÏܲyˆÏly !Ó˛õIlܲ ܲyˆÏç !lÎ%=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ly–
4ä ôÙ#≈Î˚ fl∫yô#lï˛yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚ ı
D §Ü˛° ôˆÏÙÏ≈Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ §Ùyl ◊Âôy G §Ùyl !lÓ˚y˛õ_yñ ܲyˆÏÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ ˜Ó£ÏÙƒ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÓ ly ~ÓÇ
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ôÙ≈yã˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ õ)î≈ x!ôܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ §Ùyly!ôܲyÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏÓ–
D ˆÎˆÏܲyˆÏly ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ≤çyˆÏÓ˚ xÌ≈ òyl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ fl∫yô#lï˛y–
D Ó˚yT˛… ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛ Óy §Ó˚ܲy!Ó˚ §y•y΃≤ÃyÆ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !¢«˛y ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛yˆÏl !¢«˛y °yˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Óƒ!=˛ˆÏܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚
!˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ó!M˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ly–
D §Ó˚ܲy!Ó˚ !¢«˛y ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛yˆÏl ˆÎ˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ôÙ#≈Î˚ xl%¤˛yˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yçl G ï˛yˆÏï˛ ˆÎyàòyˆÏlÓ˚ fl∫yô#lï˛y–
D ôÙ≈ xÌÓy ˲y£Ïy!˲!_ܲ §Çáƒy°â% §¡±òyÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õSÈ®Ùï˛ !¢«˛y ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛yl fiÌy˛õl G ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y°ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
5ä §ÇflÒÈ ,!ï˛ G !¢«˛y !Ó£ÏÎ˚ܲ x!ôܲyÓ˚ ı
D ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆÎˆÏܲyˆÏly lyà!Ó˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ !lç !lç ˲y£ÏyÈüÈ!°!˛õ G §Çfl,Ò!ï˛ §ÇÓ˚«˛î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
D ôÙ≈ çy!ï˛ Óy ˛Ë˛y£ÏyÓ˚ òÓ˚%l ܲyí˛zˆÏÜ ˛ §Ó˚ܲy!Ó˚ xÌÓy §Ó˚ܲy!Ó˚ Îy•y΃ ≤ÃyÆ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !¢«˛y ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛yˆÏl
≤ÈÏÓ¢y!ôܲyÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó!M˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ly–
6ä §yÇ!Óôy!lܲ ≤Ã!ï˛Ü˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚ ı
D ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ x!ôܲyÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y Ó°ÓÍ G ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ lyà!Ó˚ܲÓ˚y §%!≤ÃÙˆÏܲyˆÏê≈˛ G •y•zˆÏܲyˆÏê≈˛Ó˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ
xyˆÏÓòl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓÈüüÈ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçˆÏl !ӈϢ£Ï ˆ°á çy!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
ˆ•!ÓÎ˚y§ ܲ˛õ≈y§ñ Ùƒy[˛yÙy§ñ §yÓ˚!¢ˆÏÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚y•zñ ≤Ã!•!Ó¢l G Ü%˛ˆÏÎ˚y GÎ˚yÓ˚yˆÏrê˛y–
 ~ܲܲ ı I

!Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày°

~•z ~ܲˆÏܲ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y •Ï° ı
l ~ܲ#Ë)˛ï˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày°ó xyM˛!°Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒyÓ!° !•§yˆÏÓ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ÓK˛yl–

l Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáy ı ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ à%Ó˚%c–

x ôƒy Î˚
ˆï˛y ÙÓ˚y Ùyôƒ!Ùܲ hflÏÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ Ë)˛ˆÏày°ˆÏܲ §yÙy!çܲ
!ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚SÈ–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ÓŸª ~ÓÇ !ӈϟªÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòyl
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xyˆÏà ˆÌˆÏܲ•z ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ~ál ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ÚË)˛ˆÏày°Û
!Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫ï˛sf !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !¢áˆÏÓ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ñ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ
~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ §¡õÜ≈˛– ~áyˆÏl ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ≤ß¿
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚y Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ ˆÜ˛l xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl⁄
xyÙÓ˚ y ˛õ, ! ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ë) ˛ ˛õ, ˆ Ï ¤ ˛ Ó§Óy§ ܲ!Ó˚ – xyÙyˆÏ ò Ó˚ ç#Ól
xˆÏlܲ˲yˆÏÓ xy¢˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ xˆÏlܲ í˛z˛õyòyl myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚–
ÓÑyã˛yÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ §¡õˆÏòÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– xy!òÙ §Ùyç !lˆÏçÓ˚ ˲Ó˚îˆÏ˛õy£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛
í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ áyÓyÓ˚ˆÏÎyàƒ í˛z!qò G ç#ÓçvÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° !SÈ°– §ÙÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà xyÙÓ˚y ≤ÃÎ%!=˛
!ÓòƒyÓ˚ í˛zߨ!ï˛ §yôl ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ
Ë)˛!Ùñ Ù,!_ܲy G çˆÏ°Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ áyòƒ í˛zͲõyòl ܲÓ˚y
¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ áyòƒy˲ƒy§ ~ÓÇ ˆ˛õy¢yܲ ˛õ!Ó˚FSÈòñ
xyÓ•yGÎ˚y G ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ï˛ySÈyí˛¸y
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õòó ≤ÃÎ%!=˛àï˛ í˛zߨÎ˚lñ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà x!˲ˆÏÎyçlñ §yÙy!çܲ §Çàë˛l G
§yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ í˛zߨÎ˚l ~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒG ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°ÓÏ ˚ SÈyeÈSÈye# !•§yˆÏÓ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ~•z ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ˛õ)î≈ ˜ÏÓ!¢T˛ƒà%ˆ°
Ï y
çylˆÏï˛ ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ xy@˝Ã•# •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !¢áˆÏÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˲yà G
Ùyl%£Ï §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛– §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylˆÏï˛G ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚
xy@˝Ã•# •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– Ë)˛ˆÏày° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ~•z ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ~ÓÇ fiÌylˆÏ˲ˆÏò
!Ó!˲ߨ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î§Ù)• §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ K˛yl ≤Ãòyl
ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Ùyl!ã˛e G ˆày°Ü˛ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ ò«˛ï˛y
!Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày°
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,¤˛ˆÏܲ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ ã˛y«%˛£Ï ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §%ˆÏÎyà ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyô%!lܲ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛ ÎÌy ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ ï˛Ìƒ ÓƒÓfiÌy
å Geographical Information System - GISä ~ÓÇ
ܲ!¡õí˛zê˛yÓ˚ Ùyl!ã˛e ≤Ãîy°# åComputer Cartogrpjyä •zï˛ƒy!ò
ˆÓyôàÙƒï˛y ~ÓÇ ò«˛ï˛y ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ Ó˚yT˛…#Î˚ í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏl xÌ≈˛õ)î≈
xÓòyl !òˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~ál ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ≤ß¿ ˆÎê˛y ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ï˛y •Ï° Ë)˛ˆÏày°
ܲ#⁄ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y çyl ˆÎñ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ Óy§fiÌyl– xlƒ xyÓ˚G
xˆÏlܲ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ~ÓÇ ÓˆÏí˛¸y ˛≤Ãyî# ÎyÓ˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ Ó§Óy§ ܲˆÏÓ˚
~ÓÇ ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ~ܲÓ˚Ü˛Ù lÎ˚– ~Ó˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y ˜Ó!ã˛eƒÙÎ˚– ~áyˆÏl ˛õy•yí˛¸ÈüÈ˛õÓ≈ï˛ñ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yñ
§ÙË)˛!Ùñ Ùy°Ë)˛!Ùñ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ñ •…òñ ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ ÓlË)˛!Ù °«˛
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §yÙy!çܲ G §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%!°G §¡õ)î≈
xy°yòy– §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà ÙylÓ myÓ˚y @˝ÃyÙñ
¢•Ó˚ñ Ó˚yhflÏyñ ˆÓ˚°˛õÌñ Ó®Ó˚ñ ÓyçyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ xˆÏlܲ !ܲS%È
§,!T˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
í˛z=˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ ~ÓÇ
§yÙy!çܲ‡§yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!Óí˛¸ §¡õˆÏܲ≈ Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ ~ܲ!ê˛ ÙM˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚
ÙylÓ §Ùyç ï˛yÓ˚ §,çl¢#° ܲyÎ≈ܲ°yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ í˛zßΨ l˚ ¢#° ≤ÃÎ!% =˛
xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ G ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ í˛zßΨ ˆ˚ lÏ Ó˚ lyê˛Ü˛!ê˛ ÙM˛fiÌÏ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚
~ál ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ˆÎ ≤ß¿ê˛y ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ÈüüüÈ ÚË)˛ˆÏày° ܲ#⁄Û ~•z ≤ß¿ê˛yÓ˚
í˛z_Ó˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y §•ˆÏç•z !òˆÏï˛ §«˛Ù •ˆÏÓ– §•ç ¢ˆÏ∑ñ ~ê˛y Ó°y
ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ÈüÈ Ë)˛ˆÏày° •ˆÏFSÈ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Óî≈ly– §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ÚË)˛ˆÏày°Û
¢∑!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ~ܲçl !@˝Ãܲ ˛õ![˛ï˛ ~Ó˚yˆÏê˛y§ˆÏÌ!l§
å!á fiê˛˛õ)Ó≈ 274-198ä– ¢∑!ê˛ ò%!ê˛ !@˝Ãܲ ¢∑ ÚGeoÛ å˛õ,!ÌÓ#ä ~ÓÇ
ÚGraphosÛ åÓî≈lyä ~•z Ù)° ¢∑à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
~ܲ§ˆÏAà ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ òÑyí˛¸yÎ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Óî≈ly– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏܲ §Ó≈òy ÙylÓ
!Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày°
xyÓy§fiÌ° Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆòáy •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !ÓmylÓ˚y Ë)˛ˆÏày°ˆÏܲ
ÚÚÙylÓ xyÓy§fiÌ° Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Óî≈lyÛ !•§yˆÏÓ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ Èl–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ~•z ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ˆÎ §ï˛ƒï˛yÓ˚ xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y
xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÓ˚ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ Ú˛õ,!ÌÓ#Û G Ó•% xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÓ˚ !òܲ !lˆÏÎ˚
à!ë˛ï˛– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y ¢yáy ˆÎÙl
ÈüÈ Ë)˛ï˛_¥ åGeologyäñ Ù,!_ܲy !ÓK˛yl åPedologyäñ §yÙ%!oܲ !ÓK˛yl
å Oceanography äñ í˛z ! qò ï˛_¥ å Biologyäñ ≤Ãyî#!Óòƒy
åZoologyä ~ÓÇ xyÓ•!Óòƒy åMeteorologyä ~ÓÇ §Ùyç
!ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáy§Ù)• ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ xÌ≈l#!ï˛ñ •z!ï˛•y§ñ §Ùyçï˛_¥
åSociologyäñ Ó˚yT˛…!ÓK˛ylñ l,ÈüÈï˛_¥ åAnthropologyä •zï˛ƒy!ò
˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ !òܲ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ˚àï˛
G ≤Ãîy°#àï˛ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒylƒ !ÓK˛yl §¡∫rô#Î˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ fl∫ï˛sf
•ˆÏ°G ~ܲ•z §ˆÏAà xlƒylƒ !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ~Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛
!ÓòƒÙyl– Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ xlƒylƒ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ §yÙy!çܲ !Ó£ÏÎ˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛Ìƒ §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇˆÏŸ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyÙÓ˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ !˲ߨï˛y °«˛ ܲ!Ó˚– xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yò,¢ƒ
Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˜Ó§yò,¢ƒ– xï˛~Óñ Ë)˛ˆÏày°
!Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛ˆÏܲ xyM˛!°Ü˛ !˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚l !•§yˆÏÓ àîƒ Ü˛Ó˚y ˆÎÔ!=˛Ü˛
ÙˆÏl •Î˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ Ë)˛ˆÏày° Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ xM˛°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò §Ü˛°
âê˛Ùyl !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏ°yã˛ly– Ë)˛ˆÏày°!ÓòÓ˚y ¢%ô% ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ
˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚G xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚
ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y ~•z ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚#– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ñ
Ê˛§ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò xM˛°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚Ü˛Ù •Î˚– !ܲv ~•z
!˲ߨï˛y !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ù,!_ܲyñ ç°ÓyÎ˚%ñ ÓyçyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
ã˛y!•òyñ Ü,˛£ÏˆÏܲÓ˚ !Ó!lˆÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛yñ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
•zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ç!í˛¸ï˛– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ò%!ê˛
í˛z˛õyòyl Óy ~ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!ôܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲyÓ˚î §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ K˛yl
xç≈l•z Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛Ó˚ í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ–
~ܲçl Ë)˛ˆÏày°!Óò ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ܲyÎ≈
~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ˚î xl%ÎyÎ˚# ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ¢%ô% Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛•z
§%!Óôy •Î˚ ly– ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚ ˛õ)Óy≈ l%Ùyl ~ÓÇ Ë˛!Ó£ÏƒÍ §¡õˆÏܲ≈ çylyÓ˚G
«˛Ùï˛y ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ÙylÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày° ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyê˛y•z !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° lÎ˚
ÓÓ˚Ç á%Ó•z à!ï˛¢#°– ˛õ,!ÌÓ# §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà §Ó≈òy•z
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#° ~ÓÇ ÙylÓçy!ï˛Ó˚ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ §!Ü ˛Î˚ xyhs˝È/!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ܲy°Ü ˛ˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– xy!òÙ ÙylÓ §Ë˛ƒï˛y
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ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° !SÈ°– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ
Ë)˛ˆÏày° •ˆÏFSÈ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚yÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚l–
ÚÙylÓÛ •ˆÏFSÈ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ x!˲ߨ xAà ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚
Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Ú≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Û ÙylÓ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ
!òˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ≤Ã˲yÓ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ áyòƒñ Óflfñ
Óy§fiÌyl ~ÓÇ xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚– ÙylÓ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
§ˆÏAà xl%Ó!rôï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏçˆÏܲ x!˲ˆÏÎy!çï˛ åAdaptationä
~ÓÇ §ÇˆÏ¢y!ôï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÊ˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˛õ)ˆÓÏ •≈ z ˆçˆÏlSÈñ Óï≈˛Ùyl
§Ùyç xy!òÙ §ÙyçˆÏܲ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏ§ˆÏSÈ– ˆÎáyˆÏl ˆÓшÏã˛
ÌyܲyÓ˚ çlƒ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° ÌyܲˆÏï˛ •ï˛– Óï≈˛Ùyl §Ùyç ≤ÃÎ%!=˛Ó˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ G
≤ÈÎÏ y˚ ˆÏàÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ¢ˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ È
~ÓÇ ~˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃyÆ §¡õò§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ §mƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §#Ùy §¡±§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
≤ÃÎ%!=˛Ó˚ í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Ùyl%£Ï !lˆÏçÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛
˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ Ü ˛Ù¢ •…y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤ÃÎ%!=˛ ܲˆÏë˛yÓ˚ ◊ÙˆÏܲ
§•çï˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ Èñ ◊Ù«˛Ùï˛y Óy!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È ~ÓÇ ◊Ù!Ó◊yÙ ˆòGÎ˚yÓ˚
§ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ çÓ˚%!Ó˚ ã˛y!•òyà%ˆÏ°y !Ù!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
í˛zͲõyòˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyey ~ÓÇ ◊ˆÏÙÓ˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚G â!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ ~ÓÇ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ
!Ü ˛Î˚y ï˛y ܲ!ÓÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ á%Ó !lá%Ñï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ÚÙylÓÛ
~ÓÇ Ú≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Û å{ŸªÓ˚ä §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ÚÚï%˛!Ù
Ù,!_ܲy §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚SÈñ xy!Ù §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ Ü˛y˛õñ ï%˛!Ù §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚SÈ
Ó˚y!eñ xy!Ù §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ ò#˛õܲñ ï%˛!Ù §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚SÈ çAà°ñ
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ÓyàylÛÛ– Ùyl%£Ï ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚ çÙyˆÏlyÓ˚
Ë) ˛ !Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲÓ˚ ˆ Ï S È – ≤ÃÎ% ! =˛ ÓƒÓ•yˆÏ Ó ˚ Ó ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏ Ù Ùyl% £ Ï
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Ùyl%£Ï §Ó≈e !lˆÏçÓ˚ SÈy˛õ ˆÓ˚ˆÏáˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ lï%˛l
§Ω˛yÓlyÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ È– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙylÓ#Î˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ ~ÓÇ
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ ÙylˆÏÓÓ˚ ò¢≈l •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ë)˛ˆÏày° ÙylÓ ~ÓÇ
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˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ~ÓÇ ˆÎyàyˆÏÎyà ÓƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚
fiÌyl§Ù)• §ÇâÓÂô •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˆÎyàyˆÏÎyà G !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
Óy§fiÌyl Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ ~ܲ#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ §Çà!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ܲ!ê˛
§yÙy!çܲ !Ó£Ï Î ˚ !•§yˆÏ Ó Ë) ˛ ˆÏ à y° ÚxyM˛!°Ü˛ §Çàë˛lÛ G
ÚxyM˛!°Ü˛ xá[˛ï˛yÛÈüÈÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
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ܲˆÏÓ˚ ı
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§¡∫rô#Î˚–
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í˛z ˛ õyyòyˆÏ l Ó˚ Ó^˝ ê ˛l !lˆÏ Î ˚ xyˆÏ ° yã˛ly ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ – ~•z
≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°y ÚˆÜ˛yÌyÎ˚Û §¡∫rô#Î˚–
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xÓfiÌylG Ó^˝ê˛l !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z ≤ß¿à%ˆ° Ï y ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG
í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ xÓfiÌylà%ˆ° Ï y §¡õˆÏܲ≈ K˛yl ≤Ãòyl
ܲˆÏÓ–˚ Å˛õ!lˆÏÓ!¢Ü˛ §ÙÎ˚ܲyˆÏ° ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Óáƒyï˛ Ùï˛Óyò !SÈ°–
~•z ò%!ê˛ ≤ß¿ Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛ˆÏܲ !ÓK˛yl!˲!_ܲ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ ly ÓylyˆÏ°G
ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ≤ß¿!ê˛ !ܲv !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ˆÏܲ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ ÙÎ≈yòy ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
åiiiä ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ≤ß¿!ê˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ G ÙylÓ Óy §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛
˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ !ӈϟ’£îÏ xÌÓy ܲyÓ˚î §¡∫rô#Î˚ !Ó£ÏÎà˚ ˆ% ° Ï y
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°y Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ÚˆÜ˛lÛ
§¡∫rô#Î˚–
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à%îà%ˆ° Ï y xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛lñ
xÓfiÌylñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ âê˛Ùyl !Ó£ÏÎ˚§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆÜ˛w#ܲÓ˚î §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛G
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~!ê˛ âê˛Ùyl !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÎyà ~ÓÇ xyhs˝/
§¡õÜ≈˛ !lˆÏÎ˚G !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛ySÈyí˛¸y Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ Ùyl%£Ï
~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyhs˝/§¡õÜ≈˛ G ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ
!Ü ˛Î˚y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ §Ùܲy°#l !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆàÏ y° åGEOGRAPHY AS AN
INTEGRATING DISCIPLINEä ı
Ë)˛ˆÏày° ~ܲ!ê˛ §ÇˆÏŸ’£Ïîydܲ åSynthesisä !Ó£ÏÎ˚ Îy fiÌylàï˛
§ÇˆÏŸ’£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ˚y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ •z!ï˛•y§ §ÙÎ˚àï˛ §ÇˆÏŸ’£ÏˆÏîÓ˚
≤ÃÎ˚y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ≤ÃÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ §Ù@˝Ãydܲ åHolisticä– ~•z
!Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛ fl∫#ܲyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ !ÓŸª ~ܲ ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛– xyç
Óï≈˛Ùyl !ÓŸª ~ܲ!ê˛ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ @˝ÃyÙ !•§yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓ!ã˛ï˛ •Î˚–
˛õ!Ó˚Ó•ˆÏîÓ˚ §•ç°Ë˛ƒï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ ò)Óc˚ •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ◊ÓîÈüÈò¢≈l
ÙyôƒÙ åAudio-visula mediaä ~ÓÇ ï˛Ìƒ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛Ó˚ í˛zߨ!ï˛
!ÓŸªˆÏ Ü ˛ xï˛ƒhs˝ §Ù,  ô ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ˆ Ï S È – ≤ÃyÜ, ˛ !ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ ˆ Ï Ó ¢ˆÏ Ü ˛
˛õÓ˚#«˛yÈüÈ!lÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÃÎ!% =˛ ˲yˆÏ°y §%ˆÎÏ yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ !òˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ï˛ySÈyí˛¸y
§yÙy!çܲ G xÌ≈˜lÏ !ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚!ôÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeG ≤ÃÎ!% =˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ •ˆÏFSÈ–
§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ïydܲ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày° ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ §yÙy!çܲ
!ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Gï˛ˆÏ≤Ãyï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ç!í˛¸ï˛– §Ó ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !ÓK˛ylñ
§yÙy!çܲ ˆ•yܲ Óy ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ñ í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ ~ܲê˛y•z ÈüÈ §ï˛ƒˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y–
Ë)˛ˆÏày° §ï˛ƒï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ç!í˛¸ï˛ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ §•ç G ˆÓyôàÙƒ
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆï˛yˆÏ°– !ã˛e 1.1ÈüÈ ~ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà xlƒylƒ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚
§¡õÜ≈˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ !ÓK˛yl !Ó£ÏÎ˚•z Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚
§ˆÏAà ç!í˛¸ï˛ñ ܲyÓ˚î !ÓK˛yl !˲!_ܲ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly•z ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
!Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyl !lˆÏÎ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ Îy xM˛°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò !Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚–
xyM˛!°Ü˛ !Ó£ÏÎà˚ ˆ% ° Ï y §yÙ!@˝ÃܲÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ !ӈϟ’£ˆÏ îÏ Ë)˛ˆÏày°
!Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ ¢%ô% ~ܲ fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚
§ˆÏAà xlƒfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ !˲ߨï˛y !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– !Ó!˲ߨï˛yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚î G ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆ° Ï yG xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ–˚ Ë)˛ˆÏày°!ÓòˆÏòÓ˚ xM˛°
§¡õˆÏܲ≈ Óƒy˛õܲ K˛yl xç≈l ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ •Î˚ ˆÎl ï˛yÓ˚ ï˛Ü≈˛Î%=˛ Óî≈ly
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚l– ~•z Óî≈lyà%ˆÏ°y !ܲS%È í˛zòy•Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
ˆÓyV˛yˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ë)˛ˆÏày° ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ âê˛lyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– !Ó!˲ߨ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ ò)Ó˚c ï˛y !ÓŸª
•z!ï˛•yˆÏ§Ó˚ !òܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ܲyÓ˚î–
fiÌy!lܲ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y Ó•% ˆòˆÏ¢ ≤Ã!ï˛Ó˚«˛y ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ°ñ
!ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚ àï˛ ¢ï˛y∑#ˆÏï˛– Ú˛õÓ˚¡õÓ˚yàï˛ Î%ˆÂÏ ô ÓˆÏí˛¸y xyܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
ˆò¢à%ˆ° Ï y x!ôܲ fiÌylÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ °y˲ ≤ÃyÆ Ü˛ˆÏÓ!˚ SÈ°Û–
lï%˛l !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆò¢à%ˆÏ°y ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲÓ˚ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ §Ù%o myÓ˚y !lˆÏçÓ˚
ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ xlƒ ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ •yÙ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó˚«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ°– Î!ò
xyÙÓ˚y !ӈϟªÓ˚ !Óáƒyï˛ ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ âê˛lyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚
ï˛y•ˆÏ° ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ âê˛lyˆÏï˛•z xyÙÓ˚y ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ Óƒyáƒy á%шÏç
˛õyÓ–
˲yÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ !•Ùy°ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ xÓfiÌyl ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓy˚ ô àˆÏí˛¸ ï%˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ
~ÓÇ ≤Ã!ï˛Ó˚«˛y ≤Ãòyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ !ܲv ˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ !à!Ó˚˛õÌà%ˆÏ°y
˛õ!Ó˚Ó yçܲ G xyÜ ˛ÙîܲyÓ˚#ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~!¢Î˚y ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÈÏӈϢ
§y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– §Ù%o í˛z˛õÜ)˛° ˲yÓ˚ï˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ)Ó≈ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛îÈüÈ˛õ)Ó≈
~!¢Î˚yÓ˚ Ùyl%£ÏˆÏòÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˆÎyàyˆÏÎyà Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ˆlÔܲyÈüȧM˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ åNavigationä ≤ÃÎ!% =˛ •zí˛zˆÓÏ y˚ ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆò¢à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏï˛
˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà xlƒylƒ x!ôܲyÇ¢ ~!¢Î˚yÓ˚ ˆò¢ ~ÓÇ
xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ !ܲS%È ˆòˆÏ¢ Å˛õ!lˆÏÓ!¢Ü˛Ó˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ï˛yÓ˚y §Ù%o˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ §%!Óôy ˆ˛õˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ ܲyÓ˚îà%!°
myÓ˚y ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ •z!ï˛•y§ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
˛≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ê˛y ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Îy §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛˛ñ ç°ÓyÎ˚%ñ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ í˛z!qòñ xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ
~ÓÇ §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •z!ï˛•yˆÏ§Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
§ÙÎ˚ܲy°ˆÏܲ ˆÙˆÏl ã˛ˆÏ°– xˆÏlܲ ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ !Ó!˲ߨ
§ÇfiÌyÓ˚ myÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !lî≈Î˚ ˆlGÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ
≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏï˛ §ÙÎ˚ˆÏܲ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y
!Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày°
§Ω˛Ó ˛~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆ≤Ï Ã!«˛ˆÏï˛ fiÌylˆÏܲ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•§yˆÏÓ Ó°y
ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ A fiÌyl!ê˛ B fiÌyl ˆÌˆÏܲ 1500
!ܲ!Ù ò)ˆÓÏ ñ˚ !Óܲ“˲yˆÏÓ ~•zÓÜ˚ ˛ÙG Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ A fiÌyl!ê˛ B fiÌyl
ˆÌˆÏܲ 2 â^˝ê˛y ò)ˆÏÓ˚ åÎ!ò ÓyÎ˚%˛õˆÏÌ Îyey ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ä Óy 17 â^˝ê˛y
ò)ˆÏÓ˚ åÎ!ò o%ï˛àyÙ# ˆÓ˚ˆÏ° Îyey ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ä– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî §ÙÎ˚ˆÏܲ
Ë)˛ˆÏày° !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õyòyl !•§yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚ñ Îy ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ Ùy!eܲ !•§yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ–˚ xl%@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚ xlƒ !ï˛l
Ùy!eˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
!ã˛e 1.1 !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ §yÙy!çܲ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
Ë)˛ˆÏày° !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛ !ã˛!eï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z §¡õÜ≈˛ ò%•z˲yˆÏà
˲yà ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ !ÓK˛yl åPhysical
Geography and Natural Sciencesäı
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ §ÙhflÏ ¢yáyà%!° Îy !ã˛e 1.1üÈ~ ˆòáyˆÏly
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛Ó˚•z ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà xyhs˝/§¡õÜ≈˛
Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– !ã˛Ó˚yã˛!Ó˚ï˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° Ë)˛ï˛_¥ñ Ù,!_ܲy !ÓK˛ylñ ç°
!ÓK˛ylñ xyÓ•!Óòƒy ~à%!°Ó˚ §ˆÏÈAà §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ ~•z˲yˆÏÓ
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ!Óòƒyñ ç°ÓyÎ˚% !Óòƒyñ §Ù%o!Óòƒyñ Ù,!_ܲy Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ á%Ó â!l¤˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Ü˛yÓ˚î Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚
~•z ¢yáy§Ù)• ï˛yÓ˚ ï˛Ìƒ ~§Ü˛° !ÓK˛yl ˆÌˆÏܲ•z §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ç#ÓÈüÈË)˛ˆÏày° åBio-Geographyä í˛z!qò ï˛_¥ñ ≤Ãyî#!ÓòƒyÓ˚
˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ Óy›§ÇfiÌyl åEcologyäÈüÈ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAàG à˲#Ó˚˲yˆÏÓ
§¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– ܲyÓ˚î Ùyl%£Ï !Ó!˲ߨ xl%ܲ) ° ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ˆÏ¢ !lˆÏçÓ˚ í˛z˛õÎ%=˛
!lÓy§ åNicheä àˆÏí˛¸ ï%˛ˆÏ°–
~ܲçl Ë)˛ˆÏày°!ÓòˆÏܲ à!îï˛ ~ÓÇ Ü˛°yñ !ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚
Ùyl!ã˛e ˆÓ˚áyAܲˆÏl !l˛õ%î •ˆÏï˛ •Î˚– Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛ ˆçƒy!ï˛!Ó≈òƒy
§ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ xÓfiÌylñ x«˛yÇ¢ G oy!âÙyˆÏÓ˚áy !lˆÏÎ˚G xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó›Ó˚ !Ù° ˆl•z–
ï˛y•z ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ ÚGeoidÛ Ó°y •Î˚– !ܲv Ë)˛ˆÏày°!ÓòˆÏòÓ˚
Ù)° •y!ï˛Î˚yÓ˚ •ˆÏFSÈ Ùyl!ã˛e Îy ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !mÈÙy!eܲ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õly
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ !mÙy!eܲ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚
§Ù§ƒy!ê˛ ˆÓ˚áy!ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ«˛˛õî Óy ≤ÈÏçܲ¢l åProjectionä
~ÓÇ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ !•§yˆÏÓÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Ùyl!ã˛e
ˆÓ˚áyAܲl åCartograhicä ~ÓÇ §Çáƒy!˲!_ܲ åQntirtiaveä
˛õÂô!ï˛à%ˆ° Ï y ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ çlƒ ˛ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ ò«˛ï˛yñ ˛õ!Ó˚§Çáƒyl ~ÓÇ
xÌ≈l#!ï˛Ó˚ K˛yl xyÓ¢ƒÜ˛– Ùyl!ã˛e !¢“#§%°Ë˛ ܲ“lyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ°á åSketchä ÓylyˆÏlyñ Ùyl!ã˛e ˜ï˛!Ó˚
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ô¢° •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !l˛õ)îï˛y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl–
5
Ë)˛ˆÏày° ~ÓÇ §yÙy!çܲ !ÓK˛yl åGeography and
Social Sciencesäı
!ã˛e 1.1ÈüÈ~ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ ˆÓ˚áy!ã˛e!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ˆÎñ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛
§yÙy!çܲ !ÓK˛yl•z Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà Gï˛ˆÏ≤Ãyï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
ç!í˛¸ï˛– Ë)˛ˆÏày° ~ÓÇ •z!ï˛•yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ §¡õÜ≈˛ ï˛y xyˆÏà•z
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚•z ~ܲê˛y ò¢≈l xyˆÏSÈ
ˆÎ!ê˛ ˙ !ӣψÎÏ Ó˚ ˚ çlƒ Ù)° !Ó£ÏÎÓ˚ › •Î˚– ò¢≈l ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó£ÏΈ˚ ÜÏ ˛
!˲!_ ˛≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù!ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlñ ÈüüüÈ ~!ê˛ fl∫ï˛sf
˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚G K˛yl ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ ÚˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛
!ã˛hs˝yÓ˚ •z!ï˛•y§Û Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùyï,˛¢yáy !•§yˆÏÓ §Ó≈e ˛õyë˛ƒÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– §Ùyç !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ §Ó !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y ÎÌyÈüÈ
§Ùyç¢yflfñ Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ !ÓK˛ylñ xÌ≈¢yflfñ çl§Çáƒy !ÓK˛yl
åDemographyä §yÙy!çܲ !Ó!˲ߨ ÓyhflÏÓï˛y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ӈϟ’£Ïî
ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáyà%!° ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ §yÙy!çܲ Ë)˛ˆÏày°ñ
Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày°ñ xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày°ñ çl§Çáƒy Ë)˛ˆÏày°ñ
Óy§fiÌyl Ë)˛ˆÏày° åSettlement Geographyä ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ~•z§Ó
!ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà â!l¤˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Î%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ܲyÓ˚î ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ˆÏï˛
fiÌyl#Î˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ Ù)° í˛zˆjÏ ¢ƒ •°
ˆò¢ Óy Ó˚ y ˆÏ T ˛… Ó ˚ §#Ùylyñ çl§Çáƒy G §yÓ≈ ˆ Ï Ë ˛ÔÙc !lˆÏ Î ˚
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚yñ xyÓyÓ˚ Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° Ó˚yçƒñ Ó˚yˆÏçƒÓ˚
çl§ÇáƒyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲˆÏÓ˚– xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ í˛zͲõyòlñ Ó^˝ê˛lñ !Ó!lÙÎ˚ ~ÓÇ
í˛z˛õˆÏ˲yà åConsumptionä !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z
í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly xyÓyÓ˚ xM˛°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò xy°yòy •ˆÏÎ˚
ÌyˆÏ Ü ˛– xÌ≈ ˜ Ï l !ï˛Ü˛ Ë) ˛ ˆÏ à y° åEconomic Geography ä
~•z ˆ Ï « ˛ˆÏ e xy°yòy Ë) ˛ !Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ~ÓÇ ˙ fiÌyˆÏ l Ó˚
í˛zͲõyòlñ Ó^˝ê˛lñ !Ó!lÙÎ˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õˆÏ˲yà !lˆÏÎ˚ xM˛°!˲!_ܲ
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ çl§Çáƒy Ë)˛ˆÏày° çl§Çáƒy §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝
!ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ â!l¤˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Î%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
í˛z˛õ!Ó˚í˛z=˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÎ˚ ~ê˛y flõT˛ ˆÎñ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ
§yÙy!çܲ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲê˛y â!l¤˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ê˛y
xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !lçfl∫ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï ˛õÂô!ï˛ xl%§Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy xlƒ
!Ó£ÏÎ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ˆÏܲ §¡õ)î≈ xy°yòy ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~!ê˛ xlƒ !ӣψÎÏ Ó˚ ˚ §ˆÏAà
!l!Óí˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛É xyÓyÓ˚ xlƒ §Ó !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ !lçfl∫ ~ܲ!ê˛
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ˆ«˛e xyˆÏSÈ– Ë)˛ˆÏày° ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚˛ ≤ÃÓy•ˆÏܲ Óyôy≤ÃyÆ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
lyñ ˆÎÙl˲yˆÏÓ ¢Ó˚#ˆÏÓ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢ xÓ!fiÌï˛ §yw ˛õòyÌ≈ Ìyܲy
§ˆÏ_¥G ï˛y Ó˚ˆÏ=˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy•ˆÏܲ xÓˆÏÓ˚yô ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– Ë)˛ˆÏày°!ÓòÓ˚y
xlƒylƒ !Ó£Ï Î ˚ ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ ≤ÃyÆ ï˛Ìƒà% ! ° ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ~ÓÇ
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!Ó!˲ߨ §Çáƒy§)ã˛Ü˛ Óy xlƒylƒ ï˛Ìƒ ˆòáyˆÏly •Î˚–
Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáy åBRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHYäı
xl%@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚ !ã˛e 1.1 ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_Ó˚ çlƒ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ~áyˆÏl
ˆÌˆÏܲ flõT˛ ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ Ë)˛ˆÏày° !Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
xyhs˝/!Ó£ÏÎÜ˚ ˛ åInter-disciplinaryä xôƒÎ˚l ˛≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ !ӣψÎÏ Ó˚ ˚
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ÙˆÏôƒ Ë)˛ˆÏày° xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˛õÌ •° ÈüüüÈ åiä
≤Ãîy°#ÓÂô åSystematicä ~ÓÇ åiiä xyM˛!°Ü˛ åRegionalä–
≤Ãîy°#ÓÂô Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î
í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z ˛õÌ!ê˛ §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ≤ÃÓï≈˛l
ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ~ܲçl çyÙ≈yl Ë)˛ˆÏày°!Óò xyˆÏ°Ü˛ˆÏçu˛yÓ˚ ˲l
•yÙˆÏÓy”˛ å1769-1859ä ñ xlƒ!òˆÏܲ xyM˛!°Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl •yÙˆÏÓyˆÏ”˛Ó˚ §Ù§yÙ!Î˚ܲ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲçl
çyÙ≈yl Ë)˛ˆÏày°!Óòñ ܲy°≈ !Ó˚ê˛yÓ˚ å1779-1859ä–
≤Ãîy°#ÓÂô Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÎ˚ å!ã˛e 1.2ä ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏܲ
§yÙ!@˝ÃܲÓ˚ˆ) Ï˛õ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ° xM˛°!˲!_ܲ
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ñ Î!ò ˆÜ˛í˛z fl∫y˲y!Óܲ
í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏl xy@˝Ã•# ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ˆÏÓ §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ï˛y !ÓŸªhflψÏÓ˚
xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÓ– !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ !ã˛Ó˚§Ó%ç xÓ˚îƒñ lÓ˚Ù ¢AÜ%˛
xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚˛ ˛õy•zl àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ xÓ˚îƒ xÌÓy ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ÓlyM˛° •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚
!ã˛!•´ï˛Ü˛Ó˚î xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ~ÓÇ §#Ùy !lô≈yÓ˚î §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ !ӈϟ’£Ïî
xM˛°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– xyM˛!°Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°ñ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚
!Ó!˲ߨ xM˛ˆÏ ° !Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚ y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §ÙhflÏ ˆË˛ÔˆÏ à y!°Ü˛
í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)•ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xM˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z
xM˛°à%ˆ° Ï y ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ñ Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ Óy xlƒylƒ lyˆÏÙG xyáƒy!Î˚ï˛
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– xyM˛!°Ü˛ ~•z ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ˲yˆÏÓ
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˙ˆÏܲƒÓ˚ §rôyl ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚–
˜mï˛Óyò åDualismä Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ Îy
≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚•z ≤ÃÓï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ~•z ˜mï˛Óyò !Ó!˲ߨ
!ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˛õ![˛ï˛ Óƒ!=˛Ó˚y
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛õ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– !ܲv
Ùyl%£Ï Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ x!ÓˆÏFSÈòƒ xAà– ï˛yÓ˚yG ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
xÇ¢!ӈϢ£Ï– ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ܲ !ӈϢ£Ï
xÓòyl xyˆÏSÈ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ÙylÓ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛zߨÎ˚l !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ
Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚–
7
Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáy å≤Ãîy°#ÓÂô Ùï˛yÙˆÏï˛Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ä
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (BASED ON
SYSTEMATIC APPROACH)
1É ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° åPhysical Geographyä
(i) Ë)˛ÈüÈxyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ !ÓK˛yl åGeomorphologyäı ~!ê˛
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ ~ÓÇ
§¡∫!rôï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(ii) ç°ÓyÎ˚% !ÓK˛yl åClimatologyä ı ~!ê˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ àë˛lñ í˛z˛õyòyl ~ÓÇ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ
!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ xyM˛!°Ü˛ Ó^˝ê˛l !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(iii) ç°!ÓK˛yl åHydrologyä ı ~!ê˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §ÙhflÏ
ç°§Ù)•ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ Îy §Ù%oñ •…òñ lò# ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚
xlƒylƒ í˛zͧ §Ù)•ˆÏܲ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
Ùyl%£Ï G xlƒylƒ ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ~Ó˚
≤Ã˲yÓ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(iv) Ù,!_ܲy Ë)˛ˆÏày° åSoil Geographyä ı ~•z Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°
Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ñ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yàñ í˛zÓ≈Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ
Ó^˝ê˛l ~ÓÇ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
2. ÙylÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày° åHuman Geographyä ı
(i) §yÙy!çܲ ‡ §yÇfl, Ò !ï˛Ü˛ Ë) ˛ ˆÏ à y° å Social/
Cultural Geographyä ı ~•z Ë)˛ˆÏày° §Ùyç ~ÓÇ
xyM˛!°Ü˛ !Ó!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà §ÙyˆÏçÓ˚ §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛
í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xÓòyl !lˆÏÎ˚G xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(ii) çl§Çáƒy ~ÓÇ Óy§fiÌyl §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° å@˝ÃyÙ#î
~ÓÇ ¢•% ˆ Ï Ó ˚ ä å Population and Settlement
Geographyä ı ~!ê˛ çl§ÇáƒyÓ˚ Ó,!Âôñ Ó^˝ê˛lñ âlcñ
!°AàÈüÈxl%˛õyï˛ñ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚î ~ÓÇ ˆ˛õ¢yàï˛ Ü˛yë˛yˆÏÙy
•zï˛ƒy!ò !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚– Óy§fiÌyl §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛
Ë)˛ˆÏày° @˝ÃyÙ#î ~ÓÇ ¢•%ˆÓÏ ˚ çlÓ§!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy ~ÓÇ
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(iii) xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° åEconomic Geographyä ı
~•z Ë)˛ˆÏày° Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ
Ü,˛!£Ïܲyçñ !¢“ñ ˛õÎ≈ê˛lñ Óy!îçƒñ ˆÎyàyˆÏÎyà ÓƒÓfiÌyñ
˛õ!Ó˚ Ü ˛yë˛yˆÏ Ù y ~ÓÇ ˆ§ÓyÙ) ° ܲ ܲyÎ≈ Ü ˛°y˛õ !lˆÏ Î ˚
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(iv) ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° åHistorical Geographyä ı
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_Ó˚ ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ–
ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly xM˛° Óï≈˛Ùyl xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xy§ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
!l!ò≈T˛ ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Óy x!˲K˛ï˛y x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚
8 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáy

å≤Ãîy°#ÓÂô Ùï˛yÙˆÏï˛Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ä

≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ !§Âôyhs˝!˲!_ܲ Óy ò¢≈lÙ)°Ü˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛ ÙylÓ

ÙylÓ Óy› §ÇfiÌyl åË)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ Ùyl!ã˛e xAܲl ˆ«˛e §Ù#«˛y

ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ !ã˛hs˝l
ÙylˆÏÓÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ §¡õÜ≈˛ä ≤Ãîy°# ≤Ãîy°#

§Çáƒydܲ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛ Ë)˛Èüȧã) ˛ly

GIS GPS LIS

xyhs˝/§¡õÜ≈˛
˜çÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày°

ç°ÓyÎ%̊ !ÓK˛yl ç° !ÓK˛yl

Ë)˛ÈüÈxyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ !ÓK˛yl Ù,!_ܲy Ë)˛ˆÏày° §yÙy!çܲ‡ çl§Çáƒy xÌ≈!Óòƒy

§yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ Óy§fiÌyl

˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛
í˛z!qò ≤Ãyî#
Ë)˛ˆÏày° Ë)˛ˆÏày°
@˝ÃyÙ#î ¢•%ˆÓÏ ˚

Óy›§ÇfiÌyl ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢àï˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° Ü,˛!£Ïܲyç ˛õÎ≈ê˛l !¢“ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy

!¢“çyï˛ Óy!îçƒ ~ÓÇ ˆ§Óy

!ã˛e 1.2 : ≤Ãîy°#ÓÂô Ùï˛yÙˆÏï˛Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáy
~ˆÏ§ˆÏSÈ– ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
§ˆÏAà ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Îy ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚
§ˆÏAà §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛–
(v) Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° åPolitical Geographyä ı
Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ~•z ¢yáy!ê˛ Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ âê˛lyÓ!°ñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §#Ùylyñ xyM˛!°Ü˛ Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ñ
!lÓ≈yã˛!l ~°yܲyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#ÙyÓ˚ !lô≈yÓ˚îñ !lÓ≈yã˛!l
˛õ!Ó˚ ! fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏ Ÿ ’£Ï î ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ – §ˆÏ A à çl§ÇáƒyÓ˚
ˆÎyàyˆÏÎyà ÓƒÓfiÌy
Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ xyã˛Ó˚î §¡∫ˆÏrôG Ó˚)˛õˆÏÓ˚áy ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
3. ç#Ó Ë)˛ˆÏày° åBiogeographyä ı
Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ~•z ¢yáy!ê˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° ~ÓÇ ÙylÓ
Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyhs˝/§¡õÜ≈˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ç#Ó Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚
!Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáyà%ˆÏ°y !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
(i) í˛z ! qò Ë) ˛ ˆÏ à y° å Plant Geography ä ı ~!ê˛
xM˛°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z!qò ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
!Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày°
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(ii) ≤Ãyî#Ë)˛ˆÏày° åZoo Geographyä ı ~!ê˛ xM˛°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò
!Ó!˲ߨ ç#ÓçvÓ˚ ôÓ˚lñ ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ~ÓÇ
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Óy§fiÌyl !lˆÏÎ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(iii) Óy›§ÇfiÌyl‡Óy›ï˛sf åEcology /Ecosystemä ÈüÈ
Óy›§ÇfiÌyl Óy Óy›ï˛sf !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ Óy§fiÌyl
§¡∫rô#Î˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl!˲!_ܲ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(iv) ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓ Ï ¢ Ë)˛ˆÏày° åEnvironmental Geographyä ı
Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ~•z ¢yáy!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ §Ù§ƒyñ
ˆÎÙlÈüÈ Ë)˛!Ù«˛Î˚ñ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛zÓÓ≈ ï˚ ˛y •…y§ñ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ¢ ò)£îÏ ñ
˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ §ÇÓ˚«˛îñ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ Óy›ï˛sf ÈüÈ ~•zà%ˆÏ°y
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyM˛!°Ü˛ Ùï˛yÙˆÏï˛Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáy
å B RANCHES OF G EOGRAPHY BASED ON
REGIONAL APPROACHñ !ã˛e 1.3äı
1É xyM˛!°Ü˛ xôƒÎ˚ l ‡ ~°yܲyÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚ l å Regional
Studies/Area Studiesä ı Ó,•Íñ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ §)-
•zï˛ƒy!ò !Ó!˲ߨ xM˛° !lˆÏÎ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
2É xyM˛!°Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ Ü ˛“ly å Regional Planning ä ı
~•zˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ˆò¢‡@˝ÃyÙ#î ~ÓÇ ¢•ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ“ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
3É xyM˛!°Ü˛ í˛zߨÎ˚l å Regional Developmentä ı
4É xyM˛!°Ü˛ !ӈϟ’£Ïî åRegional Analysisä ı ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛
!ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe•z ò%!ê˛ ò,!T˛Ë˛!Aà °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ÈüüüÈ ~•zà%ˆÏ°y
•° ÈüüüÈ
(i) ò¢≈l¢yflf åPhilosophy)
åaä ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ !ã˛hs˝l
åbä Ë)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ ÙylˆÏÓÓ˚ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚y ‡ ÙylÓ Óy›
§ÇfiÌyl–
Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ¢yáy§Ù)•
åxyM˛!°Ü˛ ò,!T˛Ë˛!AàÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ä
xyM˛!°Ü˛ xôƒÎ˚l ‡ xyM˛!°Ü˛ í˛zߨÎ˚l
~°yܲy!˲!_ܲ xôƒÎ˚l
Ó,•òyܲyÓ˚ xyM˛!°Ü˛ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚˛ §)- xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
xôƒÎ˚l xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚˛ xôƒÎ˚l xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚˛ xôƒÎ˚l
!ã˛e 1.5 : xyM˛!°Ü˛ ò,!T˛Ë˛!AàÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ ¢yáy§Ù)•–
9
(ii) ˛õÂô!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛ åMethods and Techniquesäı
åaä Ùyl!ã˛e !lÙ≈yî ≤Ãîy°#ñ ܲ!¡õí˛zê˛yˆÏÓ˚ Ùyl!ã˛e
!lÙ≈ y – å Cartography including
Computer Cartographyä
åbä §Çáƒydܲ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛ ‡ ˛õ!Ó˚§Çáƒylàï˛ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛
å Quantitative Techniques/Statistical
Techniquesä
åcä ˆ«˛e §Ù#«˛y ˛õÂô!ï˛ å Field Survey
Methodsä
ådä !çGÈüÈ•lz Ê˛Ó˚ˆÙÏ !ê˛: åGeo-informaticsä ˛õÂô!ï˛
ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ò)Ó˚§ÇˆÏÓòl åRemote Sensingäñ GIS
(Geographical information system), GPS
(Global Positioning System) •zï˛ƒy!ò–
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛z!Õ‘!áï˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáyà%ˆÏ°y !Óhfl,Ïï˛ Ó˚)˛õˆÏÓ˚áy
˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ë)˛ˆÏày° ˛õyë˛ƒÜ ˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ~•z˲yˆÏÓ•z
˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õí˛¸yˆÏly •Î˚– !ܲv ~•z Ó˚)˛õˆÏÓ˚áy !fiÌ!ï˛¢#°
lÎ˚– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚•z lï%˛l ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !ã˛hs˝y˲yÓlyñ lï%˛l §Ù§ƒyñ lï%˛l
˛õÂô!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ Óyôƒ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•§yˆÏÓ
Ó°y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎ Ùyl!ã˛e xyˆÏà •yˆÏï˛ ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Ïï˛ ÈüÈ ï˛y
xyç ܲ!¡õí˛zê˛yˆÏÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ≤ÃÎ!% =˛àï˛ §%!Óôyà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˛õ![˛ï˛
Óƒ!=˛Ó˚y !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛Ìƒ G §Çáƒy!Ó£ÏÎ˚ܲ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚– •zrê˛yÓ˚ˆÏlê˛ ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ï˛Ìƒ §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ
!ӈϟ’£Ïî «˛Ùï˛yñ x!ï˛ÙyeyÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– GIS K˛yl xç≈ˆÏlÓ˚
çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ lï%˛l ˛õÌ á%°ˆÏSÈ– GIS §!ë˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyl !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ çlƒ
~ܲ!ê˛ §%!Óôyçlܲ í˛z˛õyòyl– ≤ÃÎ!% =˛ à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î≈ !§Âôyhs˝ ˆlGÎ˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ
§yˆÏÌ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛yG ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ~•z ≤ÃÎ%!=˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y ÈüüüÈ ÓƒÓ•y!Ó˚ܲ
Ë)˛ˆÏày° ÈüÈ Ë˛yà 1 (NCERT 2006) ÈüÈ~ çylˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ò«˛ï˛yˆÏܲ xyÓ˚G §Ù,Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !¢áˆÏÓ–
xyM˛!°Ü˛ !ӈϟ’£Ïî xyM˛!°Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ“ly
ˆò¢#Î˚ Óy @˝ÃyÙ#î ¢•%ˆÓÏ ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ“ly
˛õ!Ó˚ܲ“ly
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≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ à%Ó˚%c åPHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY AND ITS IMPORTANCEä ı
Ú≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥Û ÈüÈ Ó•z!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~•z xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ Ó!î≈ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˛õ%hflÏܲ!ê˛Ó˚ §)!ã˛˛õe !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚!ôˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Ë)˛ˆÏày° !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢yáyÈüÈ≤âyáyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c
§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ çylˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày° !¢°yÙ[˛° åË)˛ÈüÈxyÜ,˛!ï˛ñ lòÈlò#ñ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚
Órô%Ó˚ï˛yñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛äñ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° å~Ó˚ ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyñ àë˛lñ í˛z˛õyòyl ~ÓÇ
xyÓ•yGÎ˚y G ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyló ï˛y˛õÙyeyñ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õñ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy•ñ
xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õîñ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !Ó˲yçl •zï˛ƒy!òäñ Óy!Ó˚Ù[˛° åÙ•y§yàÓ˚ñ
§yàÓ˚ñ •…òñ ç° §¡∫rô#Î˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒä ~ÓÇ ç#ÓÙ[˛° åÙyl%£Ï
§• xlƒylƒ ç#Ó§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚l ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyܲyÓ˚
˛õÂô!ï˛ ˆÎÙlÈüÈáyòƒ¢,C°ñ Óy›§ÇfiÌylàï˛ §)ã˛Ü˛ñ Óy›§ÇfiÌyl
§ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ˲yÓ˚§yÙƒä !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ù,!_ܲy §,!T˛Ó˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏܲ
ˆ˛õˆÏí˛yˆÏçˆÏl!§§ åPedogenesisä ӈϰñ Îy !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xy!ò˛ !¢°y
åParent rockä ç°ÓyÎ˚%ñ ˜ç!Óܲ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚–
§ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà Ù,!_ܲy ˛õ!Ó˚˛õE˛ï˛y °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ù,!_ܲy
˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ°á åSoil profileä àë˛ˆÏl §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ í˛z˛õyòyl•z
Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ çlƒ á%Ó à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ §ÙhflÏ Ü˛yÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ•z Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– §Ùï˛° Ë)˛!Ù Ü,˛!£ÏܲyˆÏçÓ˚ çlƒ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù á!lç ˛õòyÌ≈ ~ÓÇ xÓ˚îƒ §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õÓ≈ï˛ˆÏ◊!î
ã˛yÓ˚îË)˛!Ùñ xÓ˚îƒñ ˛õÎ≈ê˛Ü˛fiÌ° ~ÓÇ §Ùï˛° Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ çlƒ lò#Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
ç° §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲˆÏÓ˚– ç°ÓyÎ˚% xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ Óy§fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ôÓ˚lñ Óflf ~ÓÇ
áyˆÏòƒÓ˚ ôÓ˚lˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ í˛z!qòñ Ê˛§° í˛zͲõyòˆÏlÓ˚
ôÓ˚îñ ˛õ¢%˛õy°l ~ÓÇ !¢“ •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚G ç°ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲy xyˆÏSÈ–
Ùyl%£Ï ï˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛àï˛ í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ç°ÓyÎ%̊ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛
í˛z˛õyòylˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §«˛Ù •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ –
ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ~Î˚yÓ˚ ܲ!u˛¢lyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ü%˛°yÓ˚– ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xÓ˚ˆÏîƒÓ˚ âlcñ ï,˛îË)˛!ÙÓ˚ à%îàï˛ Ùyl
xl%¢#°l#
1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ ÓySÈy•z ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
(i) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày°!ÓòˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ÚË)˛ˆÏày°Û ¢∑!ê˛ ˆÜ˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl⁄
(a) ˆ•ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏí˛yê˛y§ (c) àƒy!°!°G
(b) ~Ó˚yˆÏê˛y§ˆÏÌ!l§ (d) xƒy!ÓÏ̊fiê˛ê˛°
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
!lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚– ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ü,˛!£Ïܲyç G Ê˛§° í˛zͲõyòl ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ÓyÎ˚%
myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚– Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ë)˛àË≈˛fiÌ ç°hflÏÓ˚ §Ù,Âô
•Î˚ Îy ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ° Ü,˛!£ÏܲyˆÏç ~ÓÇ ày•≈fĩ ܲyˆÏç ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚– xyÙÓ˚y Ù•y§yàÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲ!Ó˚ Îy §¡õˆÏòÓ˚ ˲y[˛yÓ˚
!•§yˆÏÓG àîƒ •Î˚– ÙySÈ SÈyí˛¸yG xlƒylƒ §yÙ%!oܲ áyÓyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ á!lç
§¡õˆÏò Ù•y§yàÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚˛õ)î≈– ˲yÓ˚ï˛ §Ù%oï˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ÙƒyAày!lç
xy•Ó˚î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛ í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏl §Ê˛°ï˛y xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ù,!_ܲy
lÓ#ܲÓ˚îˆÏÎyàƒ §¡õòñ Îy xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y xlƒylƒ xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛
ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ü,˛!£ÏܲyçˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ í˛zÓ≈Ó˚ï˛y
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ Ü,˛!eÙ í˛z˲Î˚˲yˆÏÓ•z !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– Ù,!_ܲy
ç#ÓÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÎÙlÈüÈí˛z!qòñ ç#Óçv ~ÓÇ
xyî%Ó#«˛!îܲ ç#Ó •zï˛ƒy!ò §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Ë)˛ˆÏày° ܲ#⁄
Ë)˛ˆÏày° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ xyM˛!°Ü˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ#ܲÓ˚î §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
~ÓÇ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚– È
üüüÈ !Ó˚ã˛yí≈˛ •yê≈˛ˆÏ¢yl≈
Ë)˛ˆÏày° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒàï˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚
Îy Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xM˛°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛– È
üüüÈ ˆ•ê˛lyÓ˚–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ xôƒÎ˚l ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y°l ~ÓÇ
Ù)°ƒyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ !Óܲy¢ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ ã˛!Ó˚ï˛yÌ≈
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ ~ÓÇ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ xyhs˝/§¡õÜ≈˛
ï˛y xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ¢ Ùyl%ˆ£Ï ÓÏ ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ˆÎÏ yàƒ
§¡õò §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xÌ≈˜lÏ !ï˛Ü˛ G §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ í˛zßΨ ˆ˚ lÏ Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚– §¡õˆÏòÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ o%ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚
çlƒ xyô%!lܲ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ï˛yÓ˚ Óy›ï˛sfàï˛ Ë˛yÓ˚§yÙƒ
•y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ôyÓ˚y ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛
Ë)˛ˆÏày° §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ K˛yl xç≈l x˛õ!Ó˚•yÎ≈–
!Ó£ÏÎ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày° 11

(ii) l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ˆÏܲ Ú≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒÛ Ó°y •Î˚⁄
(a) Ó®Ó˚ (c) §Ùï˛°Ë)˛!Ù
(b) Ó˚yhflÏy (d) GÎ˚yê˛yÓ˚ ˛õyÜ≈˛
(iii) l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §!ë˛Ü˛ ˆçyí˛¸ ˆÙ°yG ~ÓÇ §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı

1. xyÓ•!Óòƒy A. çl§Çáƒyàï˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày°

2. çlï˛_¥ B. Ù,!_ܲy Ë)˛ˆÏày°
3. §Ùyçï˛_¥ C. ç°ÓyÎ%̊!Óòƒy
4. Ù,!_ܲy Ë)˛ˆÏày° D. §yÙy!çܲ Ë)˛ˆÏày°

(a) 1B,2C,3A,4D (c) 1D,2B,3C,4A

(b) 1A,2D,3B,4C (d) 1C,2A,3D,4B
(iv) l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ˚î Ê˛°yÊ˛° §¡õÜ≈˛ Î%=˛⁄
(a) ˆÜ˛l (c) ܲ#
(b) ˆÜ˛yÌyÎ˚ (d) ܲál
(v) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ §ÙÎ˚àï˛ §ÇˆÏŸ’£ÏˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
(a) §Ùyçï˛_¥ (c) l,ï˛_¥
(b) Ë)˛ˆÏày° (d) •z!ï˛•y§
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%!°Ó˚ 30 !ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ıÈ
(i) ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Îál !Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyG ï˛ál ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˆÜ˛yl‰ §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y °«˛ ܲÓ˚– ~•zà%ˆÏ°y ܲ#
~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù ly !˲ߨ Ó˚ܲÙ⁄ Ë)˛ˆÏày° xôƒÎ˚ˆlÏ ~à%ˆ°
Ï y xhs˝Ë˛≈) =˛ ܲÓ˚y !ܲ í˛z!ã˛ï˛⁄ Î!ò •Ñƒy •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ
ˆÜ˛l⁄
(ii) ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˆê˛!l§ Ó°ñ !Ü ˛ˆÏÜ˛ê˛ Ó°ñ Ü˛Ù°y ~ÓÇ Ü%˛ÙˆÏí˛¸y ˆòˆÏáSÈ– ˆÜ˛l ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ~•z Ó›!ê˛ˆÏܲ•z
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ï%˛°ly ܲˆÏÓ˚SÈ⁄
(iii) ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ !Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚ ÓlوϕyÍ§Ó ˛õy°l ܲÓ˚⁄ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛l ~ï˛à%ˆÏ°y àySÈ °yàyG⁄
àySÈà%ˆÏ°y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ ˲yÓ˚§yÙƒ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá⁄
(iv) ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y •y!ï˛ñ •!Ó˚îñ ˆÜÑ˛ˆÏã˛yñ àySÈ ~ÓÇ ây§ ˆòˆÏáSÈ– ï˛yÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yÌyÎ˚ Ó§Óy§ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Óy Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚⁄
~•z Ù[˛°!ê˛Ó˚ lyÙ Ü˛# ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È⁄ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ~•z Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !ܲS%È à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄
(v) ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ Óy!í˛¸ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óòƒy°Î˚ ˆÎˆÏï˛ Ü˛ï˛«˛î §ÙÎ˚ °yˆÏà⁄ !Óòƒy°Î˚!ê˛ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ Óy!í˛¸ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó˚yhflyÏ Ó˚
ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˛õyˆÏ¢ xÓ!fiÌï˛ !SÈ°⁄ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ !Óòƒy°Î˚ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏï˛ Ü˛ï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ §ÙÎ˚ °yàï˛⁄ Îyï˛yÎ˚yˆÏï˛Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚
§yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ Óy!í˛¸ ~ÓÇ !Óòƒy°ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò)Óˆ˚ cÏ Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ Ü˛#⁄ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ §ÙÎ˚ˆÜÏ ˛ fiÌyˆÏl ~ÓÇ
fiÌylˆÏܲ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄
12 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%!°Ó˚ 150 !ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ıÈ

(i) ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ≤Ãyï˛ƒ!•Ü˛˛ ç#ÓˆÏl °«˛ ܲÓ˚ ˆÎñ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– §Ó í˛z!qò ~ܲ•z ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ ly– Îï˛ ˛õ¢%˛õy!¢ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˆòáñ ï˛y !˲ߨ Ó˚ܲˆÏÙÓ˚–
~•z§Ó !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~ál ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ !ܲ ï˛Ü≈˛Î%!=˛Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
ˆòáyˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚y ˆÎñ Ë)˛ˆÏày° ÚÚxyM˛!°Ü˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ÛÛ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
(ii) ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y xyˆÏà•z §Ùyç!Óòƒy !•§yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ˆÏày°ñ •z!ï˛•y§ñ ˆ˛õÔÓ˚!ÓK˛yl ~ÓÇ xÌ≈!Óòƒy xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓSÏ˚ È–
~•z !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyhs˝/§¡õÜ≈˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ˚y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õò !•§yˆÏÓ xÓ˚Ïܲ !lÓ≈y!ã˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y –
(i) ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏe !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ xÓ˚ˆÏîƒÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛lˆÏܲ ˆòáyG–
(ii) ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ çlƒ xÓ˚ˆÏîƒÓ˚ xy!Ì≈ܲ à%Ó˚%c ˆ°ˆÏáy–
(iii) xÓ˚îƒ §ÇÓ˚«˛î !lˆÏÎ˚ ˲yÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛Ó˚ •z!ï˛•yˆÏ§ Ó˚yçfiÌyl ~ÓÇ í˛z_Ó˚yM˛ˆÏ° ˆÎ !ã˛˛õ‰ˆÜÏ ˛y xyˆÏ®y°l •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°
ï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓòl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
 ~ܲܲ ı II

˛õ,!ÌÓ#
~•z ~ܲˆÏܲ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y •Ï° ı
l ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ ~ÓÇ !ÓÓï≈˛ló ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ó GˆÏÎ˚àlyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ù•#§M˛Ó˚î Ùï˛Óyò ~ÓÇ
˛õyï˛ÈüÈË)˛àyë˛!lܲ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚–
x ôƒy Î˚
ˆï˛y ÙÓ˚y !ܲ !¢¢% !Óòƒy°ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ åNursuryä ˆ§•z ܲ!Óï˛y ÙˆÏl
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚y⁄ ÚÚÉÉÉÉÉ ê%˛ƒ•zAܲ° ê%˛ƒ•zAܲ° !°ê˛°‰ fiê˛yÓ˚–ÛÛ
˜¢¢Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚yÎ˚ ˲Ó˚y xyܲy¢ §Ó§ÙÎ˚ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
xyܲ£Ïî≈ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚yG •Î˚ˆïÏ ˛y ~•z ï˛yÓ˚yˆÏòÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˆË˛ˆÏÓSÈÈ ~ÓÇ
ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏl !SÈ° x§Çრ≤ß¿– •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°y ~Ùl
!SÈ° ÈüüüÈ xyܲyˆÏ¢ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ï˛yÓ˚y xyˆÏSÈ⁄ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ
!lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ x!hflÏc ÓçyÎ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏáˆÏSÈ⁄ ˆÜ˛í˛z !ܲ xyܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˆ¢£Ï
§#ÙyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚⁄ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~Ùl xˆÏlܲ xyÓ˚G ≤ß¿
~álG ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏl xyˆÏSÈ– ~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y çylˆÏï˛
˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~•z !Ùê˛!ÙˆÏê˛ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ï˛yÓ˚yà%ˆÏ°y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°
ˆ§•z §ˆÏAà ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÎÏ ˚ çylˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÓÏ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ G
!ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ à“–
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ï˛_¥à%ˆÏ°y åEARLY THEORIESä ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ (Origin of the Earth) ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ §¡∫ˆÏrô !Ó!˲ߨ òy¢≈!lܲ ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ~ܲ
!ÓÓ˚yê˛ §ÇáƒÜ˛ Ùï˛Óyò ˆÓ˚ˆÏáˆÏSÈl– ~Ùl•z ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏly ~ÓÇ
çl!≤ÃÎ˚ Î%!=˛Ó˚ ˛flÀT˛y !SȈϰl çyÙ≈yl òy¢≈!lܲ •zÙyl%ˆÏÎ˚° ܲyrê˛–
1796 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ à!îï˛K˛ °y≤’y§ ~Ó˚ §ÇˆÏ¢yôl ܲˆÏÓ˚l Îy
l#•y!Ó˚ܲy Ùï˛Óyò lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ~•z Ùï˛ÓyˆÏò Ó°y •Î˚ @˝Ã•à%ˆ° Ï y
~ܲ!ê˛ Ó›Ü˛îyÓ˚ ˆÙ⠈̈Ïܲ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° Îy ï˛Ó˚%î §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚
ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ â%Ó˚!SÈ°– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ 1900 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˆã˛¡∫yÓ˚ˆÏ°l
~ÓÇ ˆÙyŒê˛l ÙˆÏl ܲˆÏÓl˚ xlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ l«˛e â%Óˆ˚ ïÏ ˛ â%Óˆ˚ ïÏ ˛ §)ˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚
ܲyˆÏSÈ xyˆÏ§ñ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° G•z l«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈ˆÏî ˆ§ÔÓ˚˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ
~ܲ!ê˛ ã%˛Ó˚ê% ˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚˛ ӛܲîy xy°yòy •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– xyàvܲ l«˛e
åPassing starä fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆàˆÏ° §)Î≈˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!FSÈߨ
í˛z˛õyòyl!ê˛ §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ ã˛y!Ó˚!òˆÏܲ xlÓÓ˚ï˛ â%Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ô#ˆÏÓ˚
ô#ˆÏÓ˚ §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ @˝Ã•à%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– §ƒyÓ˚ ˆçÙ§ !çl§
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ ~ÓÇ !ÓÓï≈˛l
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
OF THE EARTH
~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˆ•Ó˚”˛ çyÊ˛!Ó˚ ~•z Î%!=˛ˆÏܲ §ÙÌ≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚l–
˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ° Î%!=˛à%ˆ°Ï yˆÏï˛ §)ˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚ §Aà# !•§yˆÏÓ xlƒ l«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ §•
xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ܲÌy !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z Î%!=˛ˆÏܲ ˆçyí˛¸y l«˛e
ï˛_¥ åbinary theoryä Ó°y •Î˚– 1950 §yˆÏ° Ó˚y!¢Î˚yÓ˚ xˆÏê˛y
!fløÌ ~ÓÇ Ü˛y°≈í˛z•çƒy˛õܲÓ˚ Úl#•y!Ó˚ܲy Ùï˛ÓyˆÏòÓ˚ !ܲS%Èê˛y !˲ߨ G
!ÓhflyÏ !Ó˚ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õ%lÓ˚yˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ !ÓˆÏÓã˛lyÎ˚ xyˆÏll ˆÎñ
Ù)°ï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl G !•!°Î˚yÙ §¡∫!ß∫ï˛ àƒy§#Î˚ ˆÙâ ï˛Ìy
l#•y!Ó˚ܲy ånebulaä §)Έ≈ ÜÏ ˛ !âˆÏÓ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆáÏ !SÈ° ÎyˆÏܲ ô)!°Ü˛îy lyˆÏÙ
x!˲!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ӛܲîyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ â£Ïî≈ G §ÇâˆÏ£Ó≈Ï ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ìy°y
xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚˛ ˆÙâ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §¡±§yÓ˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
@˝Ã•à%ˆÏ°y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ° !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ# @˝ÃˆÏ•Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚ Ó ˆÏ ï ≈ ˛ Ù•y!ÓˆÏ Ÿ ªÓ˚ í˛z Í ˛õ!_ §ÇÜ  ˛ yhs˝ §Ù§ƒyà% ˆ Ï ° y @˝ à •î
ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl–
xyô%!lܲ ï˛_¥à%ˆÏ°y åMODERN THEORIESä ı
Ù•y!ӈϟªÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ åOrigin of the Universeäı
Ù•y!ӈϟªÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_Ó˚ Î%!=˛à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ çl!≤ÃÎ˚ •° !Óà
ÓƒyÇ ï˛_¥ åBig Bang Theoryä Óy Ù•y!ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚î ï˛_¥– 1920
!á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ~í%˛•zl •yˆÏÓ° ≤ÃÙyî §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ˆÎ Ù•y!ÓŸª
§¡±§y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏFSÈ– §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà l«˛e˛õ%O ågalaxiesä
~ˆÏܲ x˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ˛õÓ˚#«˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
Ù•y!ӈϟªÓ˚ §¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ xÌ≈ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚y– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÓ°%l !lˆÏÎ˚
~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ !Ó®% å!Ó®%à%ˆÏ°y l«˛e˛õ%O ˆÓyV˛yˆÏÓä
!ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ï%˛!Ù Îál ˆÓ°%ˆÏl •yGÎ˚y ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓ ï˛ál ˆÓ°%ˆÏlÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !ã˛!•´ï˛ !Ó®%à%ˆÏ°y ˆÓ°%ˆÏlÓ˚ §¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~ˆÏܲ
x˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓ– ~ܲ•zÓ˚ܲÙ˲yˆÏÓ Ù•y!ӈϟªÓ˚
≤çyÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ l«˛e˛õ%Oà%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒG ò)Óc˚ Óyí˛¸ˆïÏ ˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓ–
Îy ˆ•yܲ ï%˛!Ù ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ !Ó®%àˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò)Óc˚ Ó,!Âô SÈyí˛¸yG
ˆÓ°%ˆlÏ Ó˚ x!AÜ˛ï˛ !Ó®%àˆ% °
Ï y !lˆÏçÓ˚yG ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏFSÈ– ~ê˛y ÓyhflÓÏ
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ ~ÓÇ !ÓÓï≈˛l
xl%ÎyÎ˚# lÎ˚– !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y !ÓŸªy§ ܲˆÏÓl˚ ˆÎñ l«˛e˛õ%Oà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ò)Ó˚c ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ã˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ– !ܲhs˝%˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° l«˛e˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚
≤çyÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ Óƒy˛õyÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏܲ §ÙÌ≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ï˛y•z ˆÓ°%ˆlÏ Ó˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î
xyÇ!¢Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §!ë˛Ü˛–
~ܲ xܲ“l#Î˚ x!ï˛ «%˛o !Ó®% åSingularityä
!ã˛e 2.1 : !Óà ÓƒyÇ
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ ôy˛õà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ !Óà ÓƒyÇ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ù•y!ÓŸª
àë˛l ˆòÈáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ôy˛õà%ˆÏ°y •Ï° ı
åiä ¢%Ó%̊ˆÏï˛ !ÓŸª §,!T˛Ó˚ §Ó ˛õòyÌ≈ ~ܲ!ê˛ fiÌyˆÏl x!ï˛«%˛o
~ܲ!ê˛ ÓˆÏ°Ó˚ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ~Ó˚
xyÎ˚ï˛l !SÈ° ~ï˛ «%˛o ˆÎ ܲ“lyÓ˚ Óy•zˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚
ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ âlc !SÈ° xï˛ƒhs˝ ˆÓ!¢–
åiiä !Óà ÓƒyÇÈüÈ~ «%˛o Ó°!ê˛ ≤ÃÓ°ˆÏÓˆÏà ˆÊ˛ˆÏê˛ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ
xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl xˆÏlܲ xˆÏlܲ ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ~ê˛y
ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ xyç ˆÌˆÏܲ 13.7 !Ó!°Î˚l
ÓSÈÓ˚ xyˆÏà !Óà ÓƒyÇÈüÈ~Ó˚ âê˛ly ï˛Ìy Ù•y!ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚î
âˆÏê˛!SÈ°– ~Ùl!ܲ xyç ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆÓˆÏí˛¸
ã˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ– xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !ܲS%È
!ܲS%È ¢!=˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– !Óà ÓƒyÇÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚
~ܲ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛Ó˚ ˲@¿yLjϢÓ˚ Ü˛Ù §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyÎ˚ï˛l
ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyGÎ˚y !SÈ° x!ï˛ o%ï˛ñ ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆÓˆÏí˛¸
ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ à!ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚– !Óà ÓƒyÇ §Çàë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ
!ï˛l !Ù!lˆÏê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤ÃÌÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% àë˛l ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚–
åiiiä !Óà ÓƒyÇÈüÈ~Ó˚ !ï˛l °«˛ ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ≤ÃyÎ˚
4500 K åˆÜ˛°!˲läÈüÈ~ ˆlˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛zqÓ •Î˚– Ù•y!ÓŸª fl∫FSÈ åtransparentä
•ˆÏÎ˚ GˆÏ벖
15
Ù•y!ӈϟªÓ˚ ≤çyÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ l«˛e˛õ%ˆO
Ï Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò)Óc˚ ˆÓˆÏí˛¸
ÎyÎ˚– ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈y=˛ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ xyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Óܲ“ !SÈ° ˆ•yˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
!fiÌ!ï˛¢#° xÓfiÌy åsteady stateä ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ ÈüüüÈ ~ˆÏï˛ Ó°y •Î˚
Ù•y!ÓŸªˆÏܲ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù ÓˆÏ° ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
§¡±§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ù•y!ÓŸª §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ Ó,•_Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî í˛z˛õ°kô •ˆÏÎ˚ Gë˛yÎ˚
˜ÓK˛y!lܲ §Ùyç Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl Ù•y!ӈϟªÓ˚ !ÓhflÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Î%!=˛ §ÙÌ≈l
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
l«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ àë˛l åStar Formationä ı
¢%Ó˚%ˆÏï˛ Ù•y!ӈϟªÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈ G ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l §Ùyl !SÈ° ly– ~•z
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ âlˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒà%ˆÏ°y Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Óyí˛¸yÎ˚
~ÓÇ ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ§ˆÏAà ã˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ§ Óy ~ܲ!eï˛
•Î˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y•z l«˛e˛õ%O àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !˲!_ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !Ó¢y°
§ÇáƒÜ˛ l«˛e !lˆÏÎ˚ l«˛e˛õ%O à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– l«˛e˛õ%O •yçyÓ˚
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°yˆÏà 8.311 !Ù!lê˛–
@˝Ã•à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ àë˛l åFormation of Planetsäı
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á[˛à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲe#ܲÓ˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ @˝Ã•yî%ˆÏï˛ åPlanet- •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– §y¡±!ï˛Ü˛ xï˛#ˆÏï˛ xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎñ ≤’%ˆÏê˛y xlƒylƒ
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ãÑ˛yò åThe Moonäı
à!ë˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓ!¢ âlcÎ%=˛– xÓ!¢T˛ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏܲ
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Giant Planetä Ó°y •Î˚ – ÚJovianÛ ÈüÈ ÙyˆÏl •° Ó,•flõ!ï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y àë˛l Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– 1838 §yˆÏ° §ƒyÓ˚ çç≈
@˝Ã•– ~à%ˆ° Ï y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ @˝Ã•à%ˆ°
Ï y ˆÌˆÏܲ xˆÏlܲ ÓˆÏí˛¸y Ù)°ï˛ !•!°Î˚yÙ í˛yÓ˚í˛z•zl ï˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃhflÏyÓlyÎ˚ ӈϰl ˆÎñ ¢%Ó˚%ˆÏï˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ~ÓÇ §)Î≈
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ ç àÍ åThe Solar System ä
Ó%ô ¢%ܲ  ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ÙAà° Ó,•flõ!ï˛ ¢!l •zí˛zˆÓÏ l˚ y§ ˆl˛õã%˛l
ò)Ó˚c * 0.387 0.723 1.000 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.182 30.058
âlc@ 5.44 5.245 5.517 3.945 1.33 0.70 1.17 1.66
Óƒy§yô≈# 0.383 0.949 1.000 0.533 11.19 9.460 4.11 3.88
í˛z˛õ@˝Ã•à%ˆÏ°y 0 0 1 2 ≤ÃyÎ˚ 53 ≤ÃyÎ˚ 53 ≤ÃyÎ˚ 27 13

* §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ àí˛¸ ò)Ó˚c ˆçƒy!ï˛≈!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ~ܲˆÏܲ ÈüüüÈ 149,598,000 km = 1 @ âlc @˝ÃyÙ‡ˆ§!Ù ÈüÈ~ 3

# Óƒy§yô≈ ı !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ Óƒy§yô≈ 6378.137 km = 1

Source: http://ptanetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/page/planets
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ܲˆÏÓ˚–
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Lithosphereäı
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Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ x˲ƒhs˝ˆÓÏ ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
x˲ƒhs˝ˆÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ°
Ï y ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ âlˆÏcÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!FSÈߨ
•ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°– ~ ˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ ˲yÓ˚#˛ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ° Ï y 到y•yÓ˚
ÙˆÏï˛yä ˆÜ˛w x!˲Ù%ˆáÏ ~ÓÇ •y°Ü˛y í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ° Ï y Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ x!˲Ù%ˆáÏ
17
§ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà ˛õòyÌ≈àˆ% ° Ï y ë˛yu˛yñ
ܲ!ë˛l G âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ
˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ° ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ Óy•zˆÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ xÇ¢ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚
àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !Ó¢y° ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ ågiant impactä ˛õ,!ÌÓ# xyÓyÓ˚G
í˛z_Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ GˆÏ벖 ˛õ,!ÌÓ# àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl !Ó!˲ߨ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
xy°yòy •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ~•z!ê˛ •Î˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆÜ˛w ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÎ hflÓÏ à˚ ˆ% ° Ï y xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•z ï˛y •° ÈüüüÈ Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲñ à%ÓÙ%̊ [˛°ñ
Ó!•/ˆÜ˛wÙ[˛°ñ xhs˝/ˆÏܲwÙ[˛°– Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ˛õÎ≈hs˝
í˛z˛õyyòˆÏlÓ˚ âlc Óyí˛¸ˆïÏ ˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛
hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ôÙ≈àˆ% °
Ï y ï˛Ìy ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆ°Ï y !lˆÏÎ˚ !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲÓ˚Ó–
ÓyÎ˚ % Ù [˛° G Óy!Ó˚ Ù [˛ˆÏ ° Ó˚ Ü  ˛ Ù!ÓÓï≈ ˛ l å Evolution of
Atmosphere and hydrosphereäı
˛õ, ! ÌÓ#Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚ ! òˆÏ Ü ˛ ˆÎ ÓyÎ˚ % Ù [˛° xyˆÏ S È ï˛y ≤Ãôylï˛
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl G x!:ˆÏçl myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– xôƒyÎ˚ 8ÈüÈ~ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ àë˛l G ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyÓ˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylˆÏÓ–
Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl ˆÎ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛° xyˆÏSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù!Óܲy¢ !ï˛l!ê˛ ôyˆÏ˛õ
•Î˚ – ≤ÃÌÙ ˛õÎ≈ y ˆÏ Î ˚ í˛z ˆ Ï Õ ‘ á ˆÏ Î yàƒ •° xy!òÙ ÓyÎ˚ % Ù [˛ˆÏ ° Ó˚
xÓ°%!Æ– !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù!ÓܲyˆÏ¢ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛z_Æ
x˲ƒhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xÓòyl xyˆÏSÈ– xӈϢˆÏ£Ï ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ àë˛l G
§ÇflÒÓ˚î ç#ÓçàÍ ï˛Ìy §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ âˆÏê˛–
~ê˛y ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚y •ï˛ ˆÎñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl G !•!°Î˚yÙ §Ù!ß∫ï˛
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî xÓ°%!Æ âˆÏê˛ˆÏSÈ– ~ê˛y
¢%ô% ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe lÎ˚ xlƒylƒ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#fl∫Ó˚)˛õ @˝Ã•ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeGñ
ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y ˆ§ÔÓ˚ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xy!òÙ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ •y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚
ˆÊ˛ˆÏ°!SÈ°– ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ¢#ï˛° •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ܲ!ë˛l xÇ¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ àƒy§ G ç°#Î˚Óy‹õ !là≈ï˛ •Î˚– ~ê˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ•z
Óï≈˛Ùyl ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚– ≤ÃÌÙyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°
!Ó¢y° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç°#Î˚Óy‹õñ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçlñ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ñ
!ÙˆÏÌlñ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y ~ÓÇ §yÙylƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî x!:ˆÏçl !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛
!SÈ°– Ë)˛ÈüÈx˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ àƒy§§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Óy•zˆÏÓ˚ xy§yÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ
ӈϰ àƒy§ !l/§Ó˚î ådegassingä– x!ÓÓ˚yÙ x@¿%ƒÍ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
!là≈ï˛ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ G àƒy§§Ù)• ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°ˆÏܲ §Ù,Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ¢#ï˛°#ܲÓ˚îÈüÈ~Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ ç°#Î˚Óy‹õ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛
¢% Ó ˚ % ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ! SÈ ° – ÓyÎ˚ % Ù [˛ˆÏ ° ܲyÓ≈ l í˛y•z x :y•z í ˛ oÓ#Ë) ˛ ï˛
ådissolvedä •ˆÏÎ˚ Ó,!T˛Ó˚ çˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÓ!¢ ˆÓ!¢
âl#˲Ól G Ó,!T˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî í˛z£÷Ïï˛y xyÓyÓ˚G ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚– §Ù%o
ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z!aï˛ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ Ó,!T˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ï˛y ˛õ!ï˛ï˛
18 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ §ÙÎ˚§)!ã˛
Î%à x!ôÎ%à §ÙÎ˚ܲy° í˛z˛õÎ%à Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒÙ)°Ü˛ ç#Ó ‡
ÓSȈÏÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ âê˛ly
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê˛yl≈y!Ó˚ •ˆÏ°y!§l 0 - 10,000 Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl Ó˚ˆ) Ï˛õ xy!ÓË≈˛yÓ
ˆ§ˆÏlyˆÏçy!Î˚ܲ ≤’y•zˆÏfiê˛y!§l 10,000 - 2 !Ù!°Î˚l ˆ•yˆÏÙy ˆ§!˛õÎ˚y™
Óy lÓç#Ó#Î˚ ê˛y!§≈Î˚y!Ó˚ ≤’yˆÏÎ˚y!§l 2 - 5 !Ù!°Î˚l xy!ò ÙylˆÏÓÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈˛õ%Ó˚%£Ï
å65 °«˛ ÓSÈÓ˚ ï˛Ìy °ƒyç!Ó•#l ÓylÓ˚ ı
xyˆÏà ˆÌˆÏܲ ÙyˆÏÎ˚y!§l 5 - 24 !Ù!°Î˚l §˛õ%‹õܲ à%Õ√ G í˛z!qò
Óï≈˛Ùyl §ÙÎ˚ x!°ˆÏày!§l 24 - 37 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓlÙyl%£Ï åˆà!Ó˚°y çyï˛#Î˚ä
˛õÎ≈hs˝ä •zˆÏÎ˚y!§l 37 - 57 !Ù!°Î˚l ¢¢Ü˛ ï˛Ìy áÓ˚ˆÏày¢ çyï˛#Î˚ ≤Ãyî#
˛õƒy!°G!§l 57 - 65 !Ù!°Î˚l «%˛o hflÏlƒ˛õyÎ˚# ≤Ãyî#
ÓˆÏí˛¸y G ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˛•zÑò%Ó˚
ˆÙˆÏ§yˆÏçy!Î˚ܲ ˆÜ ˛ê˛y!§Î˚y§ 65 - 144 !Ù!°Î˚l í˛y•zˆÏly§ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó°%!Æ
Óy Ùôƒç#Ó#Î˚ ç%Ó˚y!§Ü˛ 144 - 208 !Ù!°Î˚l í˛y•zˆÏly§ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Î%à
65-245 °«˛
hflÏlƒ˛õyÎ˚# ê˛∆yÎ˚y!§Ü˛ 208 - 245 !Ù!°Î˚l Óƒy. ~ÓÇ Ü˛FSÈˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §,!T˛
˛õy!Ù≈Î˚yl 245 - 286 !Ù!°Î˚l í˛z˲ã˛Ó˚ ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛
˛õƒy!°GˆÏçy!Î˚ܲ §Ó˚#§,ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤Ãyôylƒ
Óy ˛õ%Ó˚yç#Ó#Î˚ ܲyˆÏÓ≈y!lˆÏÊ˛Ó˚y§ 286 - 360 !Ù!°Î˚l ˛≤ÃÌÙ §Ó˚#§,˛õ ı
245-570 °«˛ ˆÙÓ˚%ò[˛# ≤Ãyî# ı ܲÎ˚°yˆÏ«˛e
ˆí˛ˆÏ˲y!lÎ˚yl 360 - 408 !Ù!°Î˚l í˛z˲ã˛Ó˚ ≤Ãyî#
!§°%!Ó˚Î˚yl 408 - 438 !Ù!°Î˚l fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏà ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ !ã˛•´
≤ÃÌÙ àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ í˛zqÓ
xˆÏí≈˛y!˲!§Î˚yl 438 - 505 !Ù!°Î˚l ≤ÃÌÙ ÙyˆÏSÈÓ˚ í˛zqÓ
ˆÜ˛!¡∫…Î˚yl 505 - 570 !Ù!°Î˚l ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ x!hflÏc !SÈ° lyı
§Ù%ˆÏo xˆÏÙÓ˚%ò[˛# ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ í˛zqÓ
ˆ≤ÃyˆÏê˛ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏçy!Î˚ܲ 570 - 2,500 !Ù!°Î˚l lÓ˚Ù ¢Ó˚#Ó˚Î%=˛ §!rô˛õò ≤Ãyî#
xy!Ü≈˛Î˚yl ≤Ãyܲ ˆÜ˛!¡∫…Î˚yl 2,500 - 3,800 !Ù!°Î˚l l#°y˲ §Ó%ç ˜¢Óy°
570 !Ù!°Î˚l - ~ܲˆÏܲy¢# ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚y
ˆ•ˆÏí˛l 4800 !Ù!°Î˚l 3,800 - 4,800 !Ù!°Î˚l Ù•y§yàÓ˚ G Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ àë˛l
Ù•y§yàÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°
ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ myÓ˚y
§Ù,Âô •Î˚–
l«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛zqÓ 5,000 !Ù!°Î˚l §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ í˛zqÓ ‡ í˛zͲõ!_
5000 -13,700
§%˛õyÓ˚ˆÏly˲y !Ù!°Î˚l 12,000 !Ù!°Î˚l Ù•y!ӈϟªÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_
!Óà ÓƒyÇ 13,700 !Ù!°Î˚l

•Î˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ# àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ 500 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛
Ù•y§yàÓ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ~ê˛y Ó°y •Î˚ñ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ 4000 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚
ÓÎ˚!§– 3800 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ §ÙˆÏÎ˚
ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚– ~ál ˆÌˆÏܲ 2500-3000 !Ù!°Î˚l
ÓSÈÓ˚ xyˆÏà §yˆÏ°yÜ˛È§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ¢%Ó%̊ •Î˚– Ó•%!òl ôˆÏÓ˚ ç#Ól
§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ•z §#!Ùï˛ !SÈ°– §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ x!:ˆÏçl Î%=˛ •Î˚– Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÎÏ ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 2000 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚
xyˆÏà Ù•y§yàÓ˚àˆ% °Ï y x!:ˆÏçl myÓ˚y §¡õ,=˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ° x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ ~ÓÇ !ÓÓï≈˛l 19

ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ í˛zqÓ åOrigin of Lifeä ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ¢£Ï ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ §ˆÏAà ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ G
Ü ˛Ù!ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛ xyˆÏSÈ– §ˆÏ®•yï˛#ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ~ê˛y ˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚ ˆÎñ
˛≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ hflψÏÓ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ~Ùl!ܲ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚
!Óܲy¢ §Çàë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §•yÎ˚ܲ !SÈ° ly– xyô%!lܲ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚
í˛zͲõ!_ˆÏܲ ~ܲ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!ï˛!Ü ˛Î˚y !•§yˆÏÓ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á
ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl Îy ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ç!ê˛° ˜çÓ xî% ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ
~ܲ!eï˛ Ü˛ˆÏ Ó ˚ – ~•z §ÙyˆÏ Ó ¢!ê˛ ~Ùl !SÈ ° ˆÎñ ~à% ˆ Ï ° y
!lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ !l!‹;Î˚ Ó› ˆÌˆÏܲ ç#Óhs˝ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚– !Ó!˲ߨ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~•z @˝ÃˆÏ•Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !ÓòƒÙyl ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚
ï˛Ìƒ!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ !¢°y!fiÌï˛ ç#ÓyˆÏŸ¬– 3000 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSȈÏÓ˚
ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏly Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ àë˛ˆÏl l#°y˲ ˜Ï¢ÓyˆÏ°Ó˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl Ó˚)˛õ
§ò,¢ xyî%Ó#«˛!îܲ xÓÎ˚Ó ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~ê˛y xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ 3800 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ xyˆÏà ç#Ól ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly ¢%Ó%̊
•ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– 18 ˛õ,¤˛yÎ˚ Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ §ÙÎ˚§)!ã˛ˆÏï˛ ˜çÓ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏl
~ܲˆÏܲy¢# ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚y ˆÌˆÏܲ xyô%!lܲ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ç#Ól Ó,_yˆÏhs˝Ó˚
§yÓ˚§ÇˆÏ«˛˛õ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–

xl%¢#°l#
1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚ ÓySÈy•z ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
(i) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ÓÎ˚§ ⁄
(a) 4.6 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ (c) 4.6 !Ó!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚
(b) 13.7 !Ó!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ (d) 13.7 !ê˛∆!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚
(ii) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ˆÏï˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ §ÙÎ˚ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ⁄
(a) Î%à (c) x!ôÎ%à
(b) §ÙÎ˚ܲy° (d) í˛z˛õÎ%à
(iii) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §ÇflÒÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ lÎ˚ ⁄
(a) ˆ§ÔÓ˚ÓyÎ˚% (c) àƒy§
(b) ˛õ,Ìܲ#˲Ól (d) §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï
(iv) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ xhs˝/fiÌ @˝Ã•à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ⁄
(a) §)Î≈ G ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# @˝Ã•à%ˆÏ°y
(b) §)Î≈ G @˝Ã•yî%˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ Ó°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# @˝Ã•à%ˆÏ°y
(c) àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ%=˛ @˝Ã•à%ˆÏ°y
(d) í˛z˛õ@˝Ã• !Ó•#l @˝Ã•à%ˆÏ°y
(v) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃyˆÏîÓ˚ x!hflÏc ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛ï˛ ÓSÈÓ˚ xyˆÏà ⁄
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public.html and www.nasm.edu)
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àë˛l ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛ˆÏî ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ !Ù° ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– í˛zÕÒyÓ˚
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ ˆÎ !Ó®%ˆïÏ ˛ ≤ÃÌÙ Ë)˛ÈüÈܲ¡õl xl%˲) ï˛ •Î˚
ܲ!ë˛l xÇ¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ @˝ÃˆÏ•Ó˚ !Ù° xyˆÏSÈ ÈüüüÈ
ï˛yˆÏܲ Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏܲw åepicentreä ӈϰñ ~!ê˛ ˆÜ˛w
~à%ˆÏ°yG ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚ xyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zͧ •ˆÏï˛
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆ§yçy§%!ç í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛–
˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
xlƒylƒ ˛õˆÏÓ˚y«˛ í˛z͈ϧÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyˆÏSÈ Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈îñ ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ#Î˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈܲ¡õ ï˛Ó˚Aà åEarthquake Wavesä ı
ˆ«˛e ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈܲ¡õ#Î˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ x«˛yLjϢ
fl∫y˲y!Óܲ Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ §Óà%ˆÏ°y !¢°yÙ[˛ˆÏ° §Çà!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ Ó° ågä ~ܲ lÎ˚– ~ê˛y ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ˆÓ!¢ ~ÓÇ
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ hflÏÓ˚ §¡∫ˆÏrô ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ !¢áˆÏÓ–
!lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° Ü˛Ù– ܲyÓ˚î ˆÜ˛w ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ò)Óˆ˚ cÏ Ó˚
~áyˆÏl ~ê%˛Ü%˛ ˆçˆÏl ˆlGÎ˚y ΈÏ̤˛ ˆÎñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ 200 !ܲ!Ù
ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÜ˛w ˆÌˆÏܲ !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ ò)Ó˚c ˆÓ!¢– ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
à˲#Ó˚ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !¢°yÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Óhfl!Ï, ï˛– Ë)˛˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏly ï˛Ó˚AàˆÏܲ
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lÈË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ ӈϰÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ §,!T˛ •Î˚–
!°!˛õÓÂô å record ä ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ˆÎ Îsf ï˛yˆÏ Ü ˛ ÓˆÏ ° Ë) ˛ !Ùܲ¡õ
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ x§Ù Ó^˝ê˛l Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ Ó°ˆÏܲ
!lî≈Î˚ܲyÓ˚# Îsf Óy !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyÊ˛– !ã˛e 3.1ÈüÈ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ !Ó!˲ߨ fiÌyˆÏl Ùyôƒyܲ£Ïˆ≈ îÏ Ó˚ ˛õyë˛ xlƒylƒ xˆÏlܲ
Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ à!ï˛!Ó!ô ÓÜ ˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ myÓ˚y !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyˆÏÊ˛
ܲyÓ˚î myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ˛õyë˛ ≤Ãï˛ƒy!¢ï˛ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ
!°!˛õÓÂô •ˆÏFSÈ– °«˛ƒl#Î˚ ˆÎñ ÓÜ ˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ myÓ˚y !ï˛l ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
•Î˚– ~•z ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ ågravity
xy°yòy ˲yà ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏFSÈ ÈüüüÈ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈܲ¡õ
anomalyä– Ùyôƒyܲ£Ïî≈ ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ#Î˚ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚
ï˛Ó˚AàˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yˆÏFSÈ– Ë)Èܲ¡õÈ ï˛Ó˚Aà ≤Ãôylï˛ ò%•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ •Î˚
Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §¡õˆÏܲ≈ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛Ìƒ ˆòÎ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ §¡õˆÏܲ≈
ˆò•ï˛Ó˚Aà å Body waves ä ~ÓÇ ˛õ,¤˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà å Surface
ï˛Ìƒ ˆòÎ˚ ~Ùl í˛zͧà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ •°
wavesä ¢!=˛ !là≈ÙˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛ˆÏw ˆò•
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ– ï˛y•z xyÙÓ˚y !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ ~!ê˛ !lˆÏÎ˚
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆòˆÏ• ï˛Ìy Ë)˛àˆÏË≈˛
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓÏ̊Ó–
ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ñ ï˛y•z ~ˆÏܲ ˆò•ï˛Ó˚Aà ӈϰ– ˆò•ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î àë˛l
Îál Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛fiÌ !¢°yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ÇˆÏÎyà âˆÏê˛ñ ï˛ál ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ ~ܲ
lï%˛l ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ÎyˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛Ó˚Aà– ~•z ï˛Ó˚Aà Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚
§Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– Ë)˛ÈüÈx˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ lyly ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ âlcÎ%=˛
í˛z˛õyòyˆÏl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Ë)˛Ü˛¡õ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà
˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ï˛Ó˚Aà Îál !Ó!˲ߨ âlcÎ%=˛ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùôƒ
!òˆÏÎ˚ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛°l G ≤Ã!ï˛§Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ à!ï˛˛õÌG ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚–
P-ï˛Ó˚Aà S-ï˛Ó˚Aà
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛
ï˛Ó˚Aà
ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ §¡±§y!Ó˚ï˛
!ã˛e 3.1 : Ë)˛Èܲ¡õ ï˛Ó˚Aà
ˆò•ï˛Ó˚Aà ò%ÈüÈôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ •Î˚ ÈüüüÈ P ~ÓÇ S ï˛Ó˚Aà– P ï˛Ó˚Aà
á%Ó o%ï˛ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤Ã̈ÏÙ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ
ï˛Ó˚AàG Ó°y •Î˚– P- ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ¢∑ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ !Ù°
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ï˛Ó˚Aàà%ˆ° Ï y ܲ!ë˛lñ ï˛Ó˚° G àƒy§#Î˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚
Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ÈSüÈï˛Ó˚Aà Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚
˛õˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ó°y •Î˚ ˆàÔî ï˛Ó˚Aà– ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ Óƒy˛õyÓ˚
•° ~à%ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
È SüÈ ï ˛Ó˚ ˆ Ï A àÓ˚ ~•z ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ á% Ó •z à% Ó ˚ % c ˛õ) î ≈ – ~•z ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ
!ÓK˛yl#ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î àë˛l Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛°ˆÏl ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏ«˛˛õ âˆÏê˛– ≤Ã!ï˛§Ó˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ ï˛Ó˚Aà
!Ó!˲ߨ !òˆÏܲ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚
˜Ó!ã˛eƒ˛õ)î≈ !ò܉˛à%ˆÏ°y !§Âôyhs˝Ù)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !°!˛õÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
˛õ,¤˛ï˛Ó˚Aà •° !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ ˆ¢£Ï !ÓÓÓ˚î åReportä– ~•z
ï˛Ó˚Aàà%ˆÏ°y á%Ó ôÁǧydܲ •Î˚– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !¢°yhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
fiÌylã%˛ƒ!ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛yë˛yˆÏÙy ˆË˛ˆÏ. ˛õˆÏí˛¸–
Ë)˛Èܲ¡õ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ åPropagation of
Earthquake Waves ä ı
!Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ë)˛Ü˛¡õ ï˛Ó˚Aà !Ó!FSÈߨ˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
!¢°yhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ x!ï˛Ü ˛ÙˆÏîÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ Ë)˛Ü˛ˆÏ¡õÓ˚
!ÓhflyÏ ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ !¢°yhflÓÏ ˚ ˆÜÑ˛ˆÏ˛õ GˆÏ벖 PÈüÈï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Óy˚ ˆÏ°
ܲ¡õˆÏlÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ñ !ÓhflyÏ ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !ò܉˛ xl%ÎyÎ˚# ÈPüÈï˛Ó˚Aà í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛z˛õyòyl ï˛Ìy ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
≤çyÓ˚î G §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ âlˆÏcÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
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!Ó!˲ߨï˛y §,!T˛ •Î˚– xlƒ !ï˛l!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ܲ¡õl !ÓhflÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
!òˆÏܲÓ˚ §ˆÏAà í˛zÕ‘¡∫˲yˆÏÓ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zÕ‘¡∫ §Ùï˛ˆÏ° ÈSüÈï˛Ó˚Aà
§ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y ˆÎ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚
≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏï˛ í˛zÑã%˛Èl#ã%˛ åtroughs & crestsä Ë)˛!Ù˲yà
˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÈSüÈï˛Ó˚Aà •° §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ôÁǧydܲ–
SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚ Óy SÈyÎ˚y xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛zqÓ åEmergence of
Shadow Zoneäı
xˆÏlܲ ò)ÓÓ˚ ï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl SÈ!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˚ ÎyGÎ˚y Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ !°!˛õÓÂô ï˛Ìƒ
!§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyˆÏÊ˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Îy ˆ•yܲñ !ܲS%È !ӈϢ£Ï xM˛° xyˆÏSÈ
ˆÎáyˆÏl ï˛Ó˚Aà ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ lyñ ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù xM˛°ˆÏܲ ӈϰ SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚–
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ âê˛ly !Óã˛yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˛õ,Ìܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ã˛e 3.2
åܲä ~ÓÇ åáä ˆï˛ P ~ÓÇ S ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ SÈyÎ˚y xM˛° ˆòáyˆÏly
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎñ !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyÊ˛ P G S ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏܲˆÏwÓ˚ 1050 ò)Óc˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ï˛Ìƒ !°!˛õÓÂô
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Îy ˆ•yܲñ !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyˆÏÊ˛ !lî≈#ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ 1450ÈüÈ~Ó˚
l#ˆÏã˛ P ï˛Ó˚Aà ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv S ï˛Ó˚Aà ˆ˛õÑÔSȈÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚
ly– ï˛y•z í˛z˛õˆÏܲw ˆÌˆÏܲ 1050 – 1450ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# xM˛°
SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚ !•§yˆÏÓ ¢ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– 1050 ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
xM˛ˆÏ° SÈüÈï˛Ó˚Aà ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ly– S ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ SÈyÎ˚y xM˛° P
ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ SÈyÎ˚y xM˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓˆÏí˛¸y •Î˚– 1050 ˆÌˆÏܲ 1450 È~Ó˚
ÙôƒÓï≈˛# xM˛ˆÏ° PÈüÈï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚ˆÏܲ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢
~ܲ!ê˛ Órôl#Ó˚ åbendä ÙˆÏï˛y ˆòáyÎ˚– ÈSüÈï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚
¢%ôÙ% ye !Óhfl!Ï, ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ó,•_Ó˚ lÎ˚– ~ê˛y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ 40% ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢
xÇ¢ òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– Î!ò ï%˛!Ù Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏܲˆÏwÓ˚
xÓfiÌyl çyl ï˛y•ˆÏ° ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚ xÑyܲˆÏï˛
˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ å28 ˛õ,¤˛yÎ˚ ÚܲyçÛ í˛z!Õ‘!áï˛ Ó:ÈüÈ~ çylˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏܲˆÏwÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ
ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–ä
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò åTypes of Earthquakesä
åiä Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎê˛y ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ñ
ï˛y •° Ë) ˛ ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ Ë) ˛ !Ùܲ¡õ å tectonic
earthquakesä– !¢°yhflÏÓ˚ ã%˛ƒ!ï˛ˆÏÓ˚áy ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚
ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ •Î˚–
åiiä ~ܲ !ӈϢ£Ï ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ •°
x@¿% ƒ Ͳõyï˛ç!lï˛ Ë) ˛ !Ùܲ¡õ å volcanic
earthquakeä – §!Ü ˛Î˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ~!ê˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
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P-ï˛Ó˚Aà SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚
S-ï˛Ó˚Aà SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚
ܲ¡õl
!ã˛e 3.2 : åܲä ~ÓÇ åáä Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ myÓ˚y SÈyÎ˚y Ó°Î˚
åiiiä ˆÎ xM˛ˆÏ° á!lÓ˚˛ ܲyç á%Ó ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ñ ˆ§áyˆÏl
Ùy!ê˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ á!là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ SÈyò ÙyˆÏV˛ ÙyˆÏV˛ Ù,ò%
ܲ¡õˆÏl ôˆÏ§ ÎyÎ˚– ~ˆÏܲ ˛õï˛lç!lï˛ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ Óy
ô§ç!lï˛ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ åcollapse earthquakesä
ӈϰ–
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GˆÏë˛ ï˛ál ˆÎ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚
!ÓˆÏ fl ≥˛yÓ˚ î Ë) ˛ ܲ¡õÈl å explosion earth-
quakes ä–
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åvä ~ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ !Ó¢y° ç°yôyÓ˚Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° •Î˚
xÌ≈yÍ lò#ˆÏï˛ ÓÑyô !òˆÏÎ˚ ç°yôyÓ˚ àë˛l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
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≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ë) ˛ !Ùܲ¡õ å reservoir induced
earthquakes ä ӈϰ–
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õܲ åMeasuring Earthquakesä ı
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y xÌÓy ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ
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!Ó˚á‰ê˛yÓ˚ ˆflÒ° åRichter scaleä– Ë)˛Ü˛ˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !là≈ï˛
¢!=˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲ¡õˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyey !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z Ùy˛õ
≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚ 0 – 10 ~•z l¡∫ˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲçl •zï˛y°#Î˚ Ë)˛Ü˛¡õ
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ˆòˆÏá ï˛#Ó ï˛y Ùy˛õyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§Ó˚ ˛1 – 12 õÎ≈hs˝ •Î˚–
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° åEFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKEä
Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ !Ó˛õÎ≈Î˚– !l¡¨!°!áï˛à%ˆÏ°y •°
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(i) Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ܲ¡õl
(ii) ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒÙ)°Ü˛ fiÌ°Ó§!ï˛
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(v) !Ó˛õò@˝ÃhflÏ Ë)˛!Ù˲yà
(vi) !•Ùyl# §¡±˛õyï˛
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(ix) xyà%l
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(xii) §%ly!Ù
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˲yÓ˚ï˛ ÓyÇ°yˆÏò¢ ÙyÎ˚ylÙyÓ˚ !ã˛l

ÓˆÏAày˛õ§yàÓ˚
xyÓ˚ Ó Ìy•z°ƒyu˛
§yàÓ˚ xrô ≤ÈÏò¢
§Ù%o ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ôÁLjϧÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ò,¢ƒ ÈüÈ ˆÙ!Ó˚ly ˜§Ü˛ï˛ ˛õ![˛ˆÏã˛Ó˚# xy®yÙyl
ˆÜ˛Ó˚y°y
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Ùy°m#˛õ
◊#°Aܲy §%ly!Ù myÓ˚y ôÁLjϧÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ò,¢ƒ ÈüüüÈ
§%Ùyey •zˆÏ®yˆÏl!¢Î˚y Ìy•z°ƒyu˛
~!¢Î˚yÓ˚ Ù,ï%˛ƒ •yÓ˚
åxyl%Ùy!lܲä Ó˚yï˛ 11 ê˛yÎ˚

§%ly!Ù myÓ˚y §Çà!ë˛ï˛ ôÁǧyӈϢˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ùyl%£Ï •Ñyê˛ˆÏSÈ ÈüüüÈ

ܲ°ˆÏ¡∫yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xM˛°ñ ◊#°Aܲy §%ly!Ù myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ôÁLjϧÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ò,¢ƒ ÈüüüÈ •zˆÏ®yˆÏl!¢Î˚y

Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ myÓ˚y §Çà!ë˛ï˛ âê˛lyÓ!°Ó˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ åFrequency
of Earthquake Occurrencesäı
Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ !Ó˛õÎ≈Ζ˚ Î!ò ÓˆÏí˛¸y ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ åí˛zFã˛
ï˛#Ó ï˛yÎ%=˛ä Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ •Î˚ñ ~ê˛y ç#Ól G §¡õ!_Ó˚ !Ó¢y° «˛!ï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~Ùl lÎ˚ ˆÎñ Ë)˛ˆÏày°ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Ó xÇ¢•z ÓˆÏí˛¸y Ë)˛Ü˛ˆÏ¡õÓ˚
§¡ø%á#l •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– xyÙÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ G
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l §¡∫ˆrÏ ô !Ó¢ò xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó– °«˛î#Î˚ ˆÎñ
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî «˛!ï˛@˝ÃhflÏ xyÙl ˆ§ï%˛ ÈüüüÈ °y•zl xÊ˛
ܲˆÏrê˛∆y° åLOCäñ í˛z!Ó˚
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!Ù!lê˛ fiÌyÎ˚# •Î˚–
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âlˆÏcÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ âlc
Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ü˛Ù– Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚
àí˛¸ âlc ˆÎáyˆÏl 5 !ܲ!Ù ˆ§áyˆÏl Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ âlc
30 !ܲ!Ù ~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ– ≤Ãôyl ≤Ãôyl ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ xM˛°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛
Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ âlc x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– ~!ê˛ !•Ùy°Î˚ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ
xM˛ˆÏ° 70 !ܲ!Ù ˛õ%Ó˚% •Î˚–
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Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲ ~ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !¢°y ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎÙlÈüÈ
Óƒy§yŒê˛– Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ àí˛¸ âlc •° 2.7
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Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆË˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xÇ¢!ê˛ •° à%Ó˚%Ù[˛°– à%Ó˚%Ù[˛° ˆÙyˆÏ•y
ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ ~ܲlyàyˆÏ í ˛¸ 2900 !ܲ!Ù à˲#Ó˚ ï ˛y ˛õÎ≈ h s˝ !Óhfl, Ï ï ˛–
à% Ó ˚ % Ù [˛ˆÏ ° Ó˚ í˛z ˛ õˆÏ Ó ˚ Ó ˚ xÇ¢ˆÏ Ü ˛ ÓˆÏ ° xƒy§ˆÏ Ì ˆÏ l y!fl≥˛Î˚ y Ó˚ –
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!¢°yÙ[˛° åË)˛ÈüÈcܲ G xï˛#ˆÏï˛ !là≈Ùl âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ˙ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ˆÏܲ ӈϰ §!Ü ˛Î˚

|ôÁ≈à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ܲ!ë˛l xÇ¢ä xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚– ܲ!ë˛l Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÎ hflÏÓ˚ xyˆÏSÈñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ӈϰ
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à%Ó%̊Ù[˛°
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°y˲y Ó°y •Î˚– °y˲y ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õˆÏÌ ˛õy•zˆÓÏ y˚ Üœ˛yfiê˛˛ çyï˛#Î˚ ˛Óç≈ƒ˛õòyÌ≈ñ
2900 !ܲ!Ù ï˛Ó°˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ ˆÓyÙy åvolcanic bombsäñ ˲fløñ ô)°yñ àƒy§Ù§)• ˆÎÙlÈüÈ
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ˆÎÔàñ §y°Ê˛yÓ˚ ˆÎÔàñ §yÙylƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚lñ
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!ܲ!Ù Ü˛!ë˛l
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ åVolcanoesäı
x@¿%ƒÍ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ à!ë˛ï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚
6378 !ܲ!Ù Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl
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x@¿%ƒÍ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ ÙƒyàÙy ≤Ãôylï˛ xƒy§ˆÏ̈Ïly!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ùôƒ !¢”˛ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚§Ù)• åShield Volcanoesäı
!òˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ñ Îy ÙƒyàÙyÓ˚ åMagmaä ≤Ãôyl í˛zͧ– °y˲y ˆâÓ˚y !¢”˛ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §Ó xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
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xƒy§ˆÏ̈Ïly!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ âlc x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ñ Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ ~ÓÇ à%ÓÙ%̊ [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ •yGÎ˚y•z m#˛õ˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚à%ˆÏ°y– ~•z xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚à%ˆÏ°y
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xÇ¢ˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ !¢°yÙ[˛° Óy xŸ¬Ù[˛° åLithos-
phereä– ~Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y 10-200 !ܲ!Ù ˛õÎ≈hs˝– !l¡¨ à%Ó˚%Ù[˛°
xƒy§ˆÏ̈Ïly!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !ÓhflïÏ, ˛– ~ê˛y ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ˆÜ˛wÙ[˛° åThe Coreäı
xyˆÏà í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ˛Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
ˆÜ˛wÙ[˛ˆÏ ° Ó˚ x!hflÏ c Ó% V ˛ˆÏ ï ˛ ˛§y•y΃ ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ – à% Ó ˚ % Ù [˛° G
ˆÜ˛wÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §#Ùyly 2900 !ܲ!Ù à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÎ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ó!•/
ˆÜ˛wÙ[˛° xyˆÏSÈ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl xhs˝/ˆÏܲwÙ[˛° xyˆÏSÈ
ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚– à%ÓÙ%˚ [˛° G ˆÜ˛wÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §#ÙylyÎ˚ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚
âlc 5 @˝ÃyÙ‡ˆ§!Ù ~ÓÇ 6300 !ܲ!Ù à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÎ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆÜ˛ˆÏw
3
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í˛z˛õyòyl !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ ˆÎÙl !lˆÏܲ° ~ÓÇ ˆ°y•y ÈüüüÈ ~ˆÏܲ !lˆÏÊ˛
å!lˆÏܲ° + ˆÊ˛Ó˚y§ä hflÏÓ˚ ӈϰ–
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åVOLCANOES AND
VOLCANIC LANDFORMS äı
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yܲ!ã˛e G SÈ!Ó ˆòˆÏáSÈ–
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ fiÌyl ˆÎáyl ˆÌˆÏܲ àƒy§§Ù)•ñ ˲fløñ à!°ï˛
˛õòyÌ≈ ÈüüüÈ °y˲yÓ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ !là≈Ùl âˆÏê˛– ˆÎ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ
í˛z˛õ!Ó˚í˛z=˛ ˛õòyÌ≈àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ !là≈Ùl ≤ÃyÎ˚•z âê˛ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ xÌÓy ˛§y¡±!ï˛Ü˛ !§u˛yÓ˚ ¢AÜ%˛
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î àë˛l 27

Ù)°ï˛ Óƒy§yŒê˛ Óy xï˛ƒhs˝ ï˛Ó˚° °y˲y myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ Îy ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ܲS%È ≤ÃÓy• 50 !Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚G ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ%Ó˚%
x@¿% Í ˛õyˆÏ ï ˛Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˆÓ!Ó˚ ˆ Ï Î ˚ xyˆÏ § – ~•z ܲyÓ˚ ˆ Ï î ~•z •ˆÏï˛˛ õyˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ,Ìܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ ˲yˆÏÓ ~ܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ °y˲y≤ÃÓy• ¢ï˛ ¢ï˛
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚à%ˆÏ°y áyí˛¸y •Î˚ ly– xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ @˝Ã#ÓyÎ˚ åventä ç° !ܲ!Ù !Óhfl,Ïï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– òy!«˛îyï˛ƒ Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù ï˛Ìy Ù•yÓ˚yT˛…
≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°•z ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ !ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚î âˆÏê˛ñ ly •ˆÏ° ~à%ˆÏ°y Ùy°Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà xÇ¢ Óƒy§yŒê˛ °y˲y≤ÃÓy• myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ü˛Ù !ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚ܲ •Î˚– |ôÁ≈Ùá% # °y˲y Îál ¢AÜ%˛ xM˛°– ~ê˛y ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˆÎñ ê˛∆ƒy˛õ xM˛°!ê˛ Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚
xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ @˝Ã#Óy !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆÊ˛yÎ˚yÓ˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˚ ~ˆÏ§ !§u˛yÓ˚ xï˛#ˆÏï˛ xˆÏlܲ ÓˆÏí˛¸y ~°yܲy ç%ˆÏí˛¸ !SÈ°–
¢AÜ%˛ åcinder coneä àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ÙôƒÈüȧyÙ%!oܲ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y!fiÌï˛ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ åMid-Ocean
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚§Ù)• åComposite Volcanoesäı Ridge Volcanoesäı
~•z xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •Ï° ~à%ˆ° Ï y x@¿%ƒÍ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ~•z xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚à%ˆÏ°y Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– §ÙhflÏ
§ÙÎ˚ !là≈ï˛ Óƒy§yŒê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ ë˛yu˛y G §yw °y˲y myÓ˚y Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° 70,000 !ܲ!ÙÈüÈÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ò)Óc˚ ç%ˆíÏ ˛¸ ~•z Ùôƒ
˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚– ~•z xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚àˆ% ° Ï yˆÏï˛ ≤ÃyÎ˚•z !ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚ܲ x@¿%Ͳõyï˛ §yÙ%!oܲ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ ÙôƒË˛yˆÏà xlÓÓ˚ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– °y˲yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˛õy•zˆÏÓ˚yÜœ˛yfiê˛ çyï˛#Î˚ x@¿%ƒÍ˛õyï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– xyÙÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ~ !lˆÏÎ˚
˛õòyÌ≈ ~ÓÇ Ë˛flø Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§– ~•z í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓÏ̊Ó–
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ @˝Ã#ÓyÓ˚ åventä ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ §!M˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó%˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
x@¿%ƒÍ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° à!ë˛ï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ§Ù)• åVOLCANIC
~ÓÇ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ ˛õÓ≈ï˛ Óy !Ó!Ù◊ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚
LANDFORMSä
åcomposite volcanoesä ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚–
í˛zò‰ˆÏÓô# Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åIntrusive Formsä
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ x@¿%ͲõyˆÏï˛ !là≈ï˛ °y˲y ¢#ï˛° •ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚
!¢°yÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– °y˲y ¢#ï˛° •Î˚ ò%ÈüÈçyÎ˚àyÎ˚ ÈüüüÈ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛
ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ xÌÓy Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆË˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚ °y˲y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏl
¢#ï˛° •ˆÏFSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !¢°yÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà
•Î˚ ÈüÈ ˆÎÙl !l/§yÓ˚# !¢°y åË)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ~ˆÏ§ ë˛yu˛y •Î˚ä ~ÓÇ
˛õyï˛y!°Ü˛ !¢°y åË)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ë˛yu˛y •Î˚ä– Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ#Î˚ xLjϢ
°y˲y ë˛yu˛y •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎ !¢°y ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ ï˛y !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ •Î˚–
~à%!°ˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ í˛zò‰ˆÏÓô# !¢°y– ~ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !ܲS%È Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ 3.5
!Ó!Ù◊ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ !ã˛ˆÏe ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
ܲƒy°ˆÏí˛Ó˚y åCalderaäı °y˲y ò,¢ƒÙyl í˛y•zܲ§•
~ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ •° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ !ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚ܲ Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ @˝Ã#Óy ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢ !§u˛yÓ˚
˲flø ¢AÜ%˛§• ¢AÜ%˛Î%=˛
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ~ï˛ê˛y•z !ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚ܲ •Î˚ ˆÎñ °y˲y !§u˛yÓ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ à¡∫%ç
ˆÙ§y ¢AÜ%˛ ܲƒy°ˆÏí˛Ó˚y
x@¿%ͲõyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ ò#â≈ܲyÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈܲyë˛yˆÏÙy ly ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y !Ó!Ù◊
ÌyˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓ° !ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚ˆÏî G•zà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚•z åxyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ä ¢#£Ï≈ˆÏò¢ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ ˲flø ≤ÃÓy•
ˆË˛ˆÏ. ˛õí˛¸yÓ˚– ˛õï˛lç!lï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆÏî !l!Ù≈ï˛ xÓl!Ùï˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˲yàˆÏܲ «˛Î˚≤ÃyÆ
ӈϰ ܲƒy°ˆÏí˛Ó˚y– xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ ≤ °ƒyˆÏܲy!°Ì
Ãîy°# fiÌyl#Î
!§° ˚ !¢°y
Óƒy§yŒê˛ xô%ƒ!£Ïï˛ xM˛°§Ù)• åFlood Basalt
°ƒyˆÏܲy!°Ì ~ܲ!ê˛
Provincesäı í˛y•zܲ
í˛zÕ‘¡∫
~•z xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆË˛ï˛Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xï˛ƒhs˝ ï˛Ó˚° °y˲y l°˛õÌ ˆÎ!ê˛
ÓƒyˆÏÌy!° àƒy§Î%=˛ ÙƒyàÙy
ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xˆÏlܲ ò)Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ •yçyÓ˚ !ܲ!Ù Ì
à•¥Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚
ç%ˆÏí˛¸ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !ܲS%È !ܲS%È xÇ¢ ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù ˛õ%Ó˚% Óƒy§yŒê˛ °y˲y≤ÃÓy• !¢°yhflψÏÓ˚ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚
ï˛Ìy °y˲y myÓ˚y xyFSÈy!òï˛– ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ °y˲y≤ÃÓy• !ã˛e 3.5 : xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ
28 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

ÓƒyˆÏÌy!°Ì åBatholithsäı xÓ!fiÌï˛ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ à¡∫%çà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl%Ó˚)˛õñ ~à%ˆÏ°y à˲#Ó˚ï˛Ó˚

ÙƒyàÙyçyï˛ ~ܲ !Ó¢y° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî í˛z˛õyòyl Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ xˆÏlܲ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÎ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~!ê˛ °y˲yÓ˚ í˛zͧ fiÌyl ålocalised
à˲#ˆÏÓ˚ ë˛yu˛y •ˆÏÎ˚ Ó,•òyÜ,˛!ï˛ !ì˛!Ó ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ l@¿#˲Ól ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ sourceä !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓ!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ °y˲y
í˛z˛õ!Ó˚fiÌ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ°Ï y §ˆÏÓ˚ ˆàˆÏ°•z ~à%ˆ° Ï y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~à%ˆ° Ï y ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÌ á%шÏç ˛õyÎ˚– ܲî≈yê˛Ü˛ Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù @˝Ãyly•zê˛
xˆÏlܲê˛y ~°yܲy ç%ˆÏí˛¸ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ•z §ˆÏAà ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ ˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ à¡∫%çyÜ,˛!ï˛ ˛õy•yí˛¸ Î%=˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ fiÌyl–
!ܲˆÏ°y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÎ%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ÓƒyˆÏÌy!°Ì •° ÙƒyàÙy ~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà ~ál ¢ÕÒˆÏÙyã˛l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ «˛Î˚≤ÃyÆ
à•¥Ó˚ åmagma chamberä ~Ó˚ ¢#ï˛° xÇ¢– °ƒyˆÏܲy!°Ì G ÓƒyˆÏÌy!°ˆÏÌÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
°ƒyˆÏܲy!°Ì åLacolithsäı °ƒyˆÏ˛õy!°Ìñ Ê˛ƒyˆÏܲy!°Ì ~ÓÇ !§° åLapolith,
~à%ˆÏ°y •° Ó,•òyÎ˚ï˛l à¡∫%çyÜ,˛!ï˛ í˛zò‰ˆÏÓô# xÓÎ˚Ó ÎyÓ˚ Phacolith and Sillsäı
hflÓÏ y˚ Î˚l ï˛° åbase levelä xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ l#ã˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ lˆÏ°Ó˚ °y˲y Îál |ôÁ≈Ù%á# •Î˚ñ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
ÙˆÏï˛y˛ ≤Ãîy°# myÓ˚y §ÇÎ%=˛– ~!ê˛ !Ó!Ù◊ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢ xÇ¢ xl%˲) !Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ §ˆÏÓ˚ !àˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ lÓ˚Ù §Ùï˛° xÇ¢ á%ˆÑ ç
Ï
ܲyç ı Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏܲw ¢ly=˛Ü˛Ó˚î
~Ó˚ çlƒ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ
!ï˛l!ê˛ !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyÊ˛ ˆfiê˛¢l ˆÌˆÏܲ P-ï˛Ó˚Aà G S-ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ xyàÙˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛Ìƒ §Ç@˝Ã• ܲÓ˚y–
ܲyÎ≈≤Ãîy°# åProcedureäı
1. !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆfiê˛¢ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çà,•#ï˛ ï˛Ìƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤Ãò_ Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õ P-ï˛Ó˚Aà G S-ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ xyàÙˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ á%шÏç ˆÓÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2. ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆfiê˛¢ˆÏlÓ˚ P ~ÓÇ S-ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ xyàÙˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓƒÓôyl !•§yÓ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚y– ~ˆÏܲ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓƒÓôyl ï˛Ìy time lag ӈϰ–
å°«˛î#Î˚ ˆÎñ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓƒÓôyl Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛ˆÏwÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyÊ˛ ˆfiê˛¢ˆÏlÓ˚ ò)Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–ä
A. ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ !lÎ˚Ù ı §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓƒÓôyˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ ~ܲ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛ñ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙyê˛yÙ%!ê˛ 8 ≤ÃyÎ˚ !ܲ!Ù ò)ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
3. í˛z˛õ!Ó˚í˛z=˛ !lÎ˚Ù ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆfiê˛¢ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓƒÓôylˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– å # ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓƒÓôyl
* 8ä–
4. ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏe !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyÊ˛ ˆfiê˛¢là%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
5. !§§‰ˆÏÙy@˝ÃyÊ˛ ˆfiê˛¢là%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó,_à%ˆÏ°y xAܲl ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# ôyˆÏ˛õ ï%˛!Ù !•§yÓ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ò)Ó˚c å !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆfiê˛¢ˆÏlÓ˚
çlƒ !ï˛l!ê˛ ò)Ó˚cä ˆÓÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚SÈ ï˛y •ˆÏÓ Ó,_à%!°Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ åÙyl!ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ˆflÒ° xl%ÎyÎ˚# ò)Ó˚cˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛Èl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ Ë%˛°ˆÏÓ lyä–
6. ~•z Ó,_à%ˆÏ°y ˆÎ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚ܲ ˆSÈò ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˙ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛•z í˛z˛õˆÏܲˆÏwÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl–
§yôyÓ˚î xl%¢#°ˆÏl í˛z˛õˆÏܲˆÏwÓ˚ ¢ly=˛Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏî ܲ!¡õí˛zê˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛° ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ
~à%ˆ°Ï yˆÏܲ ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆlGÎ˚y •Î˚– ¢ly=˛Ü˛Ó˚î ˛§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lÓ˚˛) õî ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˆàˆÏ° ¢ï˛ ¢ï˛ !ܲˆÏ°y!Ùê˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z ܲyÎ≈≤Ãîy°#ˆÏï˛
˛õ!Ó˚ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyÓ˚ Ó˚)˛õˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ §Ó˚°#Ü,˛ï˛ §ÇflÒÓ˚î ˆlGÎ˚y •Î˚ñ §Óà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe l#!ï˛ ~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
§yôyÓ˚î xl%¢#°ˆÏl í˛z˛õˆÏܲˆÏwÓ˚ ¢ly=˛Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏî ܲ!¡õí˛zê˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛° ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ
~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆlGÎ˚y •Î˚– ¢ly=˛Ü˛Ó˚î §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lÓ˚)˛õî ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° ¢ï˛ ¢ï˛ !ܲˆÏ°y!Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ï˛Ìƒ
ˆfiê˛¢l xyàÙˆÏ l Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚
åË)˛Èܲ¡õ P-ï˛Ó˚Aà S-ï˛Ó˚Aà í˛z˛õˆÏܲw
§Çà!ë˛ï˛ fiÌylä â^˝ê˛y !Ù!lê˛ ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛˛ â^˝ê˛y !Ù!lê˛ ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛˛
S1 03 23 20 03 24 45
S2 03 22 17 03 23 57
S3 03 22 00 03 23 55
Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ˆflÒ° 1 ˆ§!Ù = 40 !ܲ!Ù
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î àë˛l 29

˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆ§áyˆÏl çÙyê˛ ˆÓшÏô ˛õ,Ìܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ Ó˚)˛õ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ !˛õ!Ó˚ã˛ ï˛Ìy Ìy°y xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ñ xyܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y˛
xÓï˛° •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ °ƒyˆÏ˛õy!°Ì ӈϰ– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
§ÙˆÏÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aày!Î˚ï˛ í˛zòˆ‰ ÓÏ ô# !¢°yñ ËÑ˛yçÎ%=˛ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!¢°y xM˛ˆÏ°
xˆÏôy˲Aà ï˛ˆÏ° ~ÓÇ |ôÁ≈˲ˆÏAàÓ˚ ã)˛í˛¸yÎ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z
ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aày!Î˚ï˛ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y ÙƒyàÙy à•¥Ó˚ å˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ°
ÓƒyˆÏÌy!°ˆÏÌ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚ä àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ !l¡¨fiÌ í˛z͈ϧÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
§ÇÎ%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Ê˛ƒyˆÏܲy!°Ì ӈϰ–
≤ÃyÎ˚ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ xÌÓy §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y° ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y í˛zò‰ˆÏÓô#
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!¢°yÓ˚ xÓÎ˚ÓˆÏܲ ӈϰ !§° xÌÓy !¢ê˛– í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚
˛õ%Ó˚%ˆÏcÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !§° G !¢ê˛ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ lyÙܲÓ˚î •Î˚–
˛õyï˛°y!ê˛ˆÏܲ ӈϰ !¢ê˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õ%Ó%̊ í˛zò‰ˆÏÓô# xÓÎ˚ÓˆÏܲ ӈϰ !§°–
í˛y•zܲ§‰ åDykesäı
Îál °y˲y Ê˛yê˛° G !Ê˛§yÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§ ~ÓÇ
≤ÃyÎ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ §ˆÏAà í˛zÕ‘¡∫˲yˆÏÓ çÙyê˛ ˆÓшÏô ¢=˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ•z
xÓfiÌyˆÏl ~ê˛y ¢#ï˛° •ˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ
~ ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyˆÏܲ ӈϰ í˛y•zܲ§‰– ~à%ˆ°
Ï y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ í˛zòˆ‰ ÓÏ ô#
Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù Ù•yÓ˚yT˛…#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– !ÓòyÓ˚ x@¿%ͲõyˆÏï˛Ó˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî í˛zò‰àï˛ °y˲y !ÓòyÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓ!ã˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ Îy ly!ܲ
òy!«˛îyï˛ƒ Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ°–

xl%¢#°l#
1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚ !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ıÈ
(i) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ï˛Ó˚Aàà%!°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ˆÓ!¢ ôÁǧydܲ⁄
(a) P-ï˛Ó˚Aà (c) ˛õ,¤˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà
(b) S-ï˛Ó˚Aà (d) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly!ê˛•z lÎ˚–
(ii) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛ í˛zͧ⁄
(a) Ë)˛Èܲ¡õ ï˛Ó˚Aà (c) Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ Ó°
(b) xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ (d) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ¢!=˛
(iii) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ˆí˛Ü˛yl ê˛∆ƒy˛õ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î ı
(a) !¢”˛ (c) !Ó!Ù◊
(b) !Ê˛§yÓ˚ (d) ܲƒy°ˆÏí˛Ó˚y
(iv) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ !¢°yÙ[˛°ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚⁄
(a) |ôÁ≈ G !l¡¨ à%Ó˚%Ù[˛° (c) Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛wÙ[˛°
(b) Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ ~ÓÇ |ôÁ≈Ù[˛° (d) à%Ó˚%Ù[˛° ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛wÙ[˛°
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°y 30 !ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) ˆò• ï˛Ó˚Aà ܲ#⁄
(ii) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛ í˛zͧà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ lyÙ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
(iii) Ë)˛È ܲ¡õ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˆÜ˛l SÈyÎ˚yÓ°Î˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
(iv) Ë)˛Èܲ¡õ#Î˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ Óƒï˛#ï˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚y«˛ í˛zͧà%ˆÏ°y §¡∫ˆÏrô !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy
ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°y 150 !ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) !¢°yhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈܲ¡õ !ÓhflÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓà%ˆÏ°y ˆ°ˆÏáy–
(ii) í˛zò‰ˆÏÓô# Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛#˛ ˆÓyV⁄ !Ó!˲ߨ í˛zò‰ˆÏÓô# Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
x ôƒy Î˚
Ù•y§yàÓ˚ G Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l
˛õ) ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ ˲yà åinterior of
the earthä §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆçˆÏlS– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y •zˆÏï˛yÙˆÏôƒ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
Ùyl!ã˛e §¡õˆÏܲ≈ G xÓàï˛ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ~ê˛yG çyl ˆÎñ Ë)˛˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚
¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y 29 ˲yà Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)• G Óy!ܲ xÇ¢ ç°Ó˚y!¢ myÓ˚y xyÓ,ï˛–
xï˛#ˆÏï˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢ G Ù•y§yàÓ˚àˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl ˆÎÙl xyˆÏSÈ
ˆï˛Ùl !SÈ° lyñ !ë˛Ü˛ ˆï˛Ù!l Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl Ù•yˆÏò¢ G Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
xÓfiÌyl ˆÎ ˲!ӣσˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ~ê˛yG §Ó≈çl fl∫#Ü,˛ï˛– Î!ò
ï˛y•z •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ≤ß¿ xyˆÏ§ xï˛#ˆÏï˛ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ˆÜ˛Ùl !SÈ°⁄
ˆÜ˛l ~ÓÇ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚y ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲÓÏ̊°⁄ ~Ùl!ܲ
Î!ò ~ê˛y §!ï˛ƒ •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ñ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï%˛!Ù xyŸã˛Î≈ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚y ˆÎñ
!ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y•z Óy ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ï˛y çylÏ°– ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y xï˛#ˆÏï˛
Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚Ï°⁄ ~•z §Ü˛° ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ G
≤Ãy§!Aàܲ lyly ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ~•z xôƒyÎ˚ ˛õyˆÏë˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
á%шÏç ˛õyˆÏÓ–
Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §M˛Ó˚î Óy Ù•#§M˛Ó˚î åCONTINENTAL
DRIFTäı
xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ G ï˛yÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ §Ù%o ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓ˚áy ˲yˆÏ°y
ܲˆÏÓ˚ °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆ°Ï ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓá˚ yÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛àï˛ §yò,¢ƒ ˆòˆÏá ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
xÓyܲ •ˆÏÓ– ~ˆÏï˛ xyŸã˛Î≈ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ !ܲS%È ˆl•zñ !ÓK˛yl#àî ~•z §yò,¢ƒ
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ã˛hs˝y˲yÓly ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl ~ÓÇ í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy G ò!«˛î
xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyñ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛õ G xy!Ê ˛Ü˛y Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)• ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ §ÙˆÏÎ˚
~ܲ!eï˛ ÌyܲyÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛G Ùï˛yÙï˛ Óƒ=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl– xï˛#ï˛
•z!ï˛•y§ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ 1596 §yˆÏ° xyÓ y•yÙ
xˆÏê˛≈!°Î˚y§ åAbraham Orteliusä lyˆÏÙ ~ܲçl í˛yã˛ åDutchä
Ùyl!ã˛e !lÙ≈yîܲyÓ˚# §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù xl%Ùyl ܲˆÏÓ˚l– xƒylˆÏê˛y!lG
ˆ˛õˆÏÕ‘!@˝Ã!l åAntonio Pellegriniä ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùyl!ã˛e xAܲl ܲˆÏÓ˚
!ï˛l!ê˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢ˆÏܲ ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ ˆò!áˆÏÎ!˚ SȈ° Ï l– ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ 1912 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑
çyÙ≈yl Ë)˛˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓK˛yl# ï˛Ìy xyÓ•!Óò xy°ˆÏÊ˛  í˛ GˆÏÎà˚ lyÓ˚ åAlfred
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS
AND CONTINENTS
Wegenerä ˆÎ ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓl
˚ ñ ˆ§!ê˛•z §ÇˆÏ¢y!ôï˛ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ÚÚÙ•#§M˛Ó˚î Ùï˛ÓyòÛÛ åcontinental drift theoryä
lyˆÏÙ §Ó≈e ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛!ï˛ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ !SÈ° Ù•y§yàÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ï˛_¥–
GˆÏÎà˚ lyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓñ˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆ°
Ï y ~ܲ §ˆÏAà §ÇÎ%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ !ÓÓ˚yê˛ fiÌ°Ë˛yà Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ï˛– xyÓ˚ ~•z ~ܲܲ
Ù•yˆÏò¢ˆÏܲ ˆÓT˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ !SÈ° ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó¢y°yܲyÓ˚ Ù•y§Ù%o– !ï˛!l
~•z Ó,•Í Ù•yˆÏò¢!ê˛Ó˚ lyÙ !òˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl Ú˛õƒyl!çÎ˚y åPangaeaäÛ
ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ •° Ú§ÙhflÏ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Û– xyÓ˚ !Ó¢y°yܲyÓ˚ Ù•y§Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ lyÙ
ˆòl Ú˛õƒylÌy°y§y åPanthalasaäÛ ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ •° Ú§ÙhflÏ ç°Û åall
waterä– !ï˛!l ~ê˛yG ӈϰlñ xyl%Ùy!lܲ 20 ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ å200 !Ù!°Î˚lä
ÓSÈÓ˚ xyˆÏà Ó,•Í Ù•yˆÏò¢!ê˛Ó˚ ˲y.l ¢%Ó%˚ •Î˚– ˛õƒyl!çÎ˚y åPangaeaä
≤Ã̈ÏÙ ò%!ê˛ xLjϢ !Ó˲=˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ •° °ˆÏÓ˚!§Î˚y åLaurasiaä
~ÓÇ xlƒ!ê˛ •° àˆÏu˛yÎ˚yly°ƒyu˛˛ åGondwanalandä– °ˆÏÓ˚!§Î˚y
G àˆÏ[˛yÎ˚yl°ƒyu˛˛ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˆË˛ˆÏ. xyÓ˚G ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y xLjϢ
!Ó˲=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ x!hflÏc xyÙÓ˚y Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl
ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z– ~•z Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÙÌ≈ˆÏl lylyl ≤ÃÙyî
Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !ܲS%È ≤ÃÙyî !lˆÏ¡¨ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •°–
Ù•#§M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ fl∫˛õˆÏ«˛ ≤ÃÙyî åEvidence in Support of the
Continental Driftäı
Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚àï˛ !Ù° å!çàÈüȧÈüÈ!Ê˛ê˛ä åThe
Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit)äı
xy!Ê ˛Ü˛y ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ °«˛î#Î˚
!Ù° Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ò%˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
Î!ò ~ܲ!eï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ï˛yÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ !وϢ
~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó¢y° Ë)˛Ë˛yà ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– 1964 §yˆÏ° !ÓK˛yl# Ó%°yí≈˛
åBullardä ܲ!¡õí˛zê˛yÓ˚ ˆ≤Ãy@˝ÃyÙ åcomputer programmeä ~Ó˚
§y•yˆÏ΃ ~Ùl•z ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùyl!ã˛e ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓl˚ – ~!ê˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓá˚ yÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ 1000 Ê˛ƒòÙ åfathomä ˆÓ˚áy myÓ˚y xAܲl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚ G Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l
Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ò%ÈüÈ˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ §Ù§yÙ!Î˚ܲ !¢°y§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl
åRocks of Same Age Across the Oceansäı
xyô%!lܲ Î%ˆàÏ ˆÓ˚!í˛GˆÏÙ!ê˛∆ܲ ˆí˛!ê˛Ç ˛õÂô!ï˛ åradiometric dating
methodä ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˲Î˚ ï˛#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !¢°yhflÏÓ˚ñ hflÏÓ˚Ü ˛Ùñ !¢°yhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ËÑ˛yˆÏçÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yò,¢ƒ
Óï≈˛Ùyl– Ó y!ç° G ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ í˛z˲Î˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°Ë˛yˆÏà 200
ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ å2000 !Ù!°Î˚lä ÓSÈÓ˚ xyˆÏàÓ˚ ≤Ãyã˛#l !¢°yhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ x!hflÏc
á%шÏç ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~SÈyí˛¸y ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy ~ÓÇ xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ §Ù%o
ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ ç%Ó˚y!§Ü˛ Î%ˆÏàÓ˚ åJurassic ageä Ó•% ˛õ%Ó˚yï˛l §yÙ%!oܲ
xӈϫ˛˛õ ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ê˛y•z ≤ÃÙy!îï˛ •Î˚
ˆÎñ xï˛#ˆÏï˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly x!hflÏc !SÈ° ly–
!ê˛°y•zê˛ åTilliteäı
!ê˛°y•zê˛ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y– !•ÙÓy• §M˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~!ê˛
˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚– àˆÏu˛yÎ˚yly Î%ˆÏàÓ˚ ˛õ°° åsedimentä Óy ˛õ!° ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛
~ÓÇ ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ SÈÎ˚!ê˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ Ë)˛Ë˛yˆÏà ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z !¢°yÓ˚
§Ó≈!l¡¨ hflψÏÓ˚ !ê˛°y•zê˛ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˛õ%Ó˚% hflÏÓ˚ Îy !ܲ ly Óƒy˛õܲ G ò#â≈y!Î˚ï˛
!•ÙÓy• Î%ˆÏàÓ˚ •z!Aàï˛ Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù !•ÙÓy• à!ë˛ï˛
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §yò,¢ƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yñ Ê˛Ü‰˛°ƒyu˛˛ m#˛õñ Ùyòyày§‰Ü˛yÓ˚ñ
xƒyrê˛yÜ≈˛!ê˛Ü˛y ~ÓÇ xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚yÎ˚– §Ù@˝Ã Ë)˛á[˛à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏï˛ ~ܲ•z ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚
àˆÏu˛yÎ˚yly Î%ˆÏàÓ˚ ˛õ°° §M˛Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
xï˛#ˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ •z!ï˛•yˆÏ§Ó˚ §y«˛ƒ Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚– xï˛#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ°Ó˚
ç°ÓyÎ%̊ˆïÏ ˛ åpalaeoclimatesä ~•z ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ !•ÙÓy• !ê˛°y•zê˛ à!ë˛ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° Îy Ù•#§M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õÎ%=˛ ≤ÃÙyî !•§yˆÏÓ àîƒ •Î˚–
ˆ≤’§yÓ˚ §M˛Î˚ åPlacer Depositsäı
xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ âyly í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ° åGhana coastä ˆ≤’§yÓ˚ §M˛Î˚ åplacer
depositsä ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ˆ≤’§yÓ˚ §M˛ˆÏÎ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ fl∫î≈ Óï≈˛Ùyl– ï˛ˆÏÓ
~ê˛y xï˛ƒhs˝ xyŸã˛ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ ˆÎñ âyly í˛z˛õÜ)˛° fl∫î≈ §M˛ˆÏÎ˚ §Ù,Âô
•ˆÏ°G ~•z xM˛ˆÏ° í˛zͧ !¢°y §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ xl%˛õ!fiÌï˛– !ܲv ~•z
fl∫î≈ §Ù,Âô á!lÓ˚ x!hflÏc á%шÏç ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Ó y!çˆÏ°– xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ xï˛#ˆÏï˛ âyly ~ÓÇ Ó y!ç° Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù ~ܲ•z §ˆÏAà xÓfiÌyl
ܲÓ˚ï˛ ~ÓÇ Ù•#§M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° âyly Ó y!ç° Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ
•ˆÏÎ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– âylyÓ˚ fl∫î≈ §M˛Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚•z
§y«˛ƒ Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ç#ÓyˆÏŸ¬Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l åDistribution of Fossilsäı
Îál §yÙ%!oܲ ≤Ã!ï˛Órôܲï˛yÓ˚ ò%•z !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ˛õyˆÏŸª≈Ó˚ fl∫FSÈ ç°Ë˛yà Óy
fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏà Ó§Óy§Ü˛yÓ˚# xl%Ó˚)˛õ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî# ˆ§•z
˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ˆÏ¢ ç#ÓlôyÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ çlƒ x!˲ˆÏÎyçl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
Ó^˝ê˛l §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÎ˚ §Ù§ƒy §,!T˛ •Î˚– í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî# §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝
àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÎ˚ ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ ˆ°Ù%Ó˚ åLemurä ~ܲ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ÓylÓ˚ çyï˛#Î˚
≤Ãyî# Îy ˲yÓ˚ï˛ñ Ùyòyày§‰Ü˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ôyÓ˚îy
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˆÎñ ~•z !ï˛l!ê˛ Ë)˛Ë˛yà xï˛#ˆÏï˛ ˆ°Ù%!Ó˚Î˚y åLemuriaä
31
lyˆÏÙ ~ܲˆÏe !SÈ°– xyÓyÓ˚ ˆÙˆÏ§y!§í˛zÓ˚y§ åMesosaurusä lyÙܲ
~ܲ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ «%˛o §Ó˚#§,˛õ çyï˛#Î˚ ç°ç ≤Ãyî# Îy xà˲#Ó˚ °Óîy=˛
çˆÏ° x!˲ˆÏÎy!çï˛ •Î˚ ˆ§•z ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ ç#ÓyŸ¬ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y fiÌyˆÏl•z
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ •° ò!«˛î xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛˛õ ≤ÈÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ò!«˛îyÇ¢
~ÓÇ xlƒ!ê˛ •Ï° Ó y!çˆÏ°Ó˚ •zÓ˚y˲yÓ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ xM˛°– Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl ~•z
ò%ˆÏê˛y fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚c 4800 !ܲ!Ù ~ÓÇ ò%ˆÏê˛y fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
§%!Ó¢y° Ù•y§yàÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Ù•#§M˛Ó˚î ç!lï˛ Ó° åForce for Driftingäı
Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î !•§yˆÏÓ GˆÏÎ˚àlyÓ˚ åWegenerä
ò%ÈüÈÓ˚Ü˛Ù ÓˆÏ°Ó˚ åforceä ܲÌy ӈϰˆÏSÈl– ~ܲ!ê˛ •Ï° ˜Ó£ÏÙƒÙ)°Ü˛
x!˲ܲ£Ïç ≈ Ó° åpolar-fleeing forceä ~ÓÇ xlƒ!ê˛ •° ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚
Ó° åtidal forceä– ˜Ó£ÏÙƒÙ)°Ü˛ x!˲ܲ£Ïç ≈ Ó° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚
§ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y çyl ˛õ,!ÌÓ# §¡õ)î≈ ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ lÎ˚–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛° fl≥˛#ï˛ ~ÓÇ ò%•z ˆÙÓ˚% ã˛y˛õy– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •°
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÓï≈˛l à!ï˛– Ù•#§M˛Ó˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ !mï˛#Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î !•§yˆÏÓ GˆÏÎà˚ lyÓ˚
ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚ ӈϰÓ˚ ܲÌy ӈϰˆÏSÈl– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈
xyÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ãÑ˛yò G §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ xyܲ£Ï≈ˆÏî ç°Ë˛yˆÏà ˆÎ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ •Î˚
ˆ§•z ~ܲ•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yG §M˛y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– GˆÏÎ˚àlyÓ˚
åWegenerä !ÓŸªy§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛l ˆÎñ Ó•% ÓSÈÓ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ ~•z Ó°à%ˆÏ°y
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚ !SÈ°– Î!òG ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà !ӈϢ£ÏK˛Ó˚y•z ~•z Ó°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
åforcesä ܲyÎ≈ܲy!Ó˚ï˛y xfl∫#ܲyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l–
§M˛Ó˚î ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xôƒÎ˚l åPost-drift Studiesäı
Ù•#§M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ °«˛î#Î˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ •°ñ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà ≤ÃÙyî
~ÓÇ ôyÓ˚îy ˆÊœ˛yÓ˚y åfloraä ~ÓÇ Ê˛lyÓ˚ åfaunaä Ó^˝ê˛l Óy !Ó!˲ߨ
ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˛õ°° Óy !•ÙÓy• xӈϫ˛˛õ ådepositsäñ ˆÎÙl !ê˛°y•zê˛ÈüÈ~Ó˚
§M˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ àˆÏí˛¸ í˛zˆÏë˛ˆÏSÈ– !mï˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏÂôÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
§ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎ §Ü˛° lï%˛l ï˛Ìƒ xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y lyly ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ï˛ˆÏ_¥ lï%˛l ï˛Ìƒ §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ §Ù%o ï˛°ˆÏò¢
§ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ lyly ï˛Ìƒ Ù•#§M˛Ó˚î !Ó£ÏÎ˚ܲ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe lï%˛l Ùyey
~ˆÏl ˆòÎ˚–
˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyï˛ Ùï˛Óyò åConvectional Current Theoryäı
1930 ~Ó˚ ò¢ˆÏܲ xyÌ≈yÓ˚ ˆ•yÙ§‰ åArthur Holmesä à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
åmantleä ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ åconvection currentsä ≤Ã˲yÓ
x!ôܲ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓlyÓ˚ ܲÌy Óƒ=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl– ~•z ˆflÀyï˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛
ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ åradioactive elementsä çlƒ•z §,!T˛ •Î˚–
à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xLjϢ ~•z ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ åthermalä ≤Ã˲yÓ
!˲ߨ !˲ߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆ•yوϧ‰Ó˚ åHolmesä ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛ñ à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y !ÓòƒÙyl– ˆ•yÙ§‰ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚
myÓ˚y Ù•#§M˛Ó˚î ï˛_¥ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°Ï l– !ܲv ï˛Íܲy°#l
˜ÓK˛y!lܲÓ˚y ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ~•z !§Âôyhs˝à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xfl∫#ܲyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l–
 32 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ùyl!ã˛e#ܲÓ˚î åMapping of the ~à%ˆÏ°y •° Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ §#Ùy åcontinental marginsäñ à˲#Ó˚
Ocean Flooräı §Ù%ˆoÏ Ó˚ §ÙË)˛!Ù ådeep-sea basinsä ~ÓÇ Ùôƒ §yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y
Ù•y§yàÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §,!T˛ ~ÓÇ xyܲyÓ˚ §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ xl%§rôyˆÏlÓ˚ åmid-ocean ridgesä–
˛õÓ˚ ~ê˛y flõT˛ ˆÎñ §Ù%o ï˛°ˆÏò¢ ¢%ô% !Óhfl,Ïï˛ §Ùï˛°•z lÎ˚ñ !Ó!˲ߨ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ≤Ãyhs˝ˆÏò¢ åContinental Marginsäı
ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õG åreliefä ~áyˆÏl ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– !mï˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏÂôÓ˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ≤Ãyhs˝ˆÏò¢ •° §Ù%o í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ° Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤Ãyhs˝Ë˛yà
˛õˆÏÓ˚ åPost World War IIä Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢ !lÓ˚#«˛î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ à˲#Ó˚ §Ù%oáyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# xM˛°– ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ
çlƒ !ӈϢ£Ï x!˲Îyl ã˛y!°ˆÏÎ˚ §Ù%o ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ Ù•#ˆÏ§y˛õylñ Ù•#ì˛y°ñ Ù•#í˛zayl ~ÓÇ à˲#Ó˚ §Ù%oáyï˛– Ù•yˆÏò¢
~ܲ!ê˛ !ÓhflÏy!Ó˚ï˛ Ùyl!ã˛e ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏe flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ Ù•y§yàÓ˚§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° à˲#Ó˚ §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚
°«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ §Ù%o ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢ ˆÎÙl §yÙ%!oܲ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y ï˛°ˆÏò¢ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ K˛yl Ìyܲy á%Ó•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈–
åoceanic mountain rangeä Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ à˲#Ó˚ xƒy!Ó§ƒy°‰ §ÙË)˛!Ù Óy à˲#Ó˚ §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ §ÙË)˛!Ù åAbyssal
Ù•#áyï˛G ådeep trencheä Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°y Plainäı
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ §#ÙylyÎ˚ åcontinent marginä Óy Ù•#ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ≤Ãyhs˝ˆÏò¢ åmarginä ~ÓÇ Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚
§!ߨ!•ï˛ fiÌyˆÏl ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ åmid-oceanic ridgeä ÙôƒÓï≈˛# xM˛° •Ï° à˲#Ó˚ §Ù%ˆoÏ Ó˚ §ÙË)˛!Ù
˜¢°!¢Ó˚y åmid-oceanic ridgeä ˆÓ!¢ §!Ü ˛Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ Óy xƒy!Ó§ƒy° §ÙË)˛!Ù åabyssal plainä– Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ˛õ!°
í˛zòà‰ #Ó˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ åvolcanic eruptionsä Ê˛ˆÏ°•z §,!T˛ •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°– !¢°yhflÓÏ ˚ åcontinental sedimentä «˛Î˚≤ÃyÆ •ˆÏÎ˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ≤Ãyhs˝Ë˛yà
§,!T˛Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ܲy° ådatingä !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~•z ï˛Ìƒ í˛zˆÏë˛ xyˆÏ§ ˆÎñ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~•z xM˛ˆÏ° §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚–
§yÙ%!oܲ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !¢°y Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ !¢°y xˆÏ˛õ«˛y xˆÏlܲ lÓ#l– Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y åMid-Oceanic Ridgeäı
xy!Ê ˛Ü˛y G ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Ù•#ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y •° ç°Ù@¿ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ¢,ˆÏAàÓ˚ åRidgeä
!¢°y G ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ §ÙÎ˚ܲyˆÏ°G ~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù !Ù° á%ˆÑ ç Ï ˛õyGÎ˚y §Ù!T˛ñ ÎyÓ˚y ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ Î%=˛– Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢ˆÏï
ÎyÎ˚– í%˛ˆÏÓ Ìyܲy ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ §Ω˛Óï˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ò#â≈ï˛Ù ˛õÓ≈ï˛¢,C° •°
0 20 40 60 80 100% Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y– ~•z ˜Ï¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ ÙôƒË˛yà í˛zÑã%˛
Ê˛yê˛°!Ó!¢T˛ årift systemäñ ÓƒÓ!FSÈߨ Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù åfractionated
í˛zFã˛ï˛Ù ˛õÓ≈ï˛ í˛z
plateauä ~ÓÇ ˛õyŸª≈ xM˛° åflank zoneä myÓ˚y ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ˛õ)î≈– ~•z
5 Fã˛
ï˛y ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛ Ê˛yê˛°!Ó!¢T˛ xLjϢ x@¿%ƒò‰!àÓ˚î x!ôܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚–
§Ù%oï˛° àí˛¸ í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ù•#ì˛y° §Ù%oï˛° ˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
0 !ܲ!Ù
Ù•#ˆÏ§y˛õyl à !Ó¢ò !ÓÓÓ˚î ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
5 ˲#
Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l åDistribution of
§Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚
Ó˚ Earthquakes and Volcanoesäı
Ù•yˆÏò¢ ï˛°ˆÏò¢
à˲#Ó˚ï˛Ù §Ù%o 10 ï˛y Ë)˛Ü˛¡õ#Î˚ à!ï˛!Ó!ô åseismic activityä ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l
ådistribution of volcanoesä !ã˛e 4.2 ˆï˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
0 100 200 300 400 500 x106 !ܲ!Ù
!ã˛ˆÏe xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# xLjϢ ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓ˚áy §Ç°@¿ ≤ÃyÎ˚
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yl%ÎyÎ˚# Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl xM˛° §Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó®%ˆÏÓ˚áy åline of dotsä Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ˆÓ˚áy!ê˛
!ã˛e 4.1 : Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢ ˲yÓ˚ï˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !ÓhflïÏ, ˛– ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ í˛z˛õÙ•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !ܲS%Èê˛y ò!«˛ˆÏî
§Ù%o ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ àë˛l˜Ï¢°# åOcean Floor ~•z ˆÓ˚áy!ê˛ ò%ˆÏê˛y ˲yˆÏà !Ó˲=˛ñ ÎyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ)Ó≈ xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ
Configurationäı ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ ~ÓÇ xlƒ ˲yà!ê˛ ÙyÎ˚ylÙyÓ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ !lí˛z!à!lÓ˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ ~ܲ•z
~•z ˲yˆÏà xyÙÓ˚y Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ àë˛l˜Ï¢°# §¡∫rô#Î˚ ~Ùl Ó˚Ü˛Ù ˆÓ˚áyÎ˚ Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ˆÎñ !Ó®% ˆÓ˚áy Ùôƒ
!ܲS%È ï˛Ìƒ xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚ÏÓñ Îy Ù•y§yàÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ §M˛Ó˚î Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÎ˚ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ~áyˆÏl SÈyÎ˚y Ó°Î˚ åshaded
§¡∫rô#Î˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ §•yÎ˚ܲ •ˆÏÓ– Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ beltä ~Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xy“#Î˚ !•Ùy°Î˚ åAlpine-Himalayaä ~ÓÇ
Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ §¡õˆÏܲ≈ eˆÏÎy˚ ò¢ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ !ÓhflyÏ !Ó˚ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ – ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ≤Ãyhs˝Ë˛yà årim of the Pacific Oceanä
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢ˆÏܲ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y ådepth ä ~ÓÇ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w xà˲#Ó˚
åreliefä !Ó!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !ï˛l ˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xLjϢ xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ !ܲv xy“#Î˚ !•Ùy°Î˚ G ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚
Ù•y§yàÓ˚ G Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l 33

•zˆÎÏ ˆ˚ °
Ï yˆÏfiê˛yl
x!@¿Ó°Î˚

•yGÎ˚y•z m#˛õ˛õ%O

ày°y˛õyˆÏày§

à˲#Ó˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ xM˛°

!ܲ!Ù xà˲#Ó˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ˆÜ˛w
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ í˛zò‰à#Ó˚î
•ê‰˛flõê˛

!ã˛e 4.2 : Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l

xLjϢ Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w à˲#Ó˚ xLjϢ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~ܲ•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚
àyì˛¸ SÈyÎ˚y !ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ G xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l ˆòáyˆÏly
•ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ≤Ãyhs˝Ë˛yà x!@¿ ≤Ãyhs˝ Óy !Ó˚Ù xʉ˛ Ê˛yÎ˚yÓ˚
årim of fireä lyˆÏÙG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ~áyˆÏl Óƒy˛õܲ ÙyeyÎ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚
§!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
§Ù%oӈϫ˛Ó˚ !Óhfl,Ï!ï˛Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îy åCONCEPT OF SEA FLOOR
SPREADINGäı
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛z!Õ‘!áï˛ Óî≈lyÎ˚ Ù•#§M˛Ó˚î ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙÎ˚ܲyÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏl ˆÎ
§Ü˛° ï˛Ìƒ xyÙÓ˚y çylˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ï˛y ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ GˆÏÎ˚àlyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ù•# §M˛Ó˚î
ï˛ˆÏ_¥ !SÈ° ly– !ܲv ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ §ÇˆÏ¢yôˆÏl !ï˛!l ~•z
ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°y §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ùyl!ã˛e#ܲÓ˚î ~ÓÇ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !¢°yhflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ ˛õÓ˚y ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ åpalaeomagneticä xôƒÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°y §yÙˆÏl xyˆÏ§ ı
åiä ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y xM˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ@¿Î˚
í˛zò!‰ àÓ˚î åvolcanic eruptionä ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ~ÓÇ
Óƒy˛õܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî °y˲y í˛zò‰!àÓ˚î •ˆÏÎ˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢ çÙyê˛ ÓÑyˆÏô–
åiiä Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ ÙôƒË˛yà ˆÌˆÏܲ ò%˛õyˆÏ¢ §Ùyl
ò)Óˆ˚ cÏ xÓ!fiÌï˛ !¢°yhflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ àë˛lñ §ÙÎ˚ܲy°ñ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ @˝ÃrÌl
åchemical compositionäñ ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒyÓ!°Ó˚
åmagnetic propertiesä ÙˆÏôƒ °«˛î#Î˚ §yò,¢ƒ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– Ùôƒ
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ !lܲê˛fiÌ !¢°y lÓ#l ~ÓÇ §yôyÓ˚î
ˆÙÓ%̊ ånormal polarityä Ó,_#Î˚– ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ ¢#£Ï≈ˆÏò¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ
Îï˛ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ !¢°y àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ܲy°G åformation
of the age of rockä x!ôܲ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
åiiiä Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ¢,ˆÏAàÓ˚ ¢#£Ï≈ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !¢°y Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ≤Ãyhs˝ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚
!¢°yÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ xˆÏlܲ lÓ#l åyoungä– Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ¢,ˆÏAàÓ˚
¢#£Ï≈ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !¢°y àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ܲy° 20 ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ x!ôܲ
ˆ§•z ï%˛°lyÎ˚ !ܲS%È !ܲS%È Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ !¢°yÓ˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ܲy°
320 ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚G ˆÓ!¢–
åivä à˲#Ó˚ §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ x≤Ãï˛ƒy!¢ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õyï˛°y–
!ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y xy¢y ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ˆÎñ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y §Ù%o˛õ,¤˛G
Î!ò ~ܲ•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ •Ïï˛ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˛õ!° §,!T˛Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ §M˛Î˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yG ò#â≈fiÌyÎ˚# •ï˛– !ܲv §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˛õ!° §M˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓÎ˚§
20 ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ%Ó˚yˆÏly lÎ˚–
åvä à˲#Ó˚ Ù•y§Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ x!ôܲ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÎ˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚–
!ܲv Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ü˛Ù à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÎ˚
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w åfociä ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
~•z ï˛Ìƒ§Ù)• ~ÓÇ Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ ò%˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚
!¢°yÓ˚ ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ í˛z˛õyòyl !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ•§ åHessä
34 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

x≤Ã!ï˛§yÓ˚# Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ @˝ÃfiÌ xM˛°

!lÓ˚ˆ˛Ï õ«˛ ≤Ã!ï˛§yÓ˚# ˛õyï˛ §#Ùyhs˝ ålÓ#l ˛õyï˛ §#Ùyhs˝ä
x!˲§yÓ˚# ˛õyï˛ §#Ùyhs˝ ˛õyï˛ §#Ùyhs˝ ˛õyï˛ §#Ùyhs˝

Ù•#áyï˛
fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y !¢° xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ §yàÓ˚#Î˚ !ÓhflÏ!, ï˛
˜¢°!¢Ó˚y
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢
xŸªÙ[˛° Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚
˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢
ï˛Æ!Ó®% xƒy§ˆÏ̈Ïly!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚

!ã˛e 4.3 : §Ù%oӈϫ˛Ó˚ !Óhfl,Ï!ï˛

1961 §yˆÏ° ˆÎ ï˛_¥ åhypothesisä í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓ˚l ˆ§!ê˛
ÚÚ§Ù%oӈϫ˛Ó˚ !Óhfl!Ï, ï˛ ï˛_Û¥ Û åsea floor spreadingä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
ˆ•ˆÏ§Ó˚ Ùï˛yl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ¢#£Ï≈ˆÏòˆÏ¢ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ x@¿%ƒò‰!àÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° Ê˛yê˛° Óy !SÈo ˆòáy ˆòÎ˚ ~ÓÇ G•z !SÈo˛õÌ !òˆÏÎ˚ °y˲y ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚
~ˆÏ§ ò%!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ì˛y° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §Ù%o ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚
!Óhfl,Ï!ï˛ âˆÏê˛– Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢fiÌ !¢°y xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ lÓ#l ~ÓÇ
ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ~ܲ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !ÓhflÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xlƒ
Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲÌy ˆ•§ ï˛yÓ˚ §Ù%oӈϫ˛Ó˚
!Óhfl,Ï!ï˛ ï˛ˆÏ_¥ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲˆÏÓ˚l–
!ï˛!l ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ í˛zˆÕÏ á‘ Ü˛ˆÏÓl˚ ˆÎñ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ í˛zò!‰ àÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ åvolcanic
eruptionä Ê˛ˆÏ° Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ӈϫ˛ åocean floorä ˆÎ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
§,!T˛ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏï˛ Ù•#áyï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xÓlÙl âˆÏê˛ G ôÁǧ≤ÃyÆ •Î˚–

54 ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSÈÓ˚ 42 ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSÈÓ˚

xyˆÏà xyˆÏà

30 ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSÈÓ˚ 12 ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSÈÓ˚

xyˆÏà xyˆÏà

Óï≈˛Ùyl
54 ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSÈÓ˚ xyˆÏà Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ à!ï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛–
1É xy!Ê ˛Ü˛y 2É ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy 3É Ü%˛ˆÏÙÓ˚% Ù•yˆÏò¢
4É xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚y 5É Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛ 6É !ã˛l 7É í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy
8É •zí˛ˆz ÓÏ y˚ ˛õ 9É ~ÓÇ 10É §y•zˆÓÏ !Ó˚Îy˚ å•z!Ù°y!l 1992ä

!ã˛e 4.4 : Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ §ÙÎ˚ܲyˆÏ° Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl

Ù•y§yàÓ˚ G Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l 35

§Ù%oӈϫ˛Ó˚ !Óhfl,Ï!ï˛ §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ §yôyÓ˚î ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ !ã˛e 4.3 ˆï˛
Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
˛õyï˛ §ÇfiÌyl åPLATE TECTONICSäı
§Ù%oӈϫ˛Ó˚ !Óhfl,Ï!ï˛ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y Ù•yˆÏò¢ G Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
Ó^˝ê˛l §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏl !lÎ%=˛ •l– 1967 §yˆÏ° ÙƒyˆÏܲ!O
åMcKenzieä ˛õyÜ≈˛yÓ˚ åParkerä ~ÓÇ ÙÓ˚àƒyl åMorganäÈüÈ~Ó˚
fl∫ï˛sf˲yˆÏÓ í˛z˛õ°kô !ã˛hs˝yôyÓ˚yˆÏܲ ~ܲ!eï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ lï%˛l ôyÓ˚îy
åconceptä í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓ˚lñ Îy ÚÚ˛õyï˛ §ÇfiÌyl ï˛_¥ÛÛ åPlate
Tectonics Theoryä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– Ë)˛§ÇfiÌyl ˛õyï˛ åtectonic
plate Óy !°ˆÏÌy!fl≥˛Î˚y!Ó˚ܲ ˛õyï˛G Ó°y •Î˚ä •Ï° ~ܲ!ê˛ !ÓÓ˚yê˛
åmassiveäñ x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ ܲ!ë˛l !¢°y !ӈϢ£Ïñ ˆÎ!ê˛
§yôyÓ˚ î ï˛ Ù•yˆÏ ò ¢#Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ # Î˚ í˛z Ë ˛Î˚ xŸªÙ[˛°
åLithosphereä myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– ˛õyï˛§Ù)• xƒyˆÏfïÏly!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
åasthenosphereä ~Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ ܲ!ë˛l årigidä ~ܲܲ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
§Ùyhs˝Óy˚ °Ë˛yˆÏÓ §M˛!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– !°ˆÏÌy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ë)˛˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ à%ÓÙ%˚ [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ñ !°ˆÏÌy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ Óy xŸªÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y
§Ó≈e §Ùyl lÎ˚– xŸªÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° 5 ˆÌˆÏܲ
100 !ܲ!Ù ˛õÎ≈hs˝ •Î˚ñ xyÓyÓ˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ~Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y 200
!ܲ!Ù ˛õÎ≈hs˝ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyï˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ˛õyï˛ Óy Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚
˛õyï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õyˆÏï˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢ Óy
Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ x!ôܲ !Óhfl,Ï!ï˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õyï˛ •° ≤Ãôylï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õyï˛
xyÓyÓ˚ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛õ#Î˚ ˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ˛õyï˛ Ó°y •Î˚– ˛õyï˛
Ë)˛ÈüȧÇfiÌyl ï˛ˆÏ_¥ åplate tectonics theoryä Ó°y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÏÎñ
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xŸªÙ[˛° Óy !°ˆÏÌy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ 7!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl Óy Ó,•Í ˛õyï˛ ~ÓÇ
!ܲS%È ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ ˛õyï˛ myÓ˚y !Ó˲=˛– lÓ#l ˲!Aà° ˛õÓ≈ï˛ñ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yñ
áyï˛ Óy ã%˛ƒ!ï˛ myÓ˚y ≤Ãôyl Óy Ó,•Í ˛õyï˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÓ!T˛ï˛ å!ã˛e 4.5ä–
≤Ãôyl Óy Ó,•Í ˛õyï˛à%ˆÏ°y •° ı
I. xƒyrê˛yÜ≈˛!ê˛Ü˛y åAntarcticaä ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ §Ç°@¿ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚
˛õyï˛
II. í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy å˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ï˛°ˆÏò¢fiÌ xÇ¢ ˆÎ!ê˛ ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy ˛õyï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!FSÈߨ
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒy!Ó˚!ÓÎ˚yl m#˛õ˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ §#Ùy !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ä
˛õyï˛–
III. ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy å˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ï˛°ˆÏò¢fiÌ xÇ¢ ˆÎ!ê˛ í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy ˛õyï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!FSÈߨ
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒy!Ó˚!ÓÎ˚yl m#˛õ˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ §#Ùy !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ä
˛õyï˛–

•zí˛zˆÏÓ˚¢#Î˚ ˛õyï˛
VII í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyl
˛õyï˛
II Ùôƒ xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ •zí˛zˆÓÏ !˚ ¢Î˚yl
ç%Î˚yl òƒ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y õyï˛
xƒy!°G!ê˛Î˚yl Ê%˛ˆÏܲy ˛õyï˛
áyï˛ §yl xƒy!u»˛§ ã%˛ƒ!ï˛
ܲƒy xyÓ
˛õ)Ó≈ ≤âyhs˝#Î˚ ˛õyï Ó˚ #Î˚
!Ê˛!°!˛õl§‰

!Ó
í˛zayl ˛õyï !˚ ÓÎy˚ xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yl õyï˛
˛õyï˛

l ˛
≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õyï˛ ˆÜ˛ˆÏܲy ˛
ܲƒyˆÏÓy˚ !°l ˛õyï˛
˛õyï˛ ò!«˛î
çy˲y áyï˛ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚l
•zˆÏ®yÈüÈxˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚yl ˛õyï˛ lyçܲy ˛õyï˛
V ˛õyï˛ III VI

fl≥˛!ê˛Ü˛ ˛õyï˛
≤Ã!ï˛§yÓ˚# §#Ùyhs˝
x!˲§yÓ˚# §#Ùyhs˝
!lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛ §#Ùyhs˝
xƒyrê˛yÜ≈˛!ê˛Ü˛y ˛õyï˛

!ã˛e 4.5 : ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl ~ÓÇ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ ˛õyï˛§Ù)•

36
IV. ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õyï˛–
V. •zˆÏ®yÈüÈxˆÏfiê˛∆°#Î˚ÈüÈ!lí˛z!ç°ƒyu˛˛ ˛õyï˛–
VI. xy!Ê ˛Ü˛y§• ˛õ)Ó≈ xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ ï˛°ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ˛õyï˛–
VII. •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚¢#Î˚ ~ÓÇ §Ç°@¿ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õyï˛–
!ܲS%È à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ ˛õyï˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !lˆÏ¡¨ ï˛y!°Ü˛yË%˛=˛ ܲÓ˚y •°ı
åiä ˆÜ˛yˆÏܲy ˛õyï˛ åCocos plateä ı Ùôƒ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy ~ÓÇ
≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xÓ!fiÌï˛–
åiiä lyçܲy ˛õyï˛ åNazca plateä ı ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy ~ÓÇ
≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xÓ!fiÌï˛–
åiiiä xyÓ˚Ó#Î˚ ˛õyï˛ åArabian plateä ı x!ôܲyÇ¢•z ˆ§Ô!ò
xyÓ˚Ó#Î˚ Ë)˛á[˛ ålandmassä §Ç°@¿ xM˛°–
åivä !Ê˛!°!˛õl§‰ ˛õyï˛ åPhilippine plateä ı ~!¢Î˚y ~ÓÇ
≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# xM˛°–
åvä ܲƒyˆÏÓ˚y!°l ˛õyï˛ åCaroline plateä ı !Ê˛!°!˛õl§‰ ~ÓÇ
˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# xM˛° å!lí˛z à%ˆÏÎ˚lyÓ˚ í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚ä
åviä Ê%˛!ç ˛õyï˛ åFuji plateä ı xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ÈüÈ˛õ)Ó≈È !òˆÏܲ–
~•z ˛õyï˛§Ù)• ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ •z!ï˛•yˆÏ§Ó˚
§ÙÎ˚ܲy° ôˆÏÓ˚ x!ÓÓ˚yÙ˲yˆÏÓ ã˛°l¢#°– GˆÏÎà˚ lyÓ˚ !ÓŸªy§ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛l
ˆÎñ ¢%ô% Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°y•z ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §M˛Ó˚î •Î˚ lyñ Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°y
˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ xÇ¢ !ӈϢ£Ï ~ÓÇ ˛õyï˛à%ˆÏ°y §M˛Ó˚î¢#°ñ í˛z˛õÓ˚v ~!ê˛G
!°!˛õÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ˆÎñ Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ §ÙÎ˚ܲyˆÏ°G ˛õyï˛§Ù)• à!ï˛¢#°
!SÈ° ˲!ӣσˆÏï˛G à!ï˛¢#° ÌyܲˆÏÓ– GˆÏÎ˚àlyÓ˚ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛ñ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §Ó Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°y•z §%˛õyÓ˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢ åsuper continentä
Ú˛õƒyl!çÎ˚yÛ Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ï˛– Î!òG ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ xl%§rôyl
ˆÌˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ flõT˛ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ˆÎñ §Ü˛° Ë)˛ÈüÈï˛y!_¥Ü˛ §ÙÎ˚ܲyˆÏ° Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚
Ë)˛á[˛à%ˆÏ°y ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !fiÌï˛yÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~ˆÏ°yˆÏوϰy˲yˆÏÓ §M˛Ó˚î
ܲÓ˚ï˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ Ë)˛á[˛ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ xÇ¢
!ӈϢ£Ï– ~•z ˛õyï˛§Ù)• x!˲§yÓ˚# •ˆÏΕ˚ z Ú˛õƒyl!çÎ˚yÛ à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°–
!ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ˛õÓ˚y ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛Ìƒ åpalaeomagnetic dataä ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˲)ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ §ÙÎ˚ܲyˆÏ° Óï≈˛Ùyl Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ Ë)˛áˆÏ[˛Ó˚
ålandmassä xÓfiÌyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l å!ã˛e 4.4ä– Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚
í˛z˛õÙ•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ å!ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õm#˛õ#Î˚ ˲yÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛Ó˚ä xÓfiÌyl lyà˛õ%Ó˚
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !¢°y !ӈϟ’£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ !fiÌÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l–
!ï˛l ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyï˛ §#Ùyly ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ı
≤Ã!ï˛§yÓ˚# ˛õyï˛ §#Ùyly åDivergent Boundariesäı
Îál ò%ˆÏê˛y ˛õyï˛ ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓ˚
ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ lï%˛l Ë)˛cˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛§yÓ˚# ˛õyï˛ ÓˆÏ°– ~•z
˛õyï˛ §M˛Ó˚îˆÏܲ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ fiÌyl åspreading sitesäG Ó°y •Î˚–
Ùôƒ xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y åMid-Atlantic Ridgeä •° ≤Ã!ï˛§yÓ˚#
˛õyï˛ §#ÙyˆÏhs˝Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛T˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î– ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚¢#Î˚ G xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yl
˛õyï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyl ˛õyï˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
x!˲§yÓ˚# ˛õyï˛ §#Ùyly åConvergent Boundariesäı
ˆÎáyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyï˛ xlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ì%˛ˆÏܲ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛cˆÏܲÓ˚
xÇ¢ ôÁǧ ≤ÃyÆ •Î˚ñ ˆ§áyˆÏl ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í%˛ˆÏÓ ÎyGÎ˚y xÇ¢ˆÏܲ !lÙIl
Ù[˛° åsubduction zoneä Ó°y •Î˚– ˛õyï˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !ï˛l!ê˛
í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ x!˲§yÓ˚# åconvergenceä •Î˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y •° åiä
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ˛õyï˛ó åiiä ò%ˆÏê˛y Ù•y§yàÓ˚
ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ˛õyï˛ó ~ÓÇ åiiiä ò%ˆÏê˛y Ù•yˆÏò¢ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ˛õyï˛–
!lÓ˚ˆ˛Ï õ«˛ Óy ê˛∆y™Ê˛Ù≈ ˛õyï˛ §#ÙylyåTransform Boundariesäı
ˆÎáyˆÏl Ë)˛cˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àë˛l Óy ôÁǧ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly!ê˛•z ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚
ly– ˆ§áyˆÏl ˛õyï˛ ò%ˆÏê˛y ¢%ô% ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ
x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ã%˛ƒ!ï˛ åTransform faultä •Ï° ~ܲ!ê˛
§Ùï˛°Ë)˛!Ù Îy Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yˆÏܲ §ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî ˛õ,Ìܲ
ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ ¢#£Ï≈ˆÏòˆÏ¢ §Ó≈e ~ܲ•z §ÙÎ˚ x@¿%ƒò‰!àÓ˚î
åeruptionä •Î˚ ly– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆÎ xÇ¢ Îï˛
ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ˆ§áyˆÏl à!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÎ˚ ï˛ï˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÓï≈˛l à!ï˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓG !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õ,Ìܲ#Ü,˛ï˛ ÓœˆÏܲ
åseparated blockä °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ܲálG ˆË˛ˆÏÓÏSÈ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ~•z ˛õyï˛ §M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚
Ùyey !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y •Î˚⁄
˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ à!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyey åRates of Plate Movementäı
Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° ˆÎ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ Óy xl%ˆÏ°yÙ
ã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ~ÓÇ !ӈϰyÙ Óy !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ !ÓK˛yl#ˆÏòÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛
˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Óy à!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyey !lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏî §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~•z ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ÙyeyÎ˚ ΈÏÌT˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî !˲ߨï˛y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– §%ˆÏÙÓ˚%
í˛zFã˛Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ åArctic Ridgeä ~•z à!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyey §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚
Ü˛Ù å2.5 ˆ§!ÙÓ˚ Ü˛Ù‡ÓSÈÓ˚ä– x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ˛õ)Ó≈#Î˚ m#˛õ Óy •zfiê˛yÓ˚
m#ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ ˛õ)ÓÈ≈ ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ í˛z!aï˛ xÇ¢ åEast Pacific
Riseä Îy ò!«˛î ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ !ã˛!°Ó˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛ÙyÇ¢
ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 3,400 !ܲ!Ù ò)ˆÏÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆ§áyˆÏl ~•z ≤ÃÓy• Ùyey
§Ó≈y!ôܲ– å15 ˆ§!ÙÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢‡ÓSÈÓ˚ä ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
˛õyï˛ §M˛Ó˚î §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ Ó° åForce for the Plate
Movement äı
ˆÎ §ÙÎ˚ GˆÏÎà˚ lyÓ˚ ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Ù•#§M˛Ó˚î ï˛_¥ åtheory of continental
driftä í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓl ˚ ñ ˆ§•z §ÙÎ˚ܲyÓ˚ x!ôܲyÇ¢ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y !ÓŸªy§
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛l ˆÎñ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛!ë˛l à!ï˛•#l Ó›– !ܲv §Ù%oӈϫ˛Ó˚
!Óhfl,Ï!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õyï˛ §ÇfiÌyl ï˛ˆÏ_¥ ~ !ӣψÏÎ˚ ˆçyÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚y •Î˚ ˆÎñ
Ë)˛cܲ ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚˲yà ò%ˆÏê˛y•z !fiÌÓ˚ ~ÓÇ à!ï˛•#l lÎ˚
ÓÓ˚Ç ~Ó˚y à!ï˛¢#°– Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ à!ï˛¢#°ï˛y ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ó≈çlà,•#ï˛
ï˛Ìƒ– ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˆÎñ ܲ!ë˛l ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ årigid plateä l#ˆÏã˛ ã˛°Ùyl
!¢°y åMobile rockä Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ Èñ ˆ§!ê˛ ã˛Ü ˛yܲyÓ˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ åcircular
Ù•y§yàÓ˚ G Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l 37

mannerä ã˛°Ùyl– í˛z_Æ ˛õòyÌ≈ Ë)˛cˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ GˆÏë˛ xyˆÏ§ñ

•zí˛zˆÏÓ˚¢#Î˚ ˛õyï˛
≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛° •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ x!ôܲ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÎ˚ í%˛ˆÏÓ ÎyÎ˚–
~•z ã˛Ü ˛!ê˛Ó˚ ÓyÓ˚ÇÓyÓ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_ âˆÏê˛ñ ÎyˆÏܲ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l
ˆÜ˛y¢ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyï˛ åconvection cell or convective
flowä ӈϰ x!˲!•ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ùôƒ!fiÌï˛ ï˛y˛õ ≤Ãôylï˛
Óï≈˛Ùyl
ò%ˆÏê˛y í˛zͧ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyˆÏ§ñ ÎÌy ÈüÈ ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ «˛Ó˚î åradioactive ˲yÓ˚ï˛
decayä ~ÓÇ xÓ!¢T˛ ï˛y˛õ åresidual heatä– xyÌ≈yÓ˚ ˆ•yÙ§‰
åArthur Holmesä §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ 1930 §yˆÏ° ~•z ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ Óƒ=˛ ܲˆÏÓl˚ 10 !Ù!°Î˚l
ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈
~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ •ƒy!Ó˚ ˆ•§ åHarry Hessä §Ù%oӈϫ˛Ó˚
!ÓhflÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛_¥ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ ~•z ôyÓ˚îy myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛
38 !Ù!°Î˚l
•Î˚– ܲ!ë˛l ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ í˛z_Æñ à!°ï˛ à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ô#Ó˚ ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈
≤ÃÓy• ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ à!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÎ˚ ã˛y°ly Ó° ådriving forceä Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy
ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚–
˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §M˛y°l åMOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN
PLATEäı
55 !Ù!°Î˚l
í˛z˛õm#˛õ#Î˚ ˲yÓ˚ï˛ ~ÓÇ xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚y Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !ܲS%È xÇ¢ !lˆÏÎ˚ ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈
˲yÓ˚ï˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚
˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ ˛õyï˛!ê˛ à!ë˛ï˛– !•Ùy°ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ !lÙ!Iï˛ xM˛° åsubduction
zoneä í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õyï˛ §#Ùyhs˝ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy •°
Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ x!˲§yÓ˚# åcontinent convergenceä ˛õyï˛– ˛õ)Ó≈
!òˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ ÙyÎ˚ylÙyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ Ó˚y!ܲˆÏlyGÙy åRakinyoma Mountainsä 71 !Ù!°Î˚l
ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈
˛õÓ≈ï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ çy˲y áyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ó,_ã˛y˛õ#Î˚ m#˛õÙy°y åisland arcä ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚
≤çy!Ó˚ï˛– ˛õ)Ó≈ §#Ùyhs˝!ê˛ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ fiÌyl åspreading ˲yÓ˚ï˛
siteä ˆÎ!ê˛ ò!«˛î ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y
àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈ !òˆÏܲ !lÙ!Iï˛ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù §#Ùyhs˝!ê˛
˛õy!ܲhflÏyˆÏlÓ˚ !ܲÌ≈yÓ˚ ˛õÓ≈ï˛ åKirthar Mountainä ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Óhfl,Ïï˛–
~!ê˛ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ÙƒyܲÓ˚yly í˛z˛õÜ)˛° åMakrana coastä ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ò!«˛î ˛õ)Ó≈ ã˛yˆÏày§ m#˛õ˛õ%O åChagos Archipelagoä G
ˆ°y!•ï˛ §yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ åRed Seaä ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ê˛yê˛° åriftä ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !ã˛e 4.6 : ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ã˛°yã˛°
≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ ˛õyï˛ ~ÓÇ Ü%˛ˆÏÙÓ˚% ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ åAntarctic ˛xÓfiÌylG ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– Óï≈˛Ùyl §ÙÎ˚ܲy° ˆÌˆÏܲ 140 !Ù!°Î˚l
plateä ÙôƒÓï≈˛# §#Ùyhs˝!ê˛ •° Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y å≤Ã!ï˛§yÓ˚# ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ í˛z˛õÙ•yˆÏò¢!ê˛ ò!«˛ˆÏî 50o ò!«˛î x«˛yLjϢ
§#Ùyhs˝ä Îy ˆÙyê˛yÙ%!ê˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ)Ó≈ !òˆÏܲ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ !SÈ°– ò%ˆÏê˛y Ó,•Í ˛õyï˛ ˆê˛!̧ §yàÓ˚ myÓ˚y !Ó!FSÈߨ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°
!lí˛z!ç°ƒyˆÏu˛Ó˚ !ܲS%Èê˛y ò!«˛ˆÏî ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ~ÓÇ !ï˛ÓÁï˛#Î˚ ÓœÜ˛!ê˛ ~¢#Î˚ Ë)˛Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ §!ߨܲˆÏê˛ ã˛ˆÏ° ~ˆÏ§!SÈ°–
˲yÓ˚ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó¢y° í˛z˛õm#˛õ !SÈ° ~ÓÇ !Ó¢y° Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ ˛õyï˛ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚¢#Î˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ §M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù%áƒ
xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚y í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ° xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ï˛– 225 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÓÏ ≈ ˆê˛!̧ âê˛ly âˆÏê˛ Îy •° °y˲y í˛zò!‰ àÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆí˛Ü˛yl ê˛∆ƒy˛õ Óy òy!«˛îyï˛ƒ
§yàÓ˚ ~ˆÏܲ ~!¢Î˚y Ù•yˆÏò¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ ܲˆÏÓ˚– 200 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ Ùy°Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ åDeccan Trapä àë˛l– ~!ê˛ xyl%Ùy!lܲ 60 !Ù!°Î˚l
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ Ú˛õƒyl!çÎ˚yÛ ˆË˛ˆÏ. ˲yÓ˚ï˛ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚Ù%á# §M˛y°l ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ò#â≈ §ÙÎ˚Óƒy˛õ# ã˛ˆÏ°– °«˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ ~•z
!•Ùy°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ o%ï˛ í˛zayˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xyl%Ùy!lܲ 40-50 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ ˆÏÎñ í˛z˛õÙ•yˆÏò¢!ê˛ ï˛álG !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ §!ߨ!•ï˛ !SÈ°– 40 !Ù!°Î˚l
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˲yÓ˚ï˛ ~!¢Î˚y Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ôyE˛y áyÎ˚– !ã˛e 4.6 ~ 71 ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ !•Ùy°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ àë˛lܲyÎ≈ ¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y !ÓŸªy§
!Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Óï≈˛Ùyl §ÙÎ˚ܲy° ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ ã˛°ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ !•Ùy°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y
ˆòáyˆÏly •°– ~!ê˛ˆÏï˛ Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛ í˛z˛õÙ•yˆÏò¢ ~ÓÇ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚¢#Î˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ~álG ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ã˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ–
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xl%¢#°l#
1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚ ÓySÈy•z ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
(i) !lˆÏ¡¨ í˛z!Õ‘!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰ !ÓK˛yl# •zí˛zˆÓÏ y˚ ˛õñ xy!Ê ˛Ü˛y ~ÓÇ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ xÓ!fiÌï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly
Óƒ=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚l⁄
(a) xƒy°ˆÏÊ ˛í˛ GˆÏÎ˚àlyÓ˚ (c) xƒyÓ y•yÙ GˆÏê≈˛!°Î˚y§
(b) xƒyˆÏrê˛y!lG ˆ˛õˆÏÕ‘!@˝Ã!l (d) ~í˛Ùu˛ ˆ•§
(ii) ˆ˛õy°yÓ˚ !Êœ˛!Î˚Ç Ó° åPolar fleeing forceä !ê˛ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ ı
(a) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ à!ï˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà (c) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÓï≈˛l à!ï˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
(b) Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈îÈüÈ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà (d) ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ ˲yê˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
(iii) ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ åminorä ˛õyï˛ lÎ˚⁄
(a) lyçܲy (c) !Ê˛!°!˛õl§‰
(b) xyÓ˚Ó#Î˚ (d) xƒyrê˛yÜ≈˛!ê˛Ü˛y
(iv) §Ù%oӈϫ˛Ó˚ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏ¡¨ í˛z!ÏÕ‘!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰ âê˛lyˆÏܲ !Óã˛yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚!l⁄
(a) Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÎ˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y–
(b) Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢ !¢°yÎ˚ xl%ˆÏ°yÙ G ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ xLjϢÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î–
(c) !Ó!˲ߨ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢ ç#ÓyˆÏŸ¬Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l–
(d) Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !¢°yÓ˚ ÓÎ˚§Ü˛y°–
(v) ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !•Ùy°Î˚ ˛õÓ≈ï˛ˆÏ◊!îÓ˚ ˛õyï˛!ê˛ !lˆÏ¡¨ í˛z!Õ‘!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˛õyï˛ §#ÙyˆÏhs˝Ó˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
!ӈϢ£Ï ı
(a) Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ x!˲§yÓ˚#
(b) ≤Ã!ï˛§yÓ˚# §#Ùyhs˝
(c) ê˛∆y™Ê˛Ù≈ Óy !lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛ §#Ùyhs˝
(d) Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ÈüÈ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ x!˲§yÓ˚#
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) GˆÏÎ˚àlyÓ˚ åWegenerä Ù•#§M˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜ˛yl‰ Ó°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ܲÌy ≤ÃhflÏyÓ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l⁄
(ii) ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyï˛ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ÓçyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ⁄
(iii) ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ !lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛ §#Ùyly ~ÓÇ x!˲§yÓ˚# Óy ≤Ã!ï˛§yÓ˚# §#ÙylyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤Ãôyl ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲ#⁄
(iv) ˆí˛Ü˛yl ê˛∆ƒy˛õ Óy òy!«˛îyï˛ƒ Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ Ë)˛áˆÏ[˛Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲ#Ó˚)˛õ !SÈ°⁄
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) Ù•#§M˛Ó˚î ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §˛õˆÏ«˛ Î%!=˛ òyG–
(ii) §M˛Ó˚î Ùï˛Óyò ~ÓÇ ˛õyï˛ §ÇfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ§Ù)• xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iii) Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ §M˛Ó˚î Ùï˛ÓyˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y ܲ# !SÈ° Îy !ÓK˛yl#ˆÏòÓ˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚
Ó^˝ê˛l §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏl ˛õ%lÓ˚%I#!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚⁄
≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ «˛Î˚«˛!ï˛ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÜ˛y°yç åcollageä ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
 ~ܲܲ ı III

Ë) ˛!ÙÓ˚) ˛õ
~•z ~ܲˆÏܲ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y •° ı
l !¢°y ~ÓÇ á!lç ˛õòyÌ≈ ÈüüüÈ !¢°yÓ˚ Ù%რˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§Ù)•–
l Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l–
l Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• ÈüüüÈ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ñ ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ñ «˛Î˚ ~ÓÇ §M˛Î˚ó Ù,!_ܲy àë˛l–
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á!lç ~ÓÇ !¢°y

MINERALS AND ROCKS

!Ó !˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùß∫ˆÎÏ ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# à!ë˛ï˛– ~•z

í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ó!•Ë≈˛yˆÏà ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚
Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝ÓË˚ ˛yˆÏà í˛z_Æ ~ÓÇ à!°ï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚
Î!òG !¢°yÙ[˛° àë˛lܲyÓ˚# í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• §#!Ùï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛Ìy!˛õ ~•z§Ó í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• ~ܲ§ˆÏAà !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚
§!¡ø!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ á!lç ˛õòyÌ≈ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲ
Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~álG ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ò%ÈüÈ•yçyÓ˚ á!lç ˛õòyÌ≈ §ly=˛ G lyÙܲÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ Èó
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y 98 ˲yà xyê˛!ê˛ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚ !ܲv §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ §,T˛ á!lç ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Óܲ!ê˛•z SÈÎ˚!ê˛
à!ë˛ï˛– ÎÌy ÈüÈ x!:ˆÏçlñ !§!°Ü˛lñ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙñ ˆ°y•yñ ≤Ãôyl á!lç ˆày¤˛#Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl !¢°y àë˛lܲyÓ˚#
ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙñ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙñ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ å§yÓ˚!î á!lç ˛õòyÌ≈ Ó°y •Î˚–
5.1ä– xÓ!¢T˛ 02 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ê˛y•zˆêÏ ˛!lÎ˚yÙñ •y•zˆí Ï ˛» yˆÏçlñ Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ñ §Ü˛° ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ Ù)° í˛zͧ •ˆÏFSÈ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚˲yˆÏà
ÙƒyAày!lçñ §y°Ê˛yÓ˚ñ ܲyÓ≈lñ !lˆÏܲ° ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ í˛z˛õyòyl myÓ˚y xÓ!fiÌï˛ í˛z_Æ ÙƒyàÙy– Îál ÙƒyàÙy ¢#ï˛° •Î˚ñ á!lˆÏçÓ˚
à!ë˛ï˛– fl≥˛!ê˛Ü˛ï˛y ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ~ܲ §%§ÇÓÂô Ü ˛Ù!Ólƒy§ G
§yÓ˚!î 5.1 : ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)•˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ çÙyê˛ ÓÑyôy ¢%Ó%̊ •Î˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !¢°y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– x˜ÏçÓ
Ü ˛!Ùܲ lÇ í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• Gçl xl%ÎyÎ˚#˛(%) á!lç§Ù)• ˆÎÙl ܲÎ˚°yñ á!lç ˆï˛° ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ àƒy§ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
1. x!:ˆÏçl 46.60 ܲ!ë˛lñ ï˛Ó˚° G àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
2. !§!°Ü˛l 27.72 !ܲS%È à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ á!lç ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ
3. xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ 8.13
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !lˆÏ¡¨ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Ï° ı
4. ˆ°y•y 5.00
5. ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ 3.63
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§Ù)•
6. ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ 2.83
7. ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ 2.59 (i) Óy!•ƒÜ˛ fl≥˛!ê˛Ü˛yܲyÓ˚ åExternal crystal form ä ı
8. ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ 2.09 Ù) ° ï˛ x˲ƒhs˝ Ó ˚ # î xyî!Óܲ !Ólƒy§ ˆÎÙlÈ ü È â lܲñ
9. xlƒylƒ 1.41
xQyˆÏ•í»˛l§‰ å octahedronsäñ £Ïí˛¸Ë%˛çyÜ,˛!ï˛ !≤ÃçÙ
Ë)˛cˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• Ó•%° ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ï˛ˆÏÓ åhexagonal prismsä •zï˛ƒy!ò myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛–
~à%ˆ°
Ï y xlƒylƒ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !وϰ Ó•%≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ (ii) !ÓòyÓ˚î åCleavageä ı !l!ò≈T˛ !òˆÏܲ ˆË˛ˆÏ. ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚
~•z§Ó ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ á!lç Ó°y •Î˚– ≤ÃÓîï˛yñ xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §Ùï˛° ˛õ,¤˛ ˜Ïï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÈüÈ
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ~ܲ!ê˛ á!lç •Ï° ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §,T˛ ˜çÓ ~ÓÇ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î xyî!Óܲ !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Ê˛° ÈüÈ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly !òˆÏÜ
x˜ÏçÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ ÎyÓ˚ §%!ÓlƒhflÏ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ àë˛l ˛õÂô!ï˛ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È ~ÓÇ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÜ˛yˆÏî !Óò#î≈ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–˛
~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ §%!l!ò≈T˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ àë˛l G ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ (iii) Ê˛yê˛° åFractureä ÈıÈ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î xyî!Óܲ !Ólƒy§ ~ï˛•z
Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– ~ܲ!ê˛ á!lç ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ í˛z˛õyòyl myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– ç!ê˛° •Î˚ ˆÎ ˆ§áyˆÏl xî%Ó˚ Ù§,îï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ lyó á!lˆÏçÓ˚
!ܲv ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly ~ܲ í˛z˛õyòyl myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ á!lç ܲîy§Ù)• !ÓòyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ xl%Ü)˛ˆÏ° ly ˆË˛ˆÏ. x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛ Óy
˛õòyÌ≈G ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎÙlÈüȧy°Ê˛yÓ˚ñ ܲ˛õyÓ˚ñ ï˛yÙyñ ˆ§ylyñ x§Ùyl •yˆÏÓ˚ ˆË˛ˆÏ. ÎyÎ˚–
@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛–
á!lç ~ÓÇ !¢°y
(iv) ò#!Æ åLustreä Èı ò#!Æ •Ï° ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛•#l ~ܲ!ê˛
˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ Óy!•ƒÜ˛ xÓfiÌy Óy Ó˚˛) õ– ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ á!lˆÏçÓ˚•z !lçfl∫
ò#!Æ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ÎÌy ÈüÈ ôyï˛Óñ ã˛Ü˛ã˛ˆÏܲñ Ù§,î ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛–
(v) Óî≈ åColourä ÈıÈ xyî!Óܲ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !ܲS%È
á!lˆÏçÓ˚ !lçfl∫ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ˛õ)î≈ Óî≈ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ÈüüüÈ Ùƒy°yܲy•zê˛
åmalachiteäñ xƒyç%Ó˚y•zê˛ åazuriteäñ ã˛y°‰ˆÏܲy˛õy•zÓ˚y•zê˛
åchalcopyriteä •zï˛ƒy!ò ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È á!lˆÏçÓ˚ x¢%!ÂôÓ˚
åimpuritiesä G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Óî≈ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ x¢%Âôï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê≈˛ç §yòyñ §Ó%çñ °y°ñ
•°%ò ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ •Î˚–
(vi) ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛°l åStreakä ı ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛°l •Ï° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly á!lˆÏçÓ˚
Ë)˛!Ùã)˛ˆÏî≈Ó˚ Ó˚. Óy Óî≈– ~!ê˛ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~ܲ•z
ÓˆÏ î ≈ Ó ˚ •ˆÏ ï ˛ ˛õyˆÏ Ó ˚ xÌÓy xy°yòy •ˆÏ ï ˛ ˛õyˆÏ Ó ˚ –
ˆÎÙlÈüÈÙƒy°yܲy•zê˛ åmalachiteä •ˆÏFSÈ §Ó%ç ÓˆÏîÓ≈ ˚ ~ÓÇ §Ó%ç
≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛°l òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÊœ˛yÓ˚y•zê˛ åfluoriteä ˆÓà%!l ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ Óy
§Ó%ç ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ •Î˚ !ܲv §yòy ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛°l òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(vii) fl∫FSÈï˛yÈ åTransparencyä ÈüüüÈ fl∫FS Èı (transparent) :
fl∫FSÈï˛yÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yܲ !ܲÓ˚î ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ Ó›à%ˆÏ°y
flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆòáy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓñ˚ xyÓyÓ˚ {£Ïòfl∫FSÈï˛yÎ˚ ÈüÈ xyˆÏ°yܲ
!ܲÓ˚î ÎyÎ˚ !ܲv !Ó!«˛Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ó›à%ˆ° Ï y ˆòáy ˆÎˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ lyñ xfl∫FSÈï˛yÎ˚ xyˆÏ°y ~ܲòÙ•z ÎyÎ˚ ly–
(viii) àë˛l åStructureä ıÈ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˆÜ˛°yˆÏ§Ó˚ !lçfl∫ !Ólƒy§
ÌyˆÏܲ– ~à%ˆÏ°y §)-ñ ÙôƒÙ xÌÓy fiÌ)° òylyÎ%=˛ Óy ܲîyÎ%=˛
•Î˚– ï˛vÎ%=˛ àë˛l xy°yòy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ~!ê˛ x˛õ§yÓ˚# Óy
!Ó!ܲÓ˚îܲyÓ˚# •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
(ix) ܲˆÏë˛yÓ˚ï˛y åHardnessä ıÈ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓy˚ ô !ã˛!•´ï˛Ü˛Ó˚îñ
ò¢!ê˛ !ã˛!•´ï˛ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ Ùôƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ 1-10 ˆ◊!îÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲˆÏë˛yÓ˚ï˛y
Ùy˛õy •Î˚– ~•z á!lçà%ˆÏ°y •ˆÏFSÈ ÈüüüÈ 1. ê˛ƒyÕÒó 2. !ç˛õ§yÙ;
3. ܲƒy°§y•zê˛; 4. ˆÊœ˛yÓ˚y•zê˛; 5. xƒy˛õyê˛y•zê˛; 6. ˆÊ˛”˛§‰˛õyÓ˚ 7.
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê≈˛ç‰; 8. ˆ˛õyáÓ˚yç åtopazä; 9. ˆÜ˛yÓ˚yu˛yÙ; 10. !•Ó˚y–
~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ï%˛°ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•§yˆÏÓ Ó°y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚
ˆÎñ ~ܲ!ê˛ lˆÏáÓ˚ ܲˆÏë˛yÓ˚ï˛y 2.5 ~ÓÇ Ü˛yã˛ xÌÓy S%È!Ó˚Ó˚
ôyÓ˚yˆÏ°y xLjϢÓ˚ ܲˆÏë˛yÓ˚ï˛y 5.5 –
(x) xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ˲yÓ˚ åSpecific gravityä ı xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ˲yÓ˚
•° ≤Ãò_ Ó›Ó˚ ˲yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛ï˛ §Ù˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˲yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
xl%˛õyï˛ó ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ÓyÎ%̊ˆïÏ ˛ Ó›!ê˛Ó˚ Gçl Óy ˲yÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚
çˆÏ° G•z Ó›!ê˛Ó˚ Gçl ˆlGÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ~•z ò%•z GçˆÏlÓ˚
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ˆlGÎ˚y Gçl Óy ˲yÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˲yà ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚–
41
!ܲS%È ≤Ãôyl á!lç ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§Ù)•
(SOME MAJOR MINERALS AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS) :
ˆÊ˛”˛§‰˛õyÓ˚ åFeldsparä ı
!§!°Ü˛l ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl §Ü˛° ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˆÊ˛”˛§‰˛õyÓ˚ÈüÈ~Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î
í˛z˛õyòyl ~ÓÇ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙñ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙñ ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙñ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ
•zï˛ƒy!ò í˛z˛õyòyl ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y !ӈϢ£Ï !ӈϢ£Ï ˆÊ˛”˛§‰˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ xô≈yÇ¢ ˆÊ˛”˛§‰˛õyÓ˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– ~!ê˛ •y°Ü˛y ˛õ#ï˛ Óî≈
ˆÌˆÏܲ •y°‰Ü˛y ˆày°y!˛õ ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ •Î˚– !ã˛lyÙy!ê˛Ó˚ Óy§l˛õe ~ÓÇ Ü˛yã˛
˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ~!ê˛ ˛ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê≈˛ç åQuartzä ı
~!ê˛ Óy!° ~ÓÇ @˝Ãyly•zê˛ÈüÈ~Ó˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õyòyl– ~ˆÏï˛ !§!°Ü˛y
ÌyˆÏܲ– ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛!ë˛l á!lç Îy ܲyÎ≈ï˛ çˆÏ° xoÓ#Ë)˛ï˛– ~!ê˛
ˆŸªï˛ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ •Î˚ xÌÓy Ó˚.•#l •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÓ˚!í˛G G Ó˚yí˛yˆÏÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~!ê˛ @˝Ãyly•zˆÏê˛Ó˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õyòyl–
˛õy•zÓ˚!:l åPyroxeneä ı
˛õy•zÓ!˚ :ˆÏl ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙñ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙñ ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙñ xyÎ˚Ól˚ ~ÓÇ
!§!°Ü˛y ÌyˆÏܲ– Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ 10 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ˛õy•zÓ˚!:l myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– •z•y
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ í˛zÕÒy!˛õˆÏ[˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ Ó˚Ç Óy Óî≈ §Ó%ç Óy ܲyˆÏ°y
•Î˚–
~!¡≥˛ˆÏÓy° åAmphiboleä ı
xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙñ ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙñ !§!°Ü˛yñ ˆ°y•yñ ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ •ˆÏFSÈ
~!¡≥˛ˆÏÓy°ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)•– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ §yï˛
¢ï˛yÇ¢ à!ë˛ï˛– ~!ê˛ §Ó%ç Óy ܲyˆÏ°y ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xƒy§ˆÏÓfiê˛§
åasbestosä !¢ˆÏ“ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– •l≈ˆÏÓœu˛ åhornblendeä •Ï°
~!¡≥˛ˆÏÓy°ÈüÈ~Ó˚ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚–
xº åMicaä ı
~ˆÏï˛ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙñ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙñ ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙñ ˆ°y•yñ !§!°Ü˛y
≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ 4 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ xº myÓ˚y ˜ï˛!Ó˚– ~!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°yÎ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~!ê˛ ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛
Îsf˛õy!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–
x!°!˲l åOlivineä ı
x!°!˲ˆÏlÓ˚ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ°
Ï y •ˆÏFSÈ ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙñ ˆ°y•y ~ÓÇ
!§!°Ü˛y– àÎ˚ly ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ~!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– ~!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ §Ó%ç
ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ ˆÜ˛°y§– ~!ê˛ ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z Óƒy§Œê˛ !¢°yÎ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
~§Ó ≤Ãôyl á!lçÙ§)• SÈyí˛¸yG xlƒylƒ á!lç ˆÎÙlÈüÈ
ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ñ ܲƒy°§y•zê˛ñ ÙƒyàˆÏlê˛y•zê˛ñ ˆ•Ùyê˛y•zê˛ñ Ó:y•zê˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÓÓ˚y•zê˛
!¢°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ x“ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ–
42
ôyï˛Ó á!lç åMetallic Mineralsä ı
ôyï˛Ó á!lç§Ù)ˆÏ• ôyï˛Ó ˛õòyÌ≈ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
!ï˛l˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ı
(i) Ù)°ƒÓyl ôyï˛Ó á!lç åPrecious metalsä : ˆ§ylyñ
ï˛yÙyñ ≤’y!ê˛lyÙ åplatinumä •zï˛ƒy!ò–
(ii) ˆ°Ô•Óà≈#Î˚ ôyï˛Ó á!lç åFerrous metalsä : ˆ°y•y
~ÓÇ !fiê˛° ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˆ°y•yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!◊ï˛ xlƒylƒ
ôyï˛%§Ù)•–
(iii) xˆÏ°Ô•Óà≈#Î˚ ôyï˛Ó á!lç åNon-ferrous metalsä:
ï˛yÙyñ !§§yñ !çAܲñ !ê˛lñ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ •zï˛ƒy!ò ôyï%˛ ~•z
ˆ◊!îÓ˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛–
xôyï˛Ó á!lç åNon-Metallic Mineralsä ı
~•z≤ÃܲyÓ˚ á!lç§Ù)ˆÏ• ôyï˛Ó ˛õòyÌ≈ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– §y°Ê˛yÓ˚ñ
Ê˛§ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ ~ÓÇ ly•zˆÏê˛∆ê˛ •ˆÏFSÈ xôyï˛Ó á!lˆÏçÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î– !§ˆÏÙrê˛
•ˆÏ°y xôyï˛Ó á!lˆÏçÓ˚ !Ù◊î–
!¢°y åROCKSä ’
Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ !¢°y myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– ~ܲ!ê˛ !¢°y ~ܲ Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ á!lˆÏçÓ˚
!Ù◊î– !¢°y ܲ!ë˛l Óy ˆÜ˛yÙ° ~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚G •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ @˝Ãyly•zê˛ Ü˛!ë˛lñ ˆ§y˛õˆÏfiê˛yl åsoapstoneä ˆÜ˛yÙ°
•Î˚– àƒyˆÏÓ y ܲyˆÏ°y ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê≈˛çy•zê˛ åquartziteä ò%ˆÏôÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y
§yòy •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– !¢°yÎ˚ á!lç §Çàë˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°#
ÌyˆÏܲ ly– !¢°yÎ˚ ≤ÃyÆ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §yôyÓ˚î á!lç •Ï° ˆÊ˛”˛§‰˛õyÓ˚
~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê≈˛ç–
ˆ˛õˆÏê˛∆y°!ç åPetrologyä •ˆÏ°y !¢°yÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl– ~ܲçl
ˆ˛õˆÏê˛∆y xôƒÎ˚l!Óò åPetrologistä !¢°yÓ˚ §Ü˛° !òˆÏܲÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ àë˛lñ l܉˛¢yñ !Ólƒy§ñ àë˛l
≤Ãîy°# Óy ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyñ í˛zͲõ!_ñ ≤Ãy!ÆfiÌylñ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ÓÇ
xlƒylƒ !¢°yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛Ó˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚l–
!¢°y ~ÓÇ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õñ !¢°y ~ÓÇ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ !l!Óí˛¸
§¡õÜ≈˛ !ÓòƒyÙyl ï˛y•z ~ܲçl Ë)˛ˆÏày°!ÓˆÏòÓ˚ !¢°y §¡∫ˆÏrô ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ
K˛yl Ìyܲy ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl– !¢°yÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ xyˆÏSÈ ˆÎà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
àë˛l ˛õÂô!ï˛ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ !ï˛l ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ Ë˛yà ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y •° ı
(i) xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !¢°y ÈüüüÈ ÙƒyàÙy ~ÓÇ °y˲y ˆÌˆÏܲ çÙyê˛ ÓÑyˆÏô Óy ¢=˛
•Î˚; (ii) ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y ÈüüüÈ Ó!•ç≈yï˛ ˛≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y !¢°yÓ˚ xLjϢÓ˚
§M˛ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ Ê˛°– (iii) Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°y ÈüüüÈ Óï≈˛Ùyl !¢°yÓ˚ ˛õ%l/ˆÏܲ°y!§ï˛
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !¢°y åIgneous Rocksä ı
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚˲yˆÏàÓ˚ ÙƒyàÙy G °y˲y ˆÌˆÏܲ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚
!¢°yÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ñ ï˛y•z ~ˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ !¢°y Ó°y •Î˚– xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !¢°y
åIgnis °ƒy!ê˛l ¢∑ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ ‘Fire’ Óy
xyà%lä §,!T˛ •Î˚ Îál ÙƒyàÙy ¢#ï˛° •Î˚ ~ÓÇ çÙyê˛ ÓÑyˆÏô– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈•z ˆçˆÏlSÈ ˆÎ ÙƒyàÙy ܲ#– Îál ÙƒyàÙy |ôÁ≈Ù%á# ≤ÃÓyˆÏ• Óy
à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ¢#ï˛° •ˆÏÎ˚ ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚ ï˛ál ~ˆÏܲ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚
!¢°y Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z ¢#ï˛° G çÙyê˛ Óy ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲ Óy Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !¢°yˆÏܲ !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~Ó˚ !Ólƒy§ ܲîyÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ G ÓƒÓfiÌy xÌÓy ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
xlƒylƒ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– à!°ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)•
Î!ò á%Ó à˲#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#Ó˚à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ¢#ï˛° •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ܲîy§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚
xyܲyÓ˚ ΈÏÌT˛ ÓˆÏí˛¸y •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ xyܲ!fløܲ ¢#ï˛°ï˛yÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ܲîy§Ù)• ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ~ÓÇ §)- xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ •Î˚– xyˆÏ@¿Î˚
!¢°y §,!T˛Ü˛yÓ˚# ܲîy§Ù)• Î!ò ¢#ï˛°ï˛yÓ˚ ÙôƒÙ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛y•ˆÏ°
ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚G ÙôƒÙ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– @˝Ãyly•zê˛ åGraniteäñ
àƒyˆÏÓ y ågabbroäñ ˛õƒyàÙyê˛y•zê˛ åpegmatiteäñ Óƒy§Œê˛ åbasaltäñ
çµy°yÙ%á# ˆÓ !§Î˚y åvolcanic brecciaä ~ÓÇ ê˛yÊ˛ åtuffä •Ï° xyˆÏ@¿Î˚
!¢°yÓ˚ !ܲS%È í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y åSedimentary Rocksä ı
Ú˛õy°!°Ü˛Û ¢∑!ê˛ °ƒy!ê˛l ¢∑ ‘sedimentum’ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È
ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏFSÈ ÚÚ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ •GÎ˚y åsettlingäÛÛ– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚
!¢°y§Ù)• åxyˆÏ@¿Î˚ñ ˛õy°!°Ü˛ G Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ä Ë)˛ÈüÈ˲yˆÏàÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚ï˛ˆÏ°
í˛zß√%=˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ l@¿#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ÙyôƒÙ myÓ˚y !Ó!˲ߨ
xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ á![˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~§Ü˛° á![˛ï˛ xÇ¢§Ù)• !Ó!˲ߨ
Ó!•ç≈yï˛ ÙyôƒÙ§Ù%• myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ G §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z §!M˛ï˛
˛õòyÌ≈§Ù%• !l!Óí˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ §ÇâÓÂô •ˆÏÎ˚ !¢°yÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– ~•z
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ !°!Ì!Ê˛ˆÏܲ¢l ålithificationä Ó°y •Î˚– !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°yÎ˚ §!M˛ï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚§Ù)• !°!Ì!Ê˛ˆÏܲ¢ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚G
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !lçfl∫ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒï˛y ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá– ~ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy°!°Ü˛
!¢°yÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ âlc Óy §ywï˛yÙ) ° ܲ hflÏ Ó ˚ ˆòáˆÏ ï ˛ ˛õy•z
ˆÎÙlÈüȈӈϰ˛õyÌÓ˚ñ ˆ¢° åshaleä ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛–
àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°yˆÏܲ ≤Ãôylï˛ !ï˛l!ê˛
ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ Ë˛yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ı (i) Îy!sfܲ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ ÈüüüÈ í˛zòy•Ó˚îÈ ı
ˆÓˆÏ°˛õyÌÓ˚ñ Ü˛ÇˆÏ@’yÙyˆÏÓ˚ê˛ñ ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ñ ˆ¢°ñ ˆ°yˆÏÎ˚¢ •zï˛ƒy!ò (ii)
˜çÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ÈüüüÈ í˛zòy•Ó˚î ı !§Ó˚y•zê‰˛˛ñ ã˛Ü˛ñ ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ñ
ܲÎ˚°y ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛; (iii) Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ ÈüüüÈ í˛zòy•Ó˚î ı ã%˛l
åchertäñ ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ñ ˆ•°y•zê˛ñ ˛õê˛y¢ •zï˛ƒy!ò–
á!lç ~ÓÇ !¢°y 43

˛Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°y åMetamorphic Rocksä ı
ÚÓ˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛Û ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ xÌ≈ Úàë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lÛ– ~•z !¢°y§Ù)• §,T˛
•Î˚ ã˛y˛õñ xyÎ˚ï˛l G ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ å§ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ PVT ä ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°–
Îál àyë˛!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• åtectonic processesä myÓ˚y !¢°y§Ù%•
!l¡¨hflψÏÓ˚ Ó°˛õ)Ó≈ܲ ˆÎˆÏï˛ Óyôƒ •Î˚ xÌÓy Îál Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ à!°ï˛
ÙƒyàÙy í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zë˛yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ Ë)˛˛õ,¤˛#Î˚ !¢°yÓ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xyˆÏ§ xÌÓy
!l¡¨hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ !¢°y Îál í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ !¢°y myÓ˚y ≤Ãã˛[˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §¡ø%á#l
•Î˚ ï˛ál ˛Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ âˆÏê˛– Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ •ˆÏFSÈ ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ÎyÓ˚
myÓ˚y •z!ï˛ÙˆÏôƒ §Ù!ß∫ï˛ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ !¢°y§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• ˛õ%l/
ˆÜ˛°y!§ï˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õ%l/à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
!ӈϢ£Ï ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l SÈyí˛¸y !¢°yÓ˚ ˲y.l
~ÓÇ ã)˛î≈ÈüÈ!Óã%˛ˆÏî≈Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ !¢°yÓ˚ á!lç§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Îy!sfܲ
!Óã%˛î≈#˲Ól ~ÓÇ ˛õ%là≈ë˛lˆÏܲ à!ï˛¢#° Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ åDynamic
Metamorphismä ӈϰ– ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ó˚)˛õyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !¢°yÓ˚
˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õ%l/ˆÏܲ°y!§ï˛ •Î˚–
ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ xÌÓy ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ˆÏܲ ò%ÈüÈ˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚ ÈüüüÈ §ÇˆÏÎyà Ó˚˛) õyhs˝Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xyM˛!°Ü˛ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝Ó˚– §ÇˆÏÎyà Ó˚˛) õyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚
!¢°yà%ˆÏ°y x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î í˛z_Æ ÙƒyàÙy G °y˲yÓ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xyˆÏ§
~ÓÇ !¢°yÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• ≤Ãã˛[˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õ%l/ˆÏܲ°y!§ï˛ •Î˚–
≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z ÙƒyàÙy xÌÓy °y˲y ˆÌˆÏܲ lï%˛l ˛õòyÌ≈ !¢°yÎ˚ §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛
•Î˚– xyM˛!°Ü˛ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚ñ !¢°y ˛õ%l/ˆÏܲ°y!§ï˛ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î àyë˛!lܲ
ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ xï˛ƒ!ôܲ ã˛y˛õ xÌÓy ï˛y˛õ xÌÓy í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî
!¢°y !ÓÜ,˛ï˛ •Î˚ ӈϰ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ !¢°yÓ˚ !ܲS%È Ü˛îy xÌÓy
á!lç hflÓÏ ˚ Óy ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ !ÓlƒhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°yÎ˚ á!lç§Ù)•
Óy ܲîy§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ~Ó˚)˛õ !ÓlƒhflÏ#ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ˆÙyã˛l åfoliationä xÌÓy
ˆÓ˚áyAܲî ålineationä ӈϰ– ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly !Ó!˲ߨ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ á!lç
Óy ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ §Ó˚% ˆÌˆÏܲ fiÌ)° xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ !ÓlƒhflÏ
ÌyˆÏܲ– ~à%ˆ° Ï y ˆòáˆÏï˛ •yÕÒy ~ÓÇ àyì˛¸ ÓˆÏîÓ≈ ˚ •Î˚– Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°yÎ˚
~Ó˚)˛õ àë˛lˆÏܲ ÓÑyܲ åbandingä ӈϰ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚)˛õ ÓÑyܲ ˆòáyˆÏly
!¢°yˆÏܲ ÓÑyܲÎ%=˛ !¢°y åbanded rocksä ӈϰ– Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°yÓ˚
ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ !¢°y Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛
!¢°y Óy ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ !¢°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚– Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°yˆÏܲ ≤Ãôylï˛ ò%!ê˛
˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ÎÌy ÈüÈ ˆÊ˛y!°ï˛ Óy ˛õˆÏeyÂàï˛ åfoliatedä
!¢°y ~ÓÇ xÈüÈˆÊ˛y!°ï˛ Óy x˛õˆÏeyÂàï˛ ånon-foliatedä !¢°y–
Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°yÓ˚ !ܲS%È í˛zòy•Ó˚î •° ÈüÈ !l§‰ñ @˝Ãyly•zê˛ñ §yÎ˚ly•zê˛
åsyeniteäñ ˆfl‘ê˛ åslateä !¢T˛ åschistäñ ÙyˆÏÓ≈°ñ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê≈˛çy•zê˛
≤ÃË,˛!ï˛–
!¢°yã˛Ü ˛ åROCK CYCLEä ı
!¢°y ò#â≈ܲy° ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÌyˆÏܲ ly ÓÓ˚Ç Ó˚)˛õyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Óy
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– !¢°yã˛Ü ˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ x!ÓÓ˚yÙ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ÎyÓ˚
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ≤Ãyã˛#l !¢°y lÓ#l !¢°yÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚–
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!¢°y •ˆÏFSÈ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ !¢°y ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ !¢°y§Ù)•
å˛õy°!°Ü˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ä ~§Ó ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ !¢°y ˆÌˆÏܲ §,T˛ •Î˚–
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!¢°y Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°yÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï˛≈ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ G
Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ á![˛ï˛ xÇ¢§Ù)• ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õy°!°Ü˛
!¢°y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y§Ù)• «%˛o «%˛o xÇ¢ á![˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z «%˛o xÇ¢§Ù)• ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y §,!T˛Ó˚ í˛zͧ
Ó˚˛) õyhs˝Ó˚ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ à!°ï˛
!¢°y
˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y ÙƒyàÙy
ܲ!ë˛l#˲Ól
!°!Ì!Ê˛ˆÜÏ ˛¢l
˛õ!° Óy ˛õ°° xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!¢°y
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚
G «˛Î˚
!ã˛e 5.1 : !¢°yã˛Ü ˛ åRock Cycleä
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛#Î˚ !¢°y åxyˆÏ@¿Î˚ñ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ G ˛õy°!°Ü˛ä à!ë˛ï
˛•GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ !lÙIl ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !¢°y§Ù)• l#ˆÏã˛ à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
å˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝ÓË˚ ˛yˆÏàä ã˛ˆÏ° ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ å˛õyï˛ !lÙIl ~°yܲyÎ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyï˛ xlƒ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ §¡õ)îË≈ ˛yˆÏÓ Óy xyÇ!¢Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lÙ!Iï˛
•Î˚ä ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚˲yˆÏà ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!Âô ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî
~!ê˛ à!°ï˛ ÙƒyàÙyÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚ Îy xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !¢°yÓ˚ Ù)° í˛zͧ å!ã˛e
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1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
(i) !lˆÏ¡¨ Ó!î≈ï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ò%!ê˛ @˝Ãyly•zˆÏê˛Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl í˛z˛õyòyl ⁄
(a) ˆ°y•y ~ÓÇ !lˆÏܲ° (c) !§!°Ü˛y ~ÓÇ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ
(b) ˆ°y•y ~ÓÇ ï˛yÙy (d) ˆ°Ô• x:y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ
(ii) !lˆÏ¡¨ Ó!î≈ï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°yÓ˚ ˛≤Ãôyl ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ⁄
(a) ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#° (c) ˆÜ˛°y!§ï˛
(b) hfl)Ï˛õyܲyÓ˚ (d) ˆÙyã˛l Óy ˛õˆÏeyÂàÙ
(iii) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ~ܲ í˛z˛õyòylÎ%=˛ á!lç lÎ˚⁄
(a) ˆ§yly (c) xº
(b) Ó˚)˛õy (d) @˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛
(iv) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ܲ!ë˛lï˛Ù á!lç⁄
(a) ˆ˛õyáÓ˚yç (c) ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê≈˛ç
(b) !•Ó˚y (d) ˆÊ˛”˛§‰˛õyÓ˚
(v) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y lÎ˚⁄
(a) ê˛yÎ˚°y•zê˛ (c) ˆÓ !§Î˚y
(b) ˆÓyÓ˚: (d) ÙyˆÏÓ≈°
2. !lˆÏ¡¨ Ó!î≈ï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) !¢°y Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄ !¢°yÓ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl ˆ◊!îÓ˚ lyÙ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
(ii) xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !¢°y ܲ#⁄ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !¢°yÓ˚ àë˛l ˛õÂô!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iii) ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y ܲ#⁄ ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°yÓ˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iv) !¢°yã˛Ü ˛ myÓ˚y ≤Ãôyl !¢°yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲ# Ó˚Ü˛Ù §¡õÜ≈˛ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚⁄
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ 150 !ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) Úá!lçÛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ xÌ≈ !lÓ˚˛) õî ܲˆÏÓ˚y– á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§• ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yàà%ˆÏ°y
ˆ°ˆÏáy–
(ii) Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl !¢°y§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ ~ÓÇ í˛zͲõ!_Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓy˚ – ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !lÓ˚)˛õî ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄
(iii) Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°y ܲyˆÏܲ ӈϰ⁄ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !¢°yÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà§Ù)• Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓy˚ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆ°
Ï y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ
§,!T˛ •Î˚⁄

≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
!Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ !¢°yÓ˚ lÙ%ly §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓy˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ xl%ÎyÎ˚# ÓySÈy•z ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓy˚ ~ÓÇ
~ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò ¢ly=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–

Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)•
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
˛õ, !ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#
˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ Ë)˛cܲ ~ÓÇ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ ˲yà à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛y
ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ#Î˚ ˛õyï˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÎ ã˛°l¢#° ~ÓÇ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ï˛Ìƒ§Ù)• çylyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ~ál xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ çylˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏàÓ˚ ˆ§•z xÇ¢ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆÎáyˆÏl xyÙÓ˚y
Ó§Óy§ ܲ!Ó˚– !lˆÏ¡¨ í˛z!ÏÕ‘!áï˛ ≤ß¿!ê˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xyÙÓ˚y xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛
¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yà!ê˛ ~ï˛ ~ÓˆÏí˛¸yÈüȈÌÓˆÏí˛¸y ˆÜ˛l⁄
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y xyˆÏà•z ˆçˆÏlSÈ ˆÎñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛
í˛zÕ‘¡∫ ~ÓÇ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°y!í˛¸ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Î!òG xï˛#ˆÏï˛
~•z xyˆÏ°yí˛¸l Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ !ܲS%Èê˛y o%ï˛ •Î˚– xhs˝ç≈yï˛
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xLjϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
x§yÙO§ƒ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ x!ÓÓ˚ï˛ Ó!•≈çyï˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y
myÓ˚ y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ñ ~•z Ó!•≈ ç yï˛ ¢!=˛à% ˆ Ï ° yÓ˚ Ù) ° í˛z Í § •°
§)Î≈yˆÏ°yܲ– Î!òG xhsç≈yï˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y ~álG §!Ü ˛Î˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ
!ܲv ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xÌ≈yÍ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛
x!ÓÓ˚ï˛ Óy!•ƒÜ˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ã˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ ÎyÓ˚
í˛zͧ •° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î
¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yG ܲyç ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– Óy!•ƒÜ˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y Ó!•≈çyï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
åexogenic forcesä ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y
xhs˝çy≈ ï˛ ¢!=˛ åendogenic forcesä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– Ó!•ç≈yï˛
¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ xÓlÙl •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ
xÓˆÏÓy˚ •î ådegradationä Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ !l¡¨Ë˛) !Ùà%ˆ° Ï y ˲Ó˚yê˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
í˛z!aï˛ G xyˆÏÓ˚y•î åaggradationä •Î˚– ˛Ë)˛˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛
!lˆÏÙy≈ ã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° «˛Î˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚l åGradationä
ӈϰ– xhs˝ç≈yï˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xÇ¢ˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛
í˛z!aï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ã˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈñ ~çlƒ Ó!•ç≈yï˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚
x§Ùylï˛yˆÏܲ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ò)Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– ï˛y•zñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚
x ôƒy Î˚
x§yÙO§ƒ ï˛ï˛!òl ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ÌyܲˆÏÓ Îï˛!òl ~•z ò%•z !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ôÙ≈#
¢!=˛ xÌ≈yÍ xhs˝çy≈ ï˛ G Ó!•ç≈yï˛ ¢!=˛ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚ ÌyܲˆÏÓ– §yôyÓ˚î
xˆÏÌñ≈ xhs˝≈çyï˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆ° Ï y Ë)˛ÈüÈàë˛lܲyÓ˚# ~ÓÇ Ó!•≈çyï˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆ° Ï y
Ë) ˛ ÈüÈcܲ «˛Î˚ Ü ˛yÓ˚ # ¢!=˛– Ë) ˛ ÈüÈ˛õ, ˆ Ï ¤ ˛Ó˚ í˛z ˛ õ!Ó˚ Ë ˛yà ÎˆÏ Ì T˛
§ÇˆÏÓòl¢#°– ÙylÓ §¡±òyÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ç#ÓlôyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ ~Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° ~ÓÇ ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Ó•%ܲy° ôˆÏÓ˚ ~•z Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏܲ
Ùyl%£Ï !l!Óí˛¸ G Óƒy˛õܲ˲yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ã˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ– ï˛y•z ~Ó˚
§ˆÏÓ≈yÍÜ,˛T˛ ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ ï˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ ˲yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ çylˆÏï˛
•ˆÏÓ ÎyˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y ~Ó˚ §Ùï˛y lT˛ ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õy!Ó˚
G ˲!Ó£Ï ƒ Í ˛≤ÃçˆÏ ß √Ó˚ çlƒ ï˛y §ÇÓ˚ « ˛î ܲÓ˚ ˆ Ï ï ˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ –
˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ §Ü˛° ç#Óç í˛z˛õyòyl ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚
§yÙO§ƒï˛y ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáyÓ˚ çlƒ !ܲS%È ly !ܲS%È Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– Î!òG
ÙylÓ §Ùyç ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ Óƒy˛õܲ «˛!ï˛ §yôl ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
xyÙÓ˚y ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õò xÓ¢ƒ•z ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚Ó !ܲv ï˛yÓ˚ x˛õã˛Î˚
ܲÓ˚Ó ly– ܲyÓ˚î xyÙÓ˚y ˲!Ó£ÏƒÍ ≤ÃçˆÏß√Ó˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ ~•z §¡õò
à!FSÈï˛ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá ˆÎˆÏï˛ ã˛y•z– ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ x!ôܲyÇ¢ ˲yà ò#â≈
§ÙÎ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ å≤ÃyÎ˚ •yçyÓ˚ ÓSÈÓä˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl Ó˚˛) õ ôyÓ˚î
ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ G x˛õÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~Ó˚
ܲyÎ≈«˛Ùï˛y á%Ó•z o%ï˛ •…y§ ˛õyˆÏFSÈ– ï˛y•z Î!ò ˙ §Ü˛° ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Îy
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §yôˆÏl xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ܲ#
ôÓ˚ ˆ Ï l Ó˚ ˛õòyÌ≈ myÓ˚ y à!ë˛ï˛ ï˛y çyly G ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛ˆÏ Ó
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛˛õ,¤˛çyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ x˛õÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ Ó•%°yLjϢ ܲÙyˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓñ˚
~ܲyhs˝ • z Î!ò ܲÙyˆÏ l y ly ÎyÎ˚ ï˛ˆÏ Ó xhs˝ ï ˛˛õˆÏ « ˛ !ܲS% È
§ï˛Ü≈˛ï˛yÙ)°Ü˛ ˛õòˆÏ«˛˛õ ˆlGÎ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• åGEOMORPHIC PROCESSESäı
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚ y !lŸã˛Î˚ Ë) ˛ !ÙÓ˚ ) ˛ õ ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y Ó˚ xÌ≈ çylˆÏ ï ˛ ã˛y•z ˆ Ï Ó ⁄
§yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ xhs˝ç≈yï˛ G Ó!•ç≈yï˛ ¢!=˛§Ù)• Îy ˆË˛Ô!ï˛Ü˛ G
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ Ó˚)˛õˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ӈϰ– Ë)˛ÈüÈ!Ó˛õÎ≈Î˚ G x@¿%ƒò‰àÙ •° xhs˝ç≈yï˛
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Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y– ~§Ü˛° !Ó£ÏÎ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ñ ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ñ «˛Î˚#˲Ól
~ÓÇ §M˛Î˚ •° Ó!•ç≈yï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y– Ó!•≈çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%!° §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÓ–
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó!•ç≈yï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl åˆÎÙlÈüÈç°ñ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ñ
ÓyÎ˚% ˛≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ä Îy ˛õy!Ì≈Ó í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ í˛zͲõyê˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó•l
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §«˛Ù ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ÙyôƒÙ Óy Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛
Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z §Ü˛° ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y Îál §ã˛° •Î˚
ï˛ál ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Ë)˛ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)•
x˛õ§yÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ xlƒe ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l¡¨Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛
!àˆÏ Î ˚ §!M˛ï˛ ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ – Ë) ˛ !ÙÓ˚ ) ˛ õ ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y ~ÓÇ Ë) ˛ !ÙÓ˚ ) ˆ Ï ˛ õÓ˚
ÙyôƒÙà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ å!ӈϢ£Ïï˛ Ó!•ç≈yï˛ä xy°yòy ܲˆÏÓ˚ Óî≈ly ly ܲÓ˚ˆ°
ï˛yÓ˚y ~ܲ ~ÓÇ x!˲ߨ–
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y •Ï° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛çyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# Ó° Îy
˙ §Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ÙyôƒÙ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ §ã˛°
≤Ã!ï˛!l!ô å≤ÃÓ•Ùyl ç°ñ ã˛°l¢#° ÓÓ˚Ê˛ñ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy•ñ §Ù%o
ï˛Ó˚Aà ~ÓÇ ˆflÀyï˛ ≤Ã˲, !ï˛ä Îy ˛õy!Ì≈ܲ Ó›Ó˚ x˛õ§yÓ˚îñ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î
G §M˛Î˚ §yôl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ≤ÃÓy•Ùyl ç°ôyÓ˚yñ ˆË˛ÔÙç°ñ
!•ÙÓy•ñ ÓyÎ˚%ñ §Ù%o ï˛Ó˚Aà ~ÓÇ ˆflÀyï˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ ˲!ÙÓ˚)˛õ
ÙyôƒÙ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚–
ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ !ܲ ÙˆÏl •Î˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ÙyôƒÙ G Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲÓ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl⁄
Ùyôƒyܲ£Ïî≈ ¢!=˛ §Ó ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ !l¡¨ ì˛y°àyÙ# Ó›Ó˚ !lˆÏò¢≈ Ù)°Ü˛
¢!=˛ •ÓyÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ˛Ë)˛˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒG ˛õ#í˛¸ˆÏlÓ˚
§,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õˆÏÓ˚y«˛ Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ#í˛¸ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ §Ù%o
ï˛Ó˚Aà G §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈l ¢!=˛ G ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚
xl%˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y âê˛ˆÏÓ ly– Ê˛ˆÏ°
Ó›Ó˚ ã˛°l âê˛ˆÏÓ ly ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ «˛Î˚ñ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î G
§M˛Î˚ âˆÏê˛ ly– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y Ùyôƒyܲ£Ïî≈ ¢!=˛Ó˚
˛õ#í˛¸lG ï˛ï˛•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ•z xyÙÓ˚y
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ Ìy!ܲ ~ÓÇ ~•z ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ•z Ó›§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
ã˛°l âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– xyÓyÓ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈx˲ƒhs˝Ó˚fiÌ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛fiÌ §Ü˛°
≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ã˛°l•z §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ˆ§•z
ã˛°l í˛zFã˛Ë)˛!Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ !l¡¨Ë˛) !ÙÓ˚ !òˆÏܲñ í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ !l¡¨ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
!òˆÏܲ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
xhs˝ç≈yï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y åENDOGENIC PROCESSESä ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î ¢!=˛•z •° xhs˝ç≈yï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Ù)°
í˛zͧ– ~•z ¢!=˛ Ù)°ï˛ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ï˛yñ xyÓï≈˛lç!lï˛
ܲyÓ˚î ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ §Çâ£Ï≈ ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §,!T˛Ü˛yˆÏ° í˛zͲõߨ
ï˛y˛õ¢!=˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî– ~•z §Ü˛° ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ ˆÎ xhs˝ç≈yï˛
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !¢°yÙ[˛ˆÏ° Ë)˛ÈüÈ!Ó˛õÎ≈Î˚ G
x@¿%ƒò‰àÙ âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ë)˛ÈüÈï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
x§yÙO§ƒ ÌyܲyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xhs˝ç≈yï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
§Ùyl˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚ lyñ ï˛y•z Ë)˛ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ ¢!=˛ myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛
Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ àë˛lG x§Ùï˛°–
Ë)˛ÈüÈ!Ó˛õÎ≈Î˚ åDiastrophismä ı
Ï
ˆÎ §Ü˛° ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ í˛z!aï˛ Óy xÓl!Ùï˛ Óy §,!T˛
•Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ Ë)˛ÈüÈ!Ó˛õÎ≈Î˚ ӈϰ– Ë)˛ÈüÈ!Ó˛õÎ≈Î˚ ≤Ãôylï˛ ã˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ÈüüüÈ
åiä !à!Ó˚ç!l xyˆÏ°yí˛¸lñ ÎyÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ !Ó¢y°yÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚
˲!Aà° ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ò#â≈ G §Çܲ#î≈
xM˛°ˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓó˚ åiiä Ù•#˲yÓܲ xyˆÏ°yí˛¸lñ ÎyÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ
!Ó¢y°yÎ˚ï˛l Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ •Î˚ó åiii ä Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õñ Îy
Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲ ܲ¡õl âê˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ åivä ˛õyï˛ §ÇfiÌyl Îy Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ#Î˚
˛õyï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ã˛°ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚#–
!à!Ó˚ç!l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ñ Ë)˛ÈüÈcܲ ï˛#Ӡ˲yˆÏÓ ËÑ˛yç≤ÃyÆ •Î˚– xyÓyÓ˚
Ù•#˲yÓܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚î ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ï˛y•z !à!Ó˚ç!l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ˛õÓ≈ï˛ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ Ù•#˲yÓܲ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ Ù•yˆÏò¢ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
ÎÌy !à!Ó˚ç!lñ Ù•#˲yÓܲñ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ~ÓÇ ˛õyï˛§ÇfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲ ê˛yl G ˛õ#í˛¸ˆÏlÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– ~•z §Ü˛° ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y !¢°yÎ˚
ã˛y˛õ åPressureäñ xyÎ˚ï˛l å Volumeä ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚
åTemperature ä åPVT ä ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !¢°yˆÏܲ
Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚–
Ù•#˲yÓܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ !à!Ó˚ç!l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ
ˆ°ˆÏáy–
x@¿%ƒò‰àÙ åVolcanismä ı
ˆÎ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈx˲ƒhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z_Æ à!°ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ åmagmaäñ
ÎÌyÈüÈÙƒyàÙyñ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%ñ àƒy§ñ ˆôÑyÎ˚yñ ≤ÃhflÏÓ˚ á[˛ñ Óy‹õñ ܲò≈Ùñ
˲flø ˛≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ò%Ó≈° xÇ¢ !òˆÏÎ˚ Óy Ê˛yê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)•
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ G !Ó!˲ߨ !SÈo˛õÌ !òˆÏÎ˚ í˛zß√%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ çÙy •Î˚
Óy Ë)˛ÈüÈcˆÏܲ xl%≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§•z ˛≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ x@¿%ƒò‰à٠ӈϰ–
x@¿%ƒò‰àˆÏÙÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ xˆÏlܲ !l/§yÓ˚# G í˛zò‰ˆÏÓô# xyˆÏ@¿Î˚
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– x@¿%ƒò‰àˆÏÙÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ !òܲ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈Óï˛≈#
xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~SÈyí˛¸y ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ å~ܲܲÈüIIÈä xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!¢°yÓ˚ xLjϢG ~Ó˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
x@¿%ƒò‰àÙ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ ~•z ò%ˆÏê˛y ¢∑ ܲ# ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚⁄
Ó!•ç≈yï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• åEXOGENIC PROCESSESä ı
ˆÎ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §)Î≈ï˛y˛õñ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ñ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚˛õyï˛ñ lò#ñ
!•ÙÓy•ñ ÓyÎ˚%ñ §Ù%oï˛Ó˚Aàñ ˆË˛ÔÙç° ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ Óy!•ƒÜ˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛
¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y ò#â≈ܲy° ôˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏà !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° ˆÌˆÏܲ
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l âê˛yÎ˚ Óy Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ˲y‹ÒˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ
Ó!•≈çyï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ӈϰ– Ó!•ç≈yï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ
Ù)°ï˛ §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢!=˛ §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈx˲ƒhs˝ˆÏÓ˚ í˛zͲõߨ
¢!=˛ myÓ˚yG ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛l ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚ ˆÎñ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ì˛y° Ë)˛ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛⁄
Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆ§•z §Ü˛° Ó›Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚
xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y ì˛yˆÏ° xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~•z
Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ì˛yˆÏ° !l¡¨Ù%á# ã˛°l âˆÏê˛
ÌyˆÏܲ– ≤Ã!ï˛ ~ܲܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ã˛y!°ï˛ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ#í˛¸l ӈϰ– ܲ!ë˛l Ó›ˆÏܲ
ôyE˛y !òˆÏ° åpushä Óy ê˛ylˆÏ° åpullä G•z Ó›ˆÏï˛ ˛õ#í˛¸ˆÏlÓ˚ §,!T˛
•Î˚– ~•z ˛õ#í˛¸ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°•z !¢°yÓ˚ !ÓÜ,˛!ï˛ âˆÏê˛– ˆÎ§Ü˛° ¢!=˛
Ë)˛ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ Ü,˛hs˝l ˛õ#í˛¸l
åshear stresses Óy ˛õ,Ìܲ#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ¢!=˛ä ӈϰ– ~•z Ü,˛hs˝l ˛õ#í˛¸l
!¢°y ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ Ë)˛ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ í˛z˛õyòylˆÏܲ ã)˛î≈ÈüÈ!Óã)˛î≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ
!Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ âê˛yÎ˚ Óy fiÌylã%˛ƒ!ï˛ åslippageä âê˛yÎ˚– Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛Ó˚
ã˛yˆÏ ˛ õÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ xyî!Óܲ ã˛y˛õG ~•z § ܲ° Ë) ˛ È ü È à yë˛!lܲ
í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ˲yˆÏÓ ã˛y˛õ ˆòÎ˚– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛zˆÕÏ á‘ ˆÏÎyàƒ
•° ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lñ à°lñ ˆÜ˛°y!§ï˛ •GÎ˚y ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ òylyà%ˆ° Ï y ò%Ó°
≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸
~ÓÇ oÓl#Î˚ á!lç ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– xÌ≈yÍ
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ñ ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ ~ÓÇ «˛Î˚#˲Ól §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !¢°yhflψÏÓ˚
˛õ#í˛¸ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°•z §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ Ó, ! T˛˛õyï˛ È ü üüÈ ~•z ò% ˆ Ï ê ˛y •° à% Ó ˚ % c ˛õ) î ≈
ç°ÓyÎ˚à% ï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl Îy !Ó!˲ߨ Ó!•≈çyï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ !lÎ˚sîf ܲˆÏÓ–˚
~•z§Ü˛° ˛Ó!•≈çyï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ~ܲˆÏe l@¿#˲Ól ӈϰ– °ƒy!ê˛l
47
¢∑ ÚdenudeÛ ˆÌˆÏܲ denudation xÌ≈yÍ l@¿#˲Ól ¢∑!ê˛
~ˆÏ§ˆÏSÈ– ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ xlyÓ,_ Ìyܲy– xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ñ ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ñ
«˛Î˚ܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ §!¡ø!°ï˛ ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ x˛õ§Ó˚îñ
l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !¢°yhflÓÏ ˚ í˛zß√%=˛Ü˛Ó˚î G Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y •…y§ •° l@¿#˲Ól–
!ã˛e 6.1 ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy• !ã˛e!ê˛ˆÏ ï ˛ l@¿#˲Ól G ï˛yÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y ˆòáyˆÏly •°– ~•z ã˛yê≈˛!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ flõT˛ •Î˚ ˆÎ
≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ˛õSȈÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ §%!l!ò≈T˛ ã˛y!°Ü˛y ¢!=˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ç°yÓyÎ%̊
!Ó!˲ߨñ ï˛y•z Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛°G
l@¿#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ «˛Î˚#˲Ól‡˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î
ã˛y!°Ü˛y¢!=˛ ÙyôƒÜ˛£Ï≈î ¢!=˛ ‡
xyî!Óܲ ˛õ#í˛¸l‡ Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î à!ï˛¢!=˛
Óy Ó° ¢!=˛
Ó˚yÎ˚y§!lܲ ˛≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
!ã˛e 6.1 : l@¿#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
ã˛y!°Ü˛y ¢!=˛§Ù)•
àˆÏí˛¸ í˛zˆÏë˛ˆÏSÈ– ~•z §Ü˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛° Ù)°ï˛ x«˛yÇ¢ˆÏ˲ˆÏòñ
}ï%˛ˆÏ˲ˆÏò ~ÓÇ ç°Ë˛yà G fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ ˜Ó!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ çlƒ•z §,!T˛
•ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˜Ó!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ çlƒ Ó!•≈çyï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒG xM˛°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò ˜Ó£ÏÙƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ
í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ñ âlc ~ÓÇ Ó^˝ê˛l Îy Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ G í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ñ ˆ§ê˛yG ˛õˆÏÓy˚ «˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ó!•≈çyï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° !ܲS%È fiÌyl#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó!•≈çyï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ Ó˚Ü˛ÙˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ •° ÈüÈ í˛zFã˛ï˛yàï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lñ !òܲ˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒñ ˛õ)Ó≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ
˛õ!Ÿã˛ÙÙ%á# ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò!«˛îÙ%á# ì˛yˆÏ° §)ÎÓ≈ !˚ Ÿ¬Ó˚
ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ ÓyÎ%̊≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚
!òܲ G à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒñ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò G ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛yñ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ G Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ñ
˜ò!lܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çyÓ˚ñ !•ÙyAܲ G à°lyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_ñ
ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yñ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ§Ù)• ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ç°ÓyÎ˚%
xM˛ˆÏ° !˲ߨ !˲ߨ •Î˚–
§Ó ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ Ó!•≈çyï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~ܲÙye ã˛y!°Ü˛y ¢!=˛!ê˛ Ü˛#⁄
Îál ç°ÓyÎ%̊àï˛ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y §Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ál Ó!•≈çyï˛
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y !¢°yÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ G àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !¢°yÓ˚ àë˛l Ó°ˆÏï˛ ~áyˆÏl !¢°yÓ˚ ËÑ˛yçñ ã%˛ƒ!ï˛ñ
!¢°y hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ l!ï˛ñ ÓÑyܲñ !òܲñ Ê˛yê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ G xl%˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ñ
hflÏÓ˚yÎ˚lï˛°ñ !¢°y àë˛lܲyÓ˚# á!lˆÏçÓ˚ lÙl#Î˚ï˛y G ܲy!ë˛lƒñ
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≤Ã˲, !ï˛ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ !¢°yÓ˚ «˛Î˚ ≤Ã!ï˛•ï˛
xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õîñ !Ù!°
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛y !Ó!˲ߨñ ï˛y•z ˆ§à%ˆ° Ï y !Ó!˲ߨ˲yˆÏÓ Ó!•≈çyï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ !¢°y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÓ!¢ «˛Î˚ ≤Ã!ï˛•ï˛Ü˛yÓ˚# •Î˚ xyÓyÓ˚ xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚
ˆï˛Ùl˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ã!ï˛•ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲñ ~ܲ•z !¢°y
!˲ߨ !˲ߨ ç°ÓyÎ˚ˆ% ïÏ ˛ !Ó!˲ߨ˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ã!ï˛!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ˆÎ !¢°y §•ˆÏç «˛Î˚≤ÃyÆ •Î˚ ly xlƒ
ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ï˛y §•ˆÏç «˛Î˚≤ÃyÆ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ çlƒ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ
àë˛ˆÏlG ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà Ó!•≈çyï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
≤Ã˲yÓ á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù ~ÓÇ ô#Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y •GÎ˚yÓ˚ fl∫“ܲy°#l §ÙˆÏÎ˚
§•ˆÏç ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ly– !ܲv ò#â≈ܲyˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏï˛ !¢°yÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ á%Ó Ë˛yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ
˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
xӈϢˆÏ£Ïñ ~ê˛y Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xÇ¢
Ù)°ï˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !¢°y§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
àë˛l G ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆËÏ ˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒñ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ˜Ó£ÏÙƒ G
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ ≤Ã˲, !ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• xyçG
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ܲÓ˚y •° ÈüüüÈ
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ åWEATHERINGäı
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ã)˛î≈ÈüÈ!Óã)˛î≈ G !ÓˆÏÎy˚ !çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Ù)° !¢°y ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!FSÈߨ •ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏܲ
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ Ó°y •Î˚ – xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏ Ó ˚ Ó ˚ xhs˝ à ≈ ï ˛ !Ó!˲ߨ
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•ˆÏÎ˚ !¢°yˆÏܲ á[˛ á[˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
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Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçlˆÏܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ӈϰ–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚ Ó›§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §yÙylƒ §Ó˚î âˆÏê˛ xyÓyÓ˚
ܲálG ˆï˛Ùl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §Ó˚î âˆÏê˛ lyñ ï˛y•z xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
xhs˝/fiÌ Óy Ó!•/fiÌ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y–
xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÎ §yÙylƒ §Ó˚î âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛yˆÏܲ
!ܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ~Ó˚ §ÙÌ≈ܲ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚⁄ Î!ò ly •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ
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ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ñ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õàï˛ G fl∫y˲y!Óܲ í˛z!qòçyï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl myÓ˚y
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!ã˛e 6.2 : ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛° G xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y
åfiê˛∆yܲ•Ë‰˛ñ 1967ñ ˆÌˆÏܲ à,•#ï˛ G Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ä
!lÎ˚!sfï˛– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ç°ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˆÓ!¢ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î–≈ ç°ÓyÎ˚%
G xM˛°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò ¢%ô%Ùye xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ï˛Ê˛yï˛ âˆÏê˛ ly
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ çyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚G ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ •Î˚ å!ã˛e 6.2ä–
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Ï y !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓy˚ ~ÓÇ
ç°ÓyÎ%̊ xM˛°à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ ï%˛°ly ܲˆÏÓy˚ –
xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– ÎÌy ÈüÈ åiä Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ñ åiiä Îy!sfܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˜çÓ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚–
á%Ó Ü˛Ù §ÙÎ˚•z ~Ùl ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
~ܲܲ˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈñ !ܲv ÙyˆÏV˛ ÙyˆÏV˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ xy!ô˛õï˛ƒ x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
Ó˚ y §yÎ˚ ! lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏ Ó ˚ Ó ˚ ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y §Ù) • å Chemical
Weathering Processesäı
Ó˚ y §yÎ˚ ! lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏ Ó ˚ Ó ˚ ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y §Ù) • ÎÌy ÈüÈ çyÓ˚ î ñ
xAàyÓ˚ˆÏÎyçlñ ç°ˆÏÎyçlñ oÓîñ °â%ܲÓ˚î ≤Ã˲, !ï˛ !¢°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !¢°yÎ˚˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçlñ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛Ü˛Ó˚î
Óy °â% Ü ˛Ó˚ î âê˛yÎ˚ – ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏ ï ˛ x!:ˆÏ ç lñ ܲyÓ≈ l
í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ñ ç° ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ ~ܲyhs˝ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– ~SÈyí˛¸y
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ cÓ˚y!ß∫ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ÓyÎ˚% G
çˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ï˛y˛õG ~ܲyhs˝Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ü˛yÙƒ–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ Ù,ï˛ àySÈ˛õy°y G
≤Ãyî#Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl â!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈx˲ƒhs˝ˆÏÓ˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zÈx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ !¢°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ~•z
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˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y–
oÓî åSolutionäı
Îál ç° xÌÓy xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !ܲS%È oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ
ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ oÓî ӈϰ– ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ü˛!ë˛l
á!lˆÏçÓ˚ x˛õ§Ó˚î âˆÏê˛ñ Îy xyÓyÓ˚ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– çˆÏ°Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ ~ˆÏ° xˆÏlܲ á!lç ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆË˛ˆÏ.
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xƒy!§í˛ §Ù,Âô çˆÏ° åÎy çˆÏ° ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ Î%=˛ •ÓyÓ˚
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í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ Ù,!_ܲy!fiÌï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚– §yôyÓ˚î
áyòƒ– °ÓîG ~ܲ!ê˛ !¢°y àë˛lܲyÓ˚# á!lç Îy oÓî ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚–
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xAàyÓ˚ˆÎÏ yçl •Ï° ܲyÓ≈ˆlÏ ê˛ ~ÓÇ Óy•z ܲyÓ≈ˆlÏ ˆÏê˛Ó˚ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y– ~!ê˛ ˆÊ˛°§‰˛õyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlê˛ !¢°yÓ˚ ˲y.ˆÏl §y•y΃
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ~ÓÇ Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛
çˆÏ°Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!◊ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ܲyÓ≈!lܲ xƒy!§í˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy ò%Ó≈°
xƒy!§í˛Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ܲyÓ≈!lܲ xƒy!§í˛ ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ
ܲyÓ≈ˆlÏ ê˛ ~ÓÇ ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆlÏ ê˛ˆÏܲ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓñ˚ oÓîÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ
x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xÓ!¢T˛yÇ¢ ÌyˆÏܲ ly ~ÓÇ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ¢ˆÏ£Ï ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ à%•yÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚–
ç°ˆÏÎyçl åHydrationäı
!¢°yÓ˚ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ç° Î%=˛ •GÎ˚yˆÏܲ
ç°ˆÏÎyçl ӈϰ– á!lçà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ç° Î%=˛ •ˆÏ° ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ~•z ≤çyÓ˚î !¢°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚– ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ
§y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ •ˆÏ° !ç˛õ§yˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– Îy
ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x!ôܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° – ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
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!Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ü ˛ˆÏÙG âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ ò#â≈ §ÙÎ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_
âê˛ˆÏï˛ ÌyܲˆÏ° !¢°y ò%Ó≈° •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ~ÓÇ á[˛ !Óá[˛ •Î˚–
x!ôܲyÇ¢ ܲò≈Ù çyï˛#Î˚ á!lç !¢°yÓ˚ xyo≈ܲÓ˚î ~ÓÇ ¢%‹ÒܲÓ˚î
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ G ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_ˆÏï˛ !¢°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ x˛õ§Ó˚ˆîÏ §•yÎ˚ܲ •Î˚–
!¢°yÓ˚ §!FSÈoï˛yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !¢°yÎ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ °Óî ~˲yˆÏÓ ÓyÓ˚ÇÓyÓ˚
ç°ˆÏÎyçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !¢°yÎ˚ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ âê˛yÎ˚– ç°ˆÏÎyçl
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !¢°yÓ˚ ˆÎ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ï˛y ¢ÕÒˆÙÏ yã˛l
G «%˛o ܲîy !Ó¢Ó˚î çyï˛#Î˚ Îy!sfܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚ §•yÎ˚ï˛y ܲˆÏÓ–˚
çyÓ˚î ~ÓÇ °â%ܲÓ˚î åOxidation and Reductionäı
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ çyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ xÌ≈ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà á!lˆÏçÓ˚ !Ù°lñ
Îy x:y•zí˛ Óy •y•zˆÏí»˛y:y•zí˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– çyÓ˚î ˆ§•z xM˛ˆÏ°•z
âˆÏê˛ ˆÎáyˆÏl ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ x!:ˆÏçl á%Ó §•ˆÏç•z !¢°yÓ˚
§ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xyˆÏ§– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˆÎ á!lçà%ˆÏ°y §Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢
xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y •° ˆ°Ô•ñ ÙƒyAày!lçñ §y°Ê˛yÓ˚
≤ÃË,˛!ï˛– ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ !¢°yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆ°ÔˆÏ•Ó˚ °y° Ó˚Ç çyÓ˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Óyòy!Ù Óy
•°%ò •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– Îál çyÓ˚îâ!ê˛ï˛ á!lç x!:ˆÏçl!Ó•#l
˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xyˆÏ§ ï˛ál °â%ܲÓ˚î âˆÏê˛– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
âê˛ly §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˆË˛ÔÙ ç°hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ !fiÌÓ˚ ç°Î%=˛ ~ÓÇ
ç°Ù@¿ fiÌyˆÏl âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– °â%ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆ°ÔˆÏ•Ó˚ °y° Ó˚Ç
l#°y˲ ô)§Ó˚ Óy §Ó%çy˲ ô)§ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚–
~•z§Ü˛° xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛–
ç°ˆÏÎyçlñ xAàyÓ˚ˆÎÏ yçl ~ÓÇ çyÓ˚î ˛≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ã˛°ˆÏï˛
ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ cÓ˚y!^Èªï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚–
xyÙÓ˚y !ܲ ˆ°y•yÓ˚ Ù!Ó˚ã˛y ˛õí˛¸yˆÏܲ çyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î
!•§yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚⁄ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚
ç° Ü˛ï˛ê˛y x˛õ!Ó˚•yÎ≈⁄ ç°!ÓÓ˚° í˛z£÷Ï ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ !ܲ
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ âê˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚⁄
Îy!sfܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• åPhysical
Weathering Processesä ı
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Óy Îy!sfܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ≤ÃÎ%=˛
¢!=˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ≤ÃÎ%=˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xlƒï˛Ù
•° ÈüüüÈ åiä Ùyôƒyܲ£Ïî≈ ¢!=˛ ˆÎÙlÈüÈã˛y˛õñ ˲yÓ˚ åloadä ~ÓÇ Ü,˛hs˝l
˛õ#í˛¸lñ åiiä ≤çyÓ˚î ¢!=˛ Îy ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lñ ˆÜ˛°y§ àë˛l
Óy ≤Ãyî#ˆÏòÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ñ åiiiä çˆÏ°Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ Îy
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xyo≈ܲÓ˚î ~ÓÇ ¢%‹ÒܲÓ˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ã˛Ü ˛yܲyˆÏÓ˚ xyÓ!ï≈˛ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z §Ü˛° ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà•z ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ Îy !¢°yÓ˚ ˲y.ˆÏl xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà
Îy!sfܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤çyÓ˚î ~ÓÇ ã˛y˛õ !lˆÏÙ≈yã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y «%˛o ~ÓÇ ô#Ó˚à!ï˛ §¡õߨ •ˆÏ°G
ï˛y Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ Ó,•Í xM˛° ç%ˆÏí˛¸ !¢°y§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ «˛Î˚§yôl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ !¢°yà%ˆ° Ï yG §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l G ≤çyÓ˚î ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_ ã˛°yÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° ˲Aà%Ó˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸–
ã˛y˛õ•…y§ G ≤çyÓ˚î åUnloading and Expansionäı
Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Îál í˛z˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌï˛ !¢°yhflÓÏ ˚ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛
•Î˚ ï˛ál í˛zÕ¡‘ Ë∫ ˛yˆÏÓ ã˛y˛õ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ñ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ !¢°y ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚
~ÓÇ !¢°yhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Óã)˛î≈#˲Ól âˆÏê˛– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ
!¢°yhflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ Ê˛yê˛° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ÓÑyܲÎ%=˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ xLjϢ !á°ylܲyÓ˚
Ê˛yê˛° Ó,•òyÎ˚ï˛l !¢°yhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ x˛õ§Ó˚î Óy ¢ÕÒˆÏÙy!ã˛ï˛ !¢°y
Ê˛°Ü˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~˲yˆÏÓ ã˛y˛õ•…yˆÏ§Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° à!ë˛ï˛ ¢ÕÒˆÏÙy!ã˛ï˛
!¢°y Ê˛°ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ¢ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚
ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ •yçyÓ˚ !ÙÉ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
Ó,•òyÜ,˛!ï˛ñ ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ñ Ù§,î ˛õ,¤˛Î%=˛ ¢ÕÒˆÏÙy!ã˛ï˛ à¡∫%ç ~•z
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ å!ã˛e 6.3ä–
!ã˛e 6.3 : xrô ≤ÈÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˲!AàÓ˚ åË%˛Ól!à!Ó˚ä !lܲˆÏê˛
xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó,•Í ¢ÕÒˆÏÙy!ã˛ï˛ à¡∫%ç–
ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ÓÇ ≤çyÓ˚î åTemperature
Changes and Expansionäı
!¢°yàë˛lܲyÓ˚# !Ó!˲ߨ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
≤çyÓ˚î G §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyeyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ï˛y˛õÙyey Óyí˛¸ˆÏ° !¢°y ÙôƒfiÌ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ≤çyÓ˚î âˆÏê˛
~ÓÇ ~•z á!lç§Ù)• ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !lܲê˛fiÌ á!lç§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ ôyE˛y áyÎ˚– ˜ò!lܲ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !¢°yÓ˚
˛õ,¤˛fiÌ á!lç ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~Ó˚)˛õ ã˛°yã˛° §Ó§ÙÎ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ xM˛ˆÏ° ˆÎáyˆÏl ˜ò!lܲ
ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ xï˛ƒhs˝ ˆÓ!¢ ˆ§áyˆÏl ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
xyÙÓ˚y xyˆÏà•z ˆçˆÏl!SÈ ˆÎ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y á%Ó•z ô#Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛
•Î˚ñ !¢°y Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ xyâyï˛≤ÃyÆ •ÓyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ò%Ó° ≈ •Î˚–
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛fiÌ !¢°y ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ë)˛àË≈˛fiÌ !¢°y
xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆÓ!¢ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !¢°yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õ#í˛¸ˆÏlÓ˚
§,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !¢°yÓ˚ fl≥˛#!ï˛ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚
§Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° ˲yAàˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏÎ˚ òÑyí˛¸yÎ˚– !¢°yÓ˚ á!lç§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
ï˛y˛õ @˝Ã•ˆÏî ˜Ó£ÏˆÏÙƒÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÎ ≤çyÓ˚î G §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ï˛y !¢°yÎ˚ ¢ÕÒˆÏÙyã˛l âê˛yÎ˚ ÎyÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ Ù§,îñ ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ !¢°yÓ˚ í˛zˆßÏ √yã˛l âˆÏê˛– @˝Ãyly•zê˛ çyï˛#Î˚
!¢°yÎ˚ ~ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ Ù§,î ˛õ,¤˛ï˛°Î%=˛ñ ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓˆÏí˛¸y
ˆÓy”˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲ ê˛Ó˚ åTorä ӈϰ Îy ¢ÕÒˆÏÙyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,!T˛ •Î˚–
¢ÕÒˆÏÙy!ã˛ï˛ à¡∫%ç G ¢ÕÒˆÏÙy!ã˛ï˛ ê˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ
ܲ#⁄
!•ÙyÎ˚lñ à°l ~ÓÇ !•Ùy!Î˚ï˛ !ܲ°Ü˛ àë˛l åFreezing,
Thawing and Frost Wedging äı
!•Ùy!Î˚ ï ˛ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ !¢°yÓ˚ !SÈ o G Ê˛yê˛ˆÏ ° ç° çˆÏ Ù
˛ï˛y˛õÙyey •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •GÎ˚y ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey
Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ çˆÏ° Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_Ó˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ Ù)°ï˛ í˛zFã˛ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ xM˛ˆÏ°
~ÓÇ Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢ ˆÓ!¢ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛ˆÏÙ !•ÙyÎ˚l
G à°l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆÓ!¢ §!Ü ˛Î˚– !•ÙÓy• xô%ƒ!£Ïï˛ xM˛ˆÏ° !¢°yÎ˚
≤Ã!ï˛!lÎ˚ï˛ !•Ùy!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛#°Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚
!•ÙyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ •yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ à%Ó˚%c §Ó≈y!ôܲ– !•ÙyÎ˚l Î!ò o%ï˛ •yˆÏÓ˚ âˆÏê˛
ï˛ál !¢°yÓ˚ xܲfløyÍ ≤çyÓ˚î âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ~•z
≤çyÓ˚î !¢°yÓ˚ Ê˛yê˛°ñ !SÈo ~ÓÇ «%˛o «%˛o ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛#
ÊÑ ˛ yܲy xÇˆÏ ¢ Ó˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ ˆÎ ˛õ#í˛¸ ˆ Ï l Ó˚ §, ! T˛ •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ °
Ê˛yê˛°à%ˆÏ°y ≤âhflÏ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ Îy ˆ¢£Ï˛ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !¢°yˆÏܲ á[˛
!Óá[˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚–
°Óî xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ åSalt Weatheringäı
!¢°yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤Ã˲yÓñ ç°ˆÏÎyçl G ˆÜ˛°y§àë˛l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !¢°yÙôƒfiÌ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ≤çyÓ˚î âˆÏê˛– x!ôܲyÇ¢ °Óî
ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ü˛ƒy°!¢Î˚yÙñ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙñ ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙñ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ
ˆÓ!í˛¸Î˚yÙ ≤Ã˲, !ï˛Ó˚ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛≤ÃÓîï˛y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z §Ü˛°
°ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ≤çyÓ˚î ï˛y˛õÙyey G °Óîà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ÙÓ%̊ xM˛ˆÏ° 300-500C ï˛y˛õÙyey ~•z §Ü˛°
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)•
°ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ≤çyÓ˚î âê˛yÎ˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛fiÌ !¢°yÓ˚ !SȈoÏ xÓ!fiÌï˛ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚
ˆÜ˛°y§ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ù)° !¢°yÓ˚ !ÓòyÓ˚î âˆÏê˛ñ Îy xӈϢˆÏ£Ï
ˆË˛ˆÏ. ˛õˆÏí˛¸– ~˲yˆÏÓ !¢°yÓ˚ !ÓòyÓ˚î âê˛yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !¢°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
«%˛oܲîy !Ó¢Ó˚î âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
°ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÜ˛°y§ àë˛l §Ü˛° ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ °Óî xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ x!ôܲ ≤Ã˲yÓ¢y°#– ˆÎ §Ü˛° xM˛° ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛ˆÏÙ !§=˛ G
¢%‹Ò •Î˚ ˆ§áyˆÏl °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÜ˛°y§ àë˛l •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly x!ôܲ
Îy !lܲê˛Óï≈˛# á!lçà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ܲ!òˆÏܲ ˆë˛ˆÏ° ˆòÎ˚– ÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ G !ç˛õ§yÙ ˆÜ˛°y§ !¢°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
í˛zˆÏ_y°l âê˛yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zˆÏ_y!°ï˛ xLjϢÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˛õM˛Ë)˛çyܲyÓ˚
Ê˛yê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÜ˛°y§ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ã˛Ü˛ á%Ó
§•ˆÏç•z ˆË˛ˆÏ. ˛õˆÏí˛¸– ~SÈyí˛¸y ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ñ ˆÓˆÏ°˛õyÌÓ˚ñ ˆ¢°ñ !l§‰
~ÓÇ @˝Ãyly•zê˛ !¢°yˆÏï˛G ~Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
˜ç!Óܲ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ ~ÓÇ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ åBIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITY AND WEATHERINGäı
˜çÓ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˜ÏçÓ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ã˛°l G Ó,!Âôç!lï˛
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !¢°y àë˛lܲyÓ˚# á!lç ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ x˛õ§Ó˚î ~ÓÇ
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ àë˛làï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãyî# ÎÌy ˆÜÑ˛ˆÏã˛yñ
í˛z•zˆÏ˛õyܲyñ Ó˚ˆÏí˛rê˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ˆÎ àï≈˛ Óy ܲ#°Ü˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏܲ í˛zqy!§ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ lï%˛l Ù,!_ܲy hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ §È,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
Ù,!_ܲyˆÏܲ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ í˛zß√%=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ÓyÎ˚% G çˆÏ°Ó˚ xl%≤ÈÏӈϢ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ùyl%£Ï ï˛yÓ˚
!Ó!˲ߨ !Ü ˛Î˚yܲ°y˛õ ÎÌyÈüÈ°y.° ã˛y°yˆÏlyñ Ù,!_ܲy ܲ£Ï≈îñ àySÈ˛õy°y
!ÓlT˛ ܲÓ˚y ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ç°ñ ÓyÎ˚% ~ÓÇ á!l秕 !Ó!˲ߨ
˛õy!Ì≈Ó í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ lï%˛l ˆÎyà§)e àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛˛õã˛l¢#°
í˛z!qò ~ÓÇ ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ ˆò•yӈϢ£Ï !•í˛z!Ùܲñ ܲyÓ≈!lܲ ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ
xƒy!§í˛ àë˛ˆÏl §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ Îy àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ «˛Î˚ ~ÓÇ
oyÓƒï˛y Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ !¢Ü˛í˛¸ !¢°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
x§yôyÓ˚î ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy !¢°yàë˛lܲyÓ˚# ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Îy!sfܲ
!Óã)˛î≈#˲Ól âê˛yÎ˚–
xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !ӈϢ£Ï ≤Ã˲yÓ§Ù)•
¢ÕÒˆÏÙyã˛l åExfoliationäı
¢ÕÒˆÏÙyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈•z Îy!sfܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ•…y§ñ
ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l G ≤çyÓ˚î ~ÓÇ °Óî xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ¢ÕÒˆÙÏ yã˛l Ù)°ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õñ
xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y lÎ˚– ˆÊœ˛!Ü˛Ç ~Ó˚ åFlaking offä ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
ÓÜ ˛ï˛° Î%=˛ xy!ò !¢°yhflÓÏ ˚ Óy !¢°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yà x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚
~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ Ù§,î ~ÓÇ ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ ï˛°Î%=˛ !¢°y à!ë˛ï˛
•Î˚– ï˛y˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !¢°y §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ G ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚
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!ã˛e 6.4 : ¢ÕÒˆÏÙyã˛l åˆÊ ˛!ܲÇä ~ÓÇ «%˛o ܲîy !Ó¢Ó˚î
~ÓÇ ¢ÕÒˆÏÙyã˛l âˆÏê˛– ¢ÕÒˆÏÙy!ã˛ï˛ à¡∫%ç ~ÓÇ ¢ÕÒˆÏÙy!ã˛ï˛ ê˛Ó˚
ã˛y˛õ•…y§ ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤çyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §Çà!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ à%Ó˚%c åSIGNIFICANCE OF
WEATHERINGäı
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y !¢°yÓ˚ ˲y.ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆÓ˚ˆÏày!°Ì G
Ù,!_ܲy àë˛ˆÏl•z ¢%ô% §•yÎ˚ï˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ lyñ ~!ê˛ «˛Î˚#˲Ól ~ÓÇ
˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ çlƒG ˛x˛õ!Ó˚•yÎ≈– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÓyˆÏÎy˚ Ù ~ÓÇ
˜çÓ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§•z xM˛ˆÏ° àˆÏí˛¸ Gë˛y ÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ñ xyÓyÓ˚ ÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ çyï˛
!¢°yhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚– xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ SÈyí˛¸y «˛Î˚#˲Ól
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yG §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– xÌ≈yÍñ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚
˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ñ «˛Î˚#˲Ól ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
«˛Î˚ܲyˆÏçÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ G Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âê˛yÎ˚– xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ çyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
§M˛Î˚ Ù)°ƒÓyl á!lçñ xyܲ!Ó˚ˆÜÏ ˛Ó˚ §M˛Î˚ ˲y[˛yÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛ §Ù,Âô ܲˆÏÓ–˚
~•z §Ü˛° á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ •° ÈüüüÈ ˆ°Ô• xyܲ!Ó˚ܲñ
ÙƒyAày!lçñ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙñ ï˛yÙy ≤Ã˲, !ï˛ñ ˆÎà%ˆ° Ï y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚
çyï˛#Î˚ xyˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ΈÏÌT˛˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– Ù,!_ܲy §,!T˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y •° xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚–
Îál !¢°y xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ •Î˚ ï˛ál !ܲS%È ˛õòyÌ≈
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ G Îy!sfܲ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ ˆË˛ÔÙç° myÓ˚y ˆôÔï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛àˆÏ˲≈ Ù)°ƒÓyl á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ˲y[˛yÓ˚ àˆÏí˛¸ ˆï˛yˆÏ°–
ï˛y•z xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y SÈyí˛¸y ˙ §Ü˛°
Ù)°ƒÓyl á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ˲y[˛yÓ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï ÌyܲÏï˛ ly ~ÓÇ
xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛zˆÏ_y°lñ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yܲÓ˚î G
!Ó¢%ÂôܲÓ˚îG §Ω˛Ó •Ïï˛ ly– ~ˆÏܲ•z §Ù,!ÂôܲÓ˚î
åenrichmentä ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚–
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˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ Óy fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ åMASS MOVEMENTSä ı
í˛zFã˛Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù,!_ܲyñ !¢°y ˲@¿hfl)Ï˛õ G xlƒylƒ ˛õòyÌ≈Ó˚y!¢
≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ x!˲ܲˆÏ£Ï≈Ó˚ ê˛yˆÏl ì˛y° ˆÓˆÏÎ˚ ˆlˆÏÙ ~ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏܲ
˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ Óy fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ ӈϰ– xÌ≈yÍ ÓyÎ%̊ñ ç°≤ÃÓy• Óy ÓÓ˚Ê˛
§Ó§ÙÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ «˛Î˚çyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ lyñ ܲáˆÏly
ÈüÈܲáˆÏly ~•z§Ü˛° «˛Î˚çyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈G ç°ñ ÓyÎ%̊ Óy ˛ÓÓ˚Ê˛ˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ à!ï˛ á%Ó
ô#Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ à˲#Ó˚ hflÓÏ ˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˛≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
xlƒï˛Ù xÇ¢ •° !Ó§˛õ≈Èî åcreepäñ ≤ÃÓy•ñ ô§ ~ÓÇ ≤Ã˛õyï˛
≤Ã˲, !ï˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x!˲ܲ£Ïç≈ ê˛yl Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛fiÌ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚
Ó° ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ Óy ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚
âê˛yÎ˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ
¢ï≈˛yÓ!° ly •ˆÏ°G xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛ˆÏÎ˚ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ G
cÓ˚y!ß∫ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ ˆ§•z ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚Î=% ˛ ì˛yˆÏ° ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚•#l ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢–
˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ ¢%ô%Ùye x!˲ܲ£Ï≈ç Ó° myÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ lò#ñ !•ÙÓy•ñ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy•ñ §Ù%o ï˛Ó˚Aà G §Ù%o
ˆflÀyï˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛ xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly–
xÌ≈yÍñ ˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ «˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õ!Ó˚à!îï˛ •Î˚ lyñ Î!òG
~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈ §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ åx!˲ܲ£Ïç ≈ ӈϰÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓä fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚
âˆÏê˛– ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ !lçfl∫ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓ˚yô
«˛Ùï˛y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~•z §ÙhflÏ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ï˛ál•z x˛õ§Ó˚î âˆÏê˛
Îál ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ü,˛hs˝l ≤Ã!ï˛Órôܲï˛yÓ˚ åshearing resistanceä
ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ó° x!ôܲ •Î˚– ò%Ó≈°ñ x§Ç•ï˛ñ
˛õyï˛°y hflÏÓ˚Î%=˛ !¢°yñ ã%˛ƒ!ï˛ñ áyí˛¸y ì˛y°Î%=˛ !¢°yhflÏÓ˚ñ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ Ë,˛à%
Óy áyí˛¸y ì˛y°ñ ˛õÎ≈yÆ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî ~ÓÇ Ù%£Ï°ôyÓ˚
Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ G àySÈ˛õy°yÓ˚ x˲yÓ •zï˛y!ò ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛ˆÏÎ˚ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ–˚
˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÓÏ ˚ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ÈüüüÈ
åiä ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Óy x≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ !¢°yÓ˚ !l¡¨fiÌ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
x˛õ§Ó˚î åiiä Ü,˛!eÙ˲yˆÏÓ Óy fl∫y˲y!Óܲ˲yˆÏÓ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ ˲yÓ˚ §,!T˛ •GÎ˚y åiiiä ˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùyl G
í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyGÎ˚yñ åivä x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ çlƒ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚
Ó,!Âô ˛õyGÎ˚yñ åvä ì˛y° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ Óy ˲yÓ˚ x˛õ§yÓ˚î åviä
Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õñ Îsfy!ò ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ Óy !ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚î ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ âê˛yˆÏlyñ åviiä
x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî çˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ fiÌylyhs˝Óñ˚ åviiiä !Ó!˲ߨ •…òñ
ç°y¢Î˚ñ lò# ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî çˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛zˆÏ_y°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
lò#Ó˚ ï˛#Ó˚Óï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl çˆÏ°Ó˚ ô#Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy• ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– å ixä
!l!Ó≈ã˛yˆÏÓ˚ ÓlË)˛!Ù ôÁǧ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛–
fl≥˛#!ï˛ åÙ,!_ܲyÎ˚ !•ÙyÎ˚l G xlƒylƒ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ fl≥˛#!ï˛äñ ≤ÃÓy•ñ
~ÓÇ ô§ •° ˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y– 6.5 lÇ !ã˛ˆÏe
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
!Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ G ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ ~ÓÇ
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî G fiÌylyhs˝ˆÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ à!ï˛Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ !ã˛e
ï%˛ˆÏ° ôÓ˚y •°–
≤ÃÓy•
xyo≈
o%ï˛
ܲò≈Ù ≤ÃÓy•
Ë)˛!Ù≤ÃÓy•
§!°Êœ˛yܲ§l‰
ô§
ô#Ó˚
¢%‹Ò
!¢°y ô§ ˆê˛°y§ !Ó§˛õ≈î Ù,!_ܲy !Ó§˛õ≈î
ô§ fl≥˛#!ï˛
!ã˛e 6.5 : !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ fiÌylyhsˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
à!ï˛ ~ÓÇ xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ ˆòáyˆÏly
•°– åAfter White head, 2001ä
˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ Ë˛yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ÎÌy ÈüÈ åiä
ô#Ó˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ G åiiä o%ï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚–
ô#Ó˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ åSlow Movementsä ı
!Ó§˛õ≈î Óy Creep •° ô#Ó˚ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚)˛õ Îy Ù,!_ܲy
ˆÓ!T˛ï˛ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ ì˛y°Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ xï˛ƒhs˝ ô#Ó˚à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y á%Ó•z
x≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛ Îy §)- ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î SÈyí˛¸y ˆÓyV˛y á%Ó Ü˛!ë˛l– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe
Ù,!_ܲy Óy !¢°y ˲@¿ ›˛õ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ܲálG
ˆê˛!°ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏlÓ˚ á%Ñ!ê˛ñ ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ á%Ñ!ê˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲ
xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°ly ~ܲê%˛ ˆ•ˆÏ° ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˆòˆÏáSÈ⁄ Î!ò ˆòˆÏá Ìyܲñ
ï˛ˆÏÓ çylˆÏÓ ˆÎñ ï˛y •° Ù,!_ܲy !Ó§˛õ≈ˆÏîÓ˚˛ ≤Ã˲yÓ– ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ G ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó§˛õ≈Èî
°«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ÎÌy ÈüÈ Ù,!_ܲy !Ó§˛õ≈îñ ê˛ƒy°y§ !Ó§˛õ≈îñ !¢°y
!Ó§˛õ≈îó !¢°y !•ÙÓy• !Ó§˛õ≈î ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛– ~•z ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ xyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yG Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Îy Ù,!_ܲy˛õyï˛ Óy solifluction lyˆÏÙ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– Ù,!_ܲy˛õyˆÏï˛ ç° myÓ˚y !§=˛ Ù,!_ܲy ܲîyà%ˆ° Ï y !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚
˲yÓ˚§yÙƒ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ ly ˆ˛õˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ì˛y° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
lyÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ xyo≈ ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï ç°ÓyÎ%̊ xM˛ˆÏ°
x!ôܲ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ˙ §Ü˛° xM˛ˆÏ° Îál à˲#Ó˚˲yˆÏÓ ˛ÓÓ˚Ê˛yÓ,ï˛
Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ à°l •Î˚ ï˛ál í˛z˛õ!Ó˚hflÏÓ˚!ê˛
Ó,!T˛˛myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚˛õ,=˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨hflÏÓ˚ x≤ÈÏÓ¢ƒ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
xLjϢÓ˚ ô#Ó˚ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ã˛°l âˆÏê˛–
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)•
o%ï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ åRapid Movementsä ı
o%ï˛ ˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛ xyo≈ ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚
~ÓÇ Ù,ò% ˆÌˆÏܲ áyí˛¸y ì˛y°Î%=˛ xLjϢ âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– §)- òylyÎ%=˛
Ù,!_ܲy çˆÏ°Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ !§=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly í˛zFã˛fiÌyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ì˛y°
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏܲ Ù,!_ܲy
≤ÃÓy• åearthflowä ӈϰ– ÙyˆÏV˛ ÙyˆÏV˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ fl‘y¡õ âˆÏê˛
Óy áyí˛¸y !§Ñ!í˛¸Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° áyí˛¸y
ì˛y°Î%=˛ |ôÁ≈yÇ¢ «˛Î˚≤ÃyÆ •ˆÏÎ˚ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨yLjϢ fl≥˛#!ï˛¢#°
˲@¿hfl) Ï ˛ õ àë˛l ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ – Îál ì˛y° áyí˛¸ y •Î˚ ï˛ál à˲#Ó˚
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚≤ÃyÆ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!¢°yG fiÌ!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
~•z ˆ◊!îÓ˚ x˛õÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ •° ܲò≈Ù ≤ÃÓy•– ˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ì˛yˆÏ°
àySÈ˛õy°yÓ˚ x˲yˆÏ Ó ~ÓÇ x!ï˛!Ó˚ = ˛ Ó, ! T˛˛õyˆÏ ï ˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ °
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚çyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ ç° myÓ˚y §¡õ,=˛ •ˆÏ° ô#Ó˚ Óy
o%ï˛ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ áyˆÏï˛ ˛Óy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ
ܲò≈ Ù ≤ÃÓy• åmudflow ä ÓˆÏ ° – ~!ê˛ ˆòáˆÏ ï ˛ xˆÏ l ܲê˛y
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲò≈Ù Î%=˛ lò#Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y •Î˚– ܲò≈Ù ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ myÓ˚y
Ó˚yhflÏyñ ˆ§ï%˛ñ Óy!í˛¸âÓ˚ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ «˛!ï˛@˝ÃhflÏ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– §!Ü ˛Î˚
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ ˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ì˛yˆÏ° ܲò≈Ù ≤ÃÓy• ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z âˆÏê˛– xyˆÏ@¿Î˚
ô)°yñ SÈy•z ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ ˛õòyÌ≈ ≤ÃÓ° ӣψ≈ îÏ Ü˛yòyÎ˚ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚
~ÓÇ lò#Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ çlÓ§!ï˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÓ° «˛!ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~•z
ˆ◊!îÓ˚ ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ •° ˲@¿hfl)Ï˛õ §¡±˛õyï˛ñ Îy xyo≈
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ áyí˛¸y ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒñ ˆÎáyˆÏl àySÈ˛õy°y ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚
xyÓyÓ˚ lyG ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ˲@¿hfl˛Ï) õ §¡±˛õyï˛ Ü˛ò≈Ù ≤ÃÓy• ˆÌˆÏܲ
xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ!¢ o%ï˛ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ~!ê˛ !•Ùyl# §¡±˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚
§Ùï%˛°ƒ–
ò!«˛î xyˆÏ Ù !Ó˚ Ü ˛yÓ˚ xy!®ç ˛õÓ≈ ï ˛ ~ÓÇ í˛z _ Ó˚
xyˆÏ Ù !Ó˚ Ü ˛yÓ˚ Ó˚ ! ܲ ˛õÓ≈ ˆ Ï ï ˛ àï˛ ò¢ˆÏ Ü ˛ ܲˆÏ Î ˚ Ü ˛!ê˛
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ x@¿%ƒÍ˛õyï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !ÓôÁǧ#
ܲò≈ Ù ≤ÃÓy• âˆÏ ê ˛ñ Îy !ÓˆÏ fl ≥˛yÓ˚ î ã˛°yܲy°#l G
!ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚î ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚G âˆÏê˛!SÈ°–
Ë)˛!Ùô§ åLandslidesä ı
Ë)˛!Ùô§ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ o%ï˛ ~ÓÇ xl%ôyÓlˆÏÎyàƒ ˛õ%!Oï˛
fiÌylyhs˝Ó–˚ ~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÓÏ ˚ ˆÎ §Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚
ï˛y ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ¢%‹Ò •Î˚– !¢°yhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ fiÌ°l Ù)°ï˛ !¢°yÓ˚
àë˛l G xyܲyÓ˚ñ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ
ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ xl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ lyly
≤ÃܲyÓ˚ Ë)˛!Ùô§ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
53
˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õyòˆÏò¢#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° Îál !¢°y ˲@¿hfl)Ï˛õ o%ï˛ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛
!˛õSȈϰ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ lyˆÏÙ ï˛ál ˛õòyÌ≈ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ !l!Ó˚ˆÏá ˆÎ
˛õŸã˛yÍ â)î≈l âˆÏê˛ ï˛yˆÏܲ fl‘y¡õ åSlumpä ӈϰ å!ã˛e 6.6ä– Ë)˛!Ùç
˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ o%ï˛ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Îál ˲@¿hflˆÏ) ˛Ï õÓ˚ ô§ ˛õŸã˛yÍ â)îl≈ Óƒï˛#ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ ˲@¿hfl)Ï˛õ ô§ ådebris slideä ӈϰ–
áyí˛¸y ì˛y° ˆÓˆÏÎ˚ Îál ˲@¿hfl)Ï˛õ §•§y à!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ˛õí˛¸ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ
ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ Ë)˛˛õyï˛ ådebrisfallä ӈϰ– í˛zFã˛ ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ê˛yê˛° Óy
ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ xÓfiÌy
fl‘y¡õ ˛õŸã˛yÍ â)î≈ˆÏlÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° §!M˛ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ
≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏSÈ–
!ã˛e 6.6 : ˛õŸã˛yÍ â)î≈ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° fl‘y¡õÎ%=˛ ˲@¿hfl)Ï˛õ
ã%˛ƒ!ï˛Î%=˛ fiÌyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ !¢°yá[˛ !Ó!FSÈߨ •ˆÏÎ˚
o%ï˛à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ à!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õí˛¸yˆÏܲ !¢°yô§ årockslideä ӈϰ– áyí˛¸y
ì˛y°Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° !¢°yôÁ§ x!ï˛ o%ï˛ ~ÓÇ ôǧydܲ •Î˚– l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚
!ã˛e 6.7 lÇ ~ áyí˛¸y ì˛yˆÏ° Ë)˛!Ù ôˆÏ§Ó˚ !ã˛•´ ˆòáy ÎyˆÏFSÈ– ˛õÓ≈ï˛ àye
ˆÌˆÏܲ !¢°yá[˛à%ˆÏ°y Ë)˛!Ùì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §yÙO§ƒ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá x!ï˛o%ï˛
à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ì˛y° ˆÓˆÏÎ˚ Îál à!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ñ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ
!¢°y˛õï˛l åRock fallä ӈϰ– !¢°y˛õï˛l G !¢°y ôˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ •° ˆÎñ !¢°y˛õï˛l !¢°yÓ˚ ˛õ,¤˛fiÌ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ x˛õ§Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ !¢°y ôˆÏ§ !¢°yá[˛ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
!ã˛e 6.7 : !¢Óy!°Ü˛ !•Ùy°ˆÏÎ˚ §yÓ˚òy lò#Ó˚ ï˛#ˆÏÓ˚ ˲yÓ˚ï˛ÈüȈl˛õy°
§#Ùyhs˝ñ í˛z_Ó˚≤ÈÏòˆÏ¢ Ë)˛!ÙôˆÏ§Ó˚ !ã˛•´
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˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ G ˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ¢∑!ê˛ x!ôܲ xÌ≈Ó• ӈϰ ÙˆÏl •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
ˆÜ˛l⁄ §!°Êœ˛yܲ§lˆÏܲ åsolifluctionä !ܲ o%ï˛ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚
xhs˝Ë)≈˛=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚⁄– ˆÜ˛l ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Óy ÎyÎ˚ ly⁄
xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆòˆÏ¢ñ !•Ùy°Î˚ ˛õyòˆÏò¢#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°
˲@¿hflÏ)˛õ §¡±˛õyï˛ ~ÓÇ ô§ ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚
ˆ˛õSȈÏl lyly!Óô ܲyÓ˚î Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤ÃÌÙï˛ !•Ùy°Î˚
˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ xM˛° Ë)˛ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ˲yˆÏÓ ÎˆÏÌT˛ §!Ü ˛Î˚–
!•Ùy°ˆÏ Î ˚ Ó ˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ Ë ˛yà xÇ¢ ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°yÓ˚
xyÇ!¢Ü˛ §Ç•ï˛ G x§Ç•ï˛ §M˛Î˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛–
~SÈyí˛¸y ~•z ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ì˛y°G ΈÏÌT˛ áyí˛¸y– !•Ùy°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ò!«˛î ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ l#°!à!Ó˚ ˛õÓ≈ï˛
xÌÓy ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ùâyê˛ ˛õÓ≈ï˛ Ë)˛àyë˛!lܲ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ xˆÏlܲ
ˆÓ!¢ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° ~ÓÇ ~•z ˛õÓ≈ï˛à%ˆÏ°y Ù)°ï˛ ܲ!ë˛l
!¢°y myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– ï˛y §ˆÏ_¥G ~•z ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ xM˛ˆÏ°
ô§ G ˲@¿hfl)Ï° §¡±˛õyï˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÜ˛l⁄
ܲyÓ˚îñ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ùâyê˛ ~ÓÇ l#°!à!Ó˚ ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ x!ôܲyÇ¢
ì˛y°•z áyí˛¸y ~ÓÇ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ Ë,˛à%Î%=˛ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ô§ ˛õí˛¸ˆÏï˛
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~SÈyí˛¸y ˛ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l G ≤çyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° Îy!sfܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ fl∫“ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ x!Ó◊yhs˝
Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ≤Ã˲, !ï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆÏî !¢°y ≤Ã˛õyï˛ åRock fallä
ô§ G ˲@¿hfl)Ï˛õ §¡±˛õyï˛ âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
«˛Î˚#˲Ól G §M˛Î˚ åEROSION AND DEPOSITIONäı
«˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !¢°y ˲@¿hflψ) Ï˛õÓ˚ hflÏ!) ˛õܲÓ˚î G ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î âˆÏê˛– Îál
!Ó¢y° xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ !¢°y xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ G xlƒylƒ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y «%˛o
«%˛o áˆÏ[˛ !Ó˲=˛ •Î˚ G «˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢!=˛ ÎÌy ≤ÃÓ•Ùyl
lò#ñ ˆË˛ÔÙç°ñ !•ÙÓy•ñ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy•ñ §Ù%o ï˛Ó˚Aà ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ myÓ˚y
x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xlƒe ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ Îy xyÓyÓ˚ G•z §Ü˛°
¢!=˛Ó˚ à!ï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– «˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z
¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ !¢°y ˲@¿hfl)ÏˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xÓâ£Ï≈î G
«˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏl §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– «˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ myÓ˚y Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ «˛Î˚ •Î˚
xÌ≈yÍ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ fiÌ°l âˆÏê˛– Î!òG xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ «˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏl
§y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛ «˛ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ≤Ãy܉˛ÈüÈ¢ï≈˛ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ly–
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ñ ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ ~ÓÇ «˛Î˚ •° l@¿#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y–
ï˛ˆÏÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ x!ÓÓ˚yÙ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ «˛Î˚#˲Ól•z òyÎ˚#– !ã˛e
lÇ 6.1ÈüÈ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •° ˆÎñ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ à!ï˛¢!=˛ myÓ˚y l@¿#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• ÎÌy «˛Î˚#˲Ól G ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚ñ Îy
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy•ñ lò#ñ !•ÙÓy•ñ §Ù%o ï˛Ó˚Aàñ ˆË˛ÔÙç° ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ¢!=˛
myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤ÃÌÙ !ï˛l!ê˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y
!lÎ˚!sfï˛– ~Ó˚y ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ
ÎÌy ÈüÈ àƒy§#Î˚ åÓyÎ˚%äñ ï˛Ó˚° ålò#ä ~ÓÇ Ü˛!ë˛l å!•ÙÓy•ä–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ~•z !ï˛l!ê˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚% !lÎ˚!sfï˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ï%˛°ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄
«˛Î˚#˲ÓlˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ñ ÚÚË)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ
àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ à!ï˛¢!=˛Ó˚ !Ù°lñ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ñ Îy•yÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ~•z ¢!=˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà–ÛÛ à!ï˛¢!=˛
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ (Kinetic energy) KE = 1/2 mv2 –
ˆÎáyˆÏlñ ÚmÛ •° ˲Ó˚ åmassä– ‘v’ •° à!ï˛ˆÏÓà åvelocityä–
ï˛y•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲyç ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛ Ó›Ó˚ ˲Ó˚
~ÓÇ à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ï˛y•z !•ÙÓy• ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛≤Ãã˛[˛
˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ á%Ó ô#Ó˚à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ !ܲv ï˛yÓ˚ «˛Î˚ܲyÓ˚#
¢!=˛ ˆÓ!¢– ÓyÎ˚%ñ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛y•z ܲÙ
≤Ã˲yÓ¢y°#– x˛õÓ˚ ò%ˆêÏ ˛y «˛Î˚ܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛ ÎÌy ÈüÈ §Ù%o ï˛Ó˚Aà ~ÓÇ
ˆË˛ÔÙç° ç°ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛ lÎ˚– §Ù%o ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈yÓ!°
Ù)°ï˛ ç°Ù[˛° G !¢°yÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÎyàfïϰ xÓ!fiÌï˛
í˛z˛õÜ)˛° xM˛°ˆÏܲ !lÎ˚sfî ܲˆÏÓ˚– x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ˆË˛ÔÙçˆÏ°Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈
!¢°yÓ˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!ò !¢°y ≤ÈÏÓ¢ƒ G
oÓîˆÏÎyàƒ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ç° ˛õÎ≈yÆ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál ܲyfiê˛
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åkarst topographyä àë˛l •Î˚– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚
xyÙÓ˚y !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°y xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓÏ̊Ó–
§M˛Î˚ •° «˛ˆÏ Î ˚ Ó ˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛°– Ë) ˛ !ÙÓ˚ ) ˛ õ àë˛lܲyÓ˚ # ~•z
¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y Îál Ù,ò% ì˛y°Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà •y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚
ˆÊ˛ˆÏ° ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• §!M˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó%˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ §M˛Î˚ Ù)°ï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ
àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛Ó˚ ܲyç ly– §M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈ §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ÓˆÏí˛¸y òylyÓ˚
§M˛Î˚ âˆÏê˛ G ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ «%˛o òylyÓ˚ §M˛Î˚ âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
§M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ë)˛˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ l#ã%˛ xÇ¢à%ˆ°Ï y ˲Ó˚yê˛ •Î˚– «˛Î˚ܲyÓ˚#
¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y•z §M˛Î˚ܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛ !•§yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ «˛Î˚ G §M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ܲ#Ó˚˛) õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ï˛y
˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •°–
˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ G «˛Î˚#˲Ól ò%ˆÏê˛y ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛•z ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ âˆÏê˛– ï˛ˆÏÓ í˛z˲Î˚•z ˆÜ˛l ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y !•§yˆÏÓ
˛õ!Ó˚à!îï˛ •Î˚ ly⁄ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ SÈyí˛¸y !ܲ !¢°yÓ˚ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈
§Ω˛Ó⁄
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)•
Ù,!_ܲy àë˛l åSOIL FORMATIONä ı
Ù,!_ܲy G Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• åSoil and Soil
Contentsä ı
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ Ó,!Âô •ˆÏï˛ ˆòˆÏáSÈ– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ÙyˆÏë˛
ˆá°yô%°y ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xy§– ˆá°yô%°y ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
§ÙÎ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Ù,!_ܲy •yˆÏï˛ ôÓ˚ ~ÓÇ çyÙyܲy˛õˆÏí˛¸ Ùy!ê˛ °y!àˆÏÎ˚
ˆÊ˛Ï°– Ù,!_ܲy ܲ# ï˛y !ܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄
Ù,!_ܲy!Óòñ !Î!l Ù,!_ܲy !lˆÏÎ˚ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ܲˆÏÓ˚lñ Ù,!_ܲyˆÏܲ
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòyl ӈϰˆÏSÈl ÎyˆÏï˛ x§Çáƒ
ç#!Óï˛ G Ù,ï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È ~ÓÇ Îy àySÈ˛õy°y çß√yˆÏï˛ §y•y΃
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Ù,!_ܲy ~ܲ!ê˛ §!Ü ˛Î˚ ÙyôƒÙ ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xˆÏlܲ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲñ
ˆË˛Ô!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ˜ç!Óܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ù,!_ܲy ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
«˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏë˛ Îy í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ ÙyôƒÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ
ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#° ˛õòyÌ≈– ~Ó˚ xˆÏlܲ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ
Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Îy }ï%˛ˆÏ˲ˆÏò ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛ˆÏÙ ¢#ï˛° G
í˛z£÷Ï xyÓyÓ˚ ¢%‹Ò G xyo≈ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ ˜ç!Óܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
á%Ó ¢#ï˛° G xï˛ƒ!ôܲ ¢%‹Òï˛yÎ˚ ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚ xÌÓy Órô •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚É
Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ ˜çÓ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ Ùyey Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ Îál Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ Ù,ï˛ í˛z!qò
G ¢%ܲˆÏly ˛õyï˛y°ï˛y Î%=˛ •Î˚– Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xÓfiÌyñ ˜çÓ
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ ≤Ãyî# G í˛z!qòñ ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ
ç°#Î˚Óy‹õ §Ó !ܲS%È•z }ï%˛ˆÏ˲ˆÏò ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– xÌ≈yÍñ Ù,!_ܲyñ
ç°ÓyÎ%̊ñ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ G fl∫y˲y!Óܲ í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §yÙO§ƒ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚
~ÓÇ ~•z §Ü˛° !lÎ˚sfˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚
x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lG âˆÏê˛–
Ù,!_ܲy àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y åProcess of Soil Formationäı
Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ àë˛l Óy ˆ˛õˆÏí˛yˆÏçˆÏl!§§‰ ≤ÃÌÙï˛ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ Ù,!_ܲy àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ¢ï≈˛ •° xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àë˛l– ≤ÃÌÙï˛ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ ˛õòyÌ≈ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛
G §!Oï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚y G !ܲS%È !lÜ,˛T˛
≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z!qò ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ù§‰ G °y•zˆÏܲˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚– í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ Ù,ï˛ ˆò•yӈϢ£Ï !•í˛zÙy§ àë˛ˆÏl §y•y΃
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z hflψÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y áyˆÏê˛y ây§ G Ê˛yl≈ çß√yˆÏï˛
¢%Ó%˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õy!á Óy Óyï˛yˆÏ§Ó˚ myÓ˚y Îál Ó#ˆÏçÓ˚ !ÓhflyÏ Ó˚ âˆÏê˛
ï˛ál ÓˆÏí˛¸y àySÈG çß√yˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚– §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ
àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ !¢Ü˛í˛¸ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ñ Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ àï≈˛Ü˛yÓ˚# ≤Ãyî# !l¡¨fiÌ
˛õòyÌ≈ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§– !¢°y ã)˛î≈à%ˆÏ°y ≤ÈÏÓ¢ƒ ~ÓÇ flõˆÏOÓ˚
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lƒyÎ˚ Ó˚)˛õ ˆlÎ˚ Îy ç°ôyÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Óyï˛y§ ã˛°yã˛°
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– xӈϢˆÏ£Ï ˛õ!Ó˚˛õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚
Îy á!lç ˛õòyÌ≈ G ˜çÓ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ç!ê˛° !Ù◊î–
¢%ô%Ùye xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚•z !ܲ Ù,!_ܲy àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚#⁄
Î!ò ly •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆÜ˛l⁄
ˆ˛õˆÏí˛y°!ç •Ï° Ù,!_ܲy !ÓK˛yl– ˆ˛õˆÏí˛y°!çfiê˛ •ˆÏ°l
Ù,!_ܲy !ÓK˛yl#–
Ù,!_ܲy §,!T˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î§Ù)• åSoil-forming Factorsä ı
Ù,!_ܲy àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ܲyÓ˚î Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y •° ÈüüüÈ
åiä ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòyl åiiä Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ñ åiiiä ç°ÓyÎ˚ñ% åivä ˜ç!Óܲ
§!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y ~ÓÇ åvä §ÙÎ˚– Î!òG Ù,!_ܲy àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ܲyÓ˚î§Ù)•
§!¡ø!°ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ x˛õÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòyl åParent Materialä ı
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòyl •Ï° Ù,!_ܲy àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!‹;Î˚ !lÎ˚sfܲ–
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xhs˝çy≈ ï˛ Óy Ó!•≈çyï˛ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ !¢°y ˲@¿hfl˛Ï) õ Óy
˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ !¢°y– ˲@¿hfl)Ï˛õˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòyl åParent
Materialä lyˆÏÙ x!˲!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ àë˛l Ù)°ï˛
!¢°yÓ˚ å!¢°y ˲@¿hfl)ÏˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ä ~ÓÇ Ü˛yë˛yˆÏÙy§• å≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛
ܲîyÓ˚ §M˛Î˚‡Ë˛@¿hflˆÏ) ˛Ï õÓ˚ ܲîyä á!lç ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ xlƒï˛Ù à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ •°ñ
!¢°yÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ G xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ùyey ~ÓÇ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ
à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y– !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !¢°y myÓ˚y !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
Ù,!_ܲy àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏë˛ Îy §Ù≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ !¢°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ
§yò,¢ƒ˛õ)î≈ xyÓyÓ˚ ܲálG Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ ˜Ó§yò,¢ƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– Îál
Ù,!_ܲy ~ˆÏܲÓyˆÏÓ˚ lÓ#l ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál xy!ò !¢°yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà x!ôܲ
§yò,¢ƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ˆÎáyˆÏl xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §%!l!ò≈T˛ ˆ§áyˆÏl Ù,!_ܲy ≤Ãôylï˛ xy!ò !¢°yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
§¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ •Î˚–
Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ åTopographyä ı
Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛G ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y Ù,!_ܲy §,!T˛Ó˚ xlƒï˛Ù
§!Ü ˛Î˚ !lÎ˚sfܲ– §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyàï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚!ܲÓ˚î G ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛fiÌ xy!ò !¢°yÓ˚ ôyÓ˚l «˛Ùï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
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≤Ã˲yÓ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛fiÌ
G Ë)˛ÈüÈàË≈˛fiÌ ç° !là≈ÙˆÏlÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚G Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚– áyí˛¸y ì˛y°Î%=˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù,!_ܲy hflÏÓ˚ ˛õyï˛°y
xyÓyÓ˚ §Ùï˛° xM˛ˆÏ° Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ hflÏÓ˚ ˛õ%Ó˚% •Î˚– Ù,ò% ì˛y°Î%=˛
xM˛° ˆÎáyˆÏl «˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ à!ï˛ ÙrÌÓ˚ ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xl%≤ÈÏÓ¢
˲yˆÏ°yñ ~Ó˚)˛õ Ë)˛!Ù Ù,!_ܲy àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xl%Ü)˛°– §Ùï˛°
xM˛ˆÏ° ˆÎ Ù,!_ܲy à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ˆ§áyˆÏl ܲò≈ˆÏÙÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ%Ó˚%
xyhflÓÏ î˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ G ≤Ãã˛% Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ˜çÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ çÙy •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
Ù,!_ܲy!ê˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ àyì˛¸ Ó˚Ç ˆòÎ˚– Ùôƒ x«˛yÇ¢#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°
˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ò!«˛î ì˛y°ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl §)Î≈yˆÏ°yܲ ˆÓ!¢ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚
ˆ§áylܲyÓ˚ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ í˛z!qò ~ÓÇ Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ ˆÎ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ í˛z_Ó˚ ì˛yˆÏ°ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl §)Î≈yˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü˛Ù G
¢#ï˛° xyo≈ xÓfiÌy !ÓÓ˚yçÙyl ˆ§áylܲyÓ˚ Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ !˲ߨ
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ç°ÓyÎ˚% åClimateäı
Ù,!_ܲy §,!T˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ܲyÓ˚î •Ï° ç°ÓyÎ˚%– Ù,!_ܲy
àë˛ˆÏl ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ≤Ãôl í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y •° ÈüüüÈ åiä ç°#Î˚ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚
ï˛#Ó ï˛yñ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_ ~ÓÇ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õîñ Óy‹õ#˲Ól G xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚
fiÌy!Î˚có åiiä }ï%˛ˆÏ˲ˆÏò ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˜ò!lܲ G Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ≤çÓ˚–
xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ù,!_ܲy ï˛yÓ˚ xyo≈ï˛y ˛õyÎ˚ñ Îy Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ G ˜çÓ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç° ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏ° Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚
!l¡¨hflψÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î §Ω˛Ó •Î˚ å~°%!˲ˆÏÎ˚¢lä ~ÓÇ ~•z §Ü˛°˛
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !l¡¨hflψÏÓ˚ §M˛ˆÏÎ˚ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ å~°%!˲ˆÏÎ˚¢lä– xyo≈
!lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ Ó,!T˛ ç°ÓyÎ%̊ xM˛ˆÏ° x!ôܲ Ó,!T˛ ¢%ôÙ% ye ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙñ
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙñ ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙñ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ ≤Ã˲, !ï˛•z x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ lyñ
Ù,!_ܲy ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó¢y° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !§!°Ü˛yG x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– Ù,!_ܲy
ˆÌˆÏܲ !§!°Ü˛yÓ˚ x˛õ§Ó˚îˆÏܲ !í˛!§!°ˆÏܲ§l ådesilicationä
ӈϰ– ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° x!ôܲ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ˆË˛ÔÙç° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛
˜Ü˛!¢Ü˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ í˛zˆÏë˛ xyˆÏ§– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ç°
Óy‹õ#Ë)˛ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ hflψÏÓ˚ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyhflÏÓ˚î
çÙy •Î˚– Ë)˛cˆÏܲ ~ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyhflÏÓ˚î çÙy •ˆÏ°
Ù,!_ܲyˆÏܲ •yí≈˛˛õƒyl åhardpanä Ó°y •Î˚– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ~ÓÇ
ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlˆÏê˛Ó˚ «%˛o ܲîy
åܲÇܲÓ˚ä ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
ï˛y˛õÙyey ò%ÈüÈ˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÈüüüÈ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ G ˜ç!Óܲ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ó,!Âô Óy •…y§ âê˛yˆÏly– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lÜ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• í˛zFã˛
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ Ó, ! Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ü˛ÙˆÏ ° •… y § ˛õyÎ˚
åܲyÓ≈ˆlÏ ¢l Óƒï˛#ï˛ä ~ÓÇ çÙyê˛ÓÂô xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~ê˛y Órô •Î˚– ~•z
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl ï˛y˛õÙyey ˆÓ!¢ ˆ§áyˆÏl à˲#Ó˚
Ù,!_ܲy ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ°á ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï%˛wy xM˛ˆÏ° Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ Îy!sfܲ
í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ !Óã)˛î≈ •GÎ˚y ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÓ!¢ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
˜ç!Óܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y åBiological Activityä ı
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòylˆÏܲ ˆÎ˲yˆÏÓ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ í˛z!qò ~ÓÇ ˜çÓ
í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• ¢%Ó˚% ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆì˛ˆÏܲ Ó˚yˆÏáñ ˆ§§Ó ˜ç!Óܲ ˛õòyÌ≈
˛õÓ˚Ó!ï≈˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ xyo≈ï˛y ôyÓ˚îñ ˜ç!Óܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÎyçlñ
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÎyçl ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ù,ï˛ í˛z!qò
Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ !•í˛zÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÎyàyl ˆòÎ˚ Îy Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ ˜ç!Óܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
Ù) ° !˲!_– !•í˛z ! Ù!Ê˛ˆÏ Ü ˛¢l ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y Î˚ ˆÎ§Ü˛° ˜ç!Óܲ
xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ •Î˚ ï˛y ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏl á!lç §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
˛õã˛ˆÏl §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚yÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲy!Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ¢#ï˛° ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ï
ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ àë˛l !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚%
xM˛ˆÏ° ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚yÓ˚ Ó,!Âô Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ӈϰ !•í˛zÙy§ çÙy •Î˚–
ï%˛wy ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÈüȈÙÓ˚% ≤ÈÏò¢#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ !˛õˆÏê˛Ó˚ åpeatä
hflÏÓ˚ çÙˆÏï˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ܲyÓ˚î ˆ§áyˆÏl x˛õ!ã˛ï˛ ˜çÓ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
§M˛Î˚ àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏ벖 ˙ xM˛ˆÏ° ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ !fiÌ!ï˛Ü˛Ó˚î
ånitrogen fixationä âˆÏê˛– !¢¡∫ ˆàye#Î˚ í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ !¢Ü˛ˆÏí˛¸
Ó˚y•zˆçÏ y!ÓÎ˚yÙ lyÙܲ ~ܲ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Îy˚ Ó§Óy§ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy G•z
àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ !¢Ü˛ˆÏí˛¸ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl §M˛Î˚ âê˛yÎ˚ñ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°y ˙ §Ü˛°
àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ çlƒG í˛z˛õܲyÓ˚#– ÓˆÏí˛¸y ≤Ãyî# ÎÌy !˛õÑ˛õí˛¸yñ í˛zÑ•zˆÏ˛õyܲyñ
ˆÜÑ˛ˆÏã˛y ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ≤Ãyî# Îy!sfܲ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ Ù,!_ܲy àë˛ˆÏl §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ˆÜÑ˛ˆÏã˛y ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ Ù,!_ܲyˆÏï˛•z ÌyˆÏܲ G Ù,!_ܲy ˆÌˆÏܲ•z ˛õ%!T˛ @˝Ã•î
ܲˆÏÓñ˚ ï˛y•z ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ @˝ÃÌl Óy Ó%ll ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
àë˛l !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚–
§ÙÎ˚ åTimeä ı
§ÙÎ˚ Ù,!_ܲy §,!T˛Ó˚ ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ !lÎ˚sfܲ– Ù,!_ܲy àë˛ˆÏl ˆÎ
§ÙÎ˚ ˆlÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •GÎ˚y G ˛õ!Ó˚ˆ° Ï á àë˛l
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù,!_ܲy ï˛ál•z ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚ Îál
§Ü˛° ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ Ù,!_ܲy àë˛lܲyÓ˚# í˛z˛õyòyl ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §ÙÎ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• 57

Ù,!_ܲy àë˛l G Ù,!_ܲy àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ܲyÓ˚î§Ù)•ˆÏܲ xy°yòy ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛ •Î˚– ˆÎ§Ü˛° Ù,!_ܲy §y¡±!ï˛Ü˛Ü˛yˆÏ° §!M˛ï˛ ˛õ!° Óy
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl xyˆÏSÈ !ܲ⁄ !•ÙÓy• Óy!•ï˛ ܲò≈Ù §M˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y lÓ#l
§ÙÎ˚ñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛z˛õyòylˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛l Ù,!_ܲy Ù,!_ܲy ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly hflÏÓ˚yÎ˚î ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ly– Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚
àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚y«˛ !lÎ˚sfܲ Ó°y •Î˚⁄ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ §ÙÎ˚ ˆl•z–

xl%¢#°l#
1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚ !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
(i) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ı
(a) §M˛Î˚ (c) x@¿%ƒò‰àÙ
(b) Ë)˛ÈüÈ!Ó˛õÎ≈Î˚ (d) «˛Î˚–
(ii) ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛ ç°ˆÏÎyçl myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚ ıÈ
(a) @˝Ãyly•zê˛ (c) ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê≈˛ç
(b) ܲò≈Ù (d) °Óî
(iii) ˲@¿hfl)Ï˛õ §¡±˛õyï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛ Èı
(a) Ë)˛!Ùô§ (c) o%ï˛ ˛≤ÃÓyˆÏ• ˛˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚
(b) ô#Ó˚ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ• ˛õ%!Oï˛ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ (d) xˆÏôyàÙl
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) ÚxyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ˜çÓ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚Û ÈüüüÈ ˆÜ˛l⁄
(ii) ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆ§•z §Ü˛° ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y ï˛y!°Ü˛yË)˛=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y o%ï˛ ~ÓÇ xl%ôyÓlˆÏÎyàƒ–
(iii) !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ¢!=˛¢y°# G ã˛°Ùyl Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ lyÙ ˆ°ˆÏáy– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl ܲyç
ܲ#⁄
(iv) xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ !ܲ Ù,!_ܲy §,!T˛Ó˚ xlƒï˛Ù ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ¢ï≈˛⁄ ˆÜ˛l⁄
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) ÚxyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ò%!ê˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ °#°yˆÏ«˛eÛ ÈüüüÈ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(ii) Ó!•ç≈yï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ù)° ã˛y!°Ü˛y ¢!=˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !ܲÓ˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÈüüüÈ
Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iii) Îy!sfܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ !ܲ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°⁄ Î!ò ly •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ
ˆÜ˛l⁄ í˛zòy•Ó˚î §• Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iv) Ù,!_ܲy àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ Ù,!_ܲy àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ܲyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚⁄ Ù,!_ܲy
§,!T˛ˆÏï˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ~ÓÇ ˜ç!Óܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲy xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç
ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ xyˆÏ¢˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÆ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ%̊ñ §Ω˛yÓƒ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§Ù)• !°!˛õÓÂô ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
x ôƒy Î˚
xy Ó•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈí˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ àë˛ˆÏl ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflyÏ Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ àë˛lܲyÓ˚#
í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ç°ñ ˆË˛ÔÙç°ñ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy•ñ !•ÙÓy•ñ
ï˛Ó˚Aà ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ myÓ˚y «˛Î˚ §y!ôï˛ •Î˚– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y •zˆÏï˛yÙˆÏôƒ•z ˆçˆÏlSÈ
ˆÎñ «˛Î˚#˲Ól Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âê˛yÎ˚– xӈϫ˛˛õî åDepositionä
•° «˛Î˚#˲Ól åerosionä ˛≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ xӈϫ˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏîG Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ~•z xôƒyÎ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ñ ï˛y•z §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ~ê˛y çyly òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚ ˆÎñ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ åland-
formä ܲyˆÏܲ ӈϰ⁄ §•ç ˲y£ÏyÎ˚ñ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚
xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏܲ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ Ó°y •Î˚–
Î!ò Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ˆÏܲ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ
Ó°y •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ Ë)˛ò,¢ƒ ålandscapeä ܲ#⁄
xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ܲ!eï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛ò,¢ƒ àë˛l
ܲˆÏÓñ˚ åÎy Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ !ÓhflïÏ, ˛ ˲yàä– ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õÓ˚ !ܲS%È !lçfl∫
ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ñ xyܲyÓ˚ñ í˛z˛õyòyl ÌyˆÏܲ Îy !l!ò≈T˛ !ܲS%È
Ë)˛≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ åagentsä §!¡ø!°ï˛ ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚
Ê˛°– ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà Ë)˛ÈüÈxyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y
ô#Ó˚à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ã˛°ˆÏSÈñ ï˛y•z ~à%ˆÏ°y xyܲyÓ˚ !lˆÏï˛ ò#â≈
§ÙÎ˚ ˆlÎ˚– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃyÓ˚Ω˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ
~ܲÓyÓ˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ñ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ G ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xyˆÏ§ Îy Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ Óy o%ï˛à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÎ≈ܲy!Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ç°ÓyÎ˚% §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ÓÇ fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚
í˛zÕ‘¡∫ Óy xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ xyˆÏ®y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî xÌÓy ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ï˛#Ó ï˛y Óy ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y !lˆÏçÓ˚y•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õà%ˆ° Ï y lï%˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚– ~áyˆÏl
!ÓÓï≈˛l åEvolutionä Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xLjϢÓ˚ ~ܲ
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õÓ˚ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝Ó˚ Óy ~ܲÓyÓ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l
LANDFORMS AND THEIR
EVOLUTION
˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ,Ìܲ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝Óˆ˚ ÜÏ ˛ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏl •°ñ
≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ !ÓܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •z!ï˛•y§ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ §ÙÎ˚
xl%ÎyÎ˚# ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ë)˛á[˛ !ÓܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Ùôƒ
!òˆÏÎ˚ x!ï˛Óy!•ï˛ •Î˚ Îy !ܲS%Èê˛y ç#Ól ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ï%˛°l#Î˚
ˆÎÙlÈüȈÎÔÓl åyouthäñ ˆ≤ÃÔì˛¸ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ åmatureä ~ÓÇ
Óyô≈ܲƒ åold ageä–
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ò%•z!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ !òܲ ܲ#⁄
˲!Ó£Ï ƒ ˆÏ ï ˛Ó˚ çlƒ Ë) ˛ È ü È ˛ õ, ˆ Ï ¤ ˛Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒï˛y •… y § ly ܲˆÏ Ó ˚
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚˲yˆÏÓ ~!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ~Ó˚ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛
!ÓÓï≈˛l#Î˚ •z!ï˛•y§!ê˛ ˆÓyV˛y xï˛ƒhs˝ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚– Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ!ÓòƒyÓ˚
Ù)° xyˆÏ°yã˛ƒ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ •° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ˛õ%l/!lÙ≈yˆÏîÓ˚ •z!ï˛•y§ñ
àë˛làï˛ xôƒÎ˚lñ !lÙ≈yîܲyÓ˚# ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• ~ÓÇ xyܲyÓ˚ ôyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛–
!Ó!˲ߨ Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ågeomorphic agentsä
«˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §y!ôï˛ •Î˚– !l/
§ˆÏ ® ˆÏ • ñ xÓˆÏ « ˛˛õî å deposition ä ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y G xÓÓy!•Ü˛y
åbasinäñ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y Óy l#ã%˛ fiÌ°ˆÏܲ ˲Ó˚yê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏà
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xyˆÏl– «˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ xӈϫ˛˛õî •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
x˛õˆÏ«˛!˛õï˛ ˛õ,¤˛G ådepositional surfacesä ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ «˛Î˚#Ë)˛ï˛
•Î˚– ≤ÃÓy•Ùyl ç° åRunning wateräñ ˆË˛ÔÙç° åground-
wateräñ !•ÙÓy• åglaciersäñ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• åwindä ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà
åwavesä ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ¢!=˛¢y°# «˛Î˚#˲ÓlܲyÓ˚# G xӈϫ˛˛õîܲyÓ˚#
¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yñ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ%!Oï˛ «˛Î˚ åmass wastingä
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §•yÎ˚ï˛yÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏܲ xyܲyÓ˚ òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
xyˆÏl– ~•z Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛§Ù)• ò#â≈ܲy°#l §ÙÎ˚ ÎyÓÍ
ܲyÎ≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ü ˛ÙÓÂô å systematicä ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xyˆÏl– ÎyÓ˚
Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xî%Ü ˛!Ùܲ åsequentialä !Óܲy¢ •ˆÏÎ˚
ÌyˆÏܲ– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ¢!=˛ ~ܲ !ӈϢ£Ï ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~ܲe#˲Ól åassemblageä âê˛yÎ˚– ¢%ô% ï˛y•z lÎ˚ñ
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l
≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ Ë) ˛ ï˛y!_¥ Ü ˛ ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛ ~ˆÏ ò Ó˚ myÓ˚ y §, T ˛
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ fl∫ï˛sf ~ܲ!ê˛ SÈy˛õ åimprintä SÈyˆÏí˛¸– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
çyl ˆÎñ x!ôܲyÇ¢ Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y á%Ó ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ åÎy
≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ lyä ܲyÎ≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îyÙ
myÓ˚y•z ˆòáy ~ÓÇ Ùy˛õy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îyÙ Óy Ê˛°yÊ˛°
åresultsä ܲ#⁄ ~•z Ê˛°yÊ˛°à%ˆÏ°y Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ G ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ
SÈyí˛¸y xyÓ˚ !ܲS%È•z ly– xï˛~Óñ ~•z Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚l•zñ
xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛ ˆ§•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛à%ˆ° Ï y §¡õˆÏܲ≈ ôyÓ˚îy ˆòˆÏÓ Îy
~•z Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ Óy ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
ly– ~Ùl !ܲS%È ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ly٠ӈϰy ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆòáy ˆÎˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ùl !ܲS%È ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ly–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y «˛Î˚#˲Ól ~ÓÇ xӈϫ˛˛õˆÏî
§«˛Ùñ ï˛y•z «˛Î˚#Ë)˛ï˛ Óy ôÁǧydܲ G xӈϫ˛!˛õï˛ Óy àë˛l¢#°
ÈüüüÈ ~•z ò%•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !lÙ≈yî •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛
Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ !Óܲ!¢ï˛ •Î˚ñ Îy
≤Ãôylï˛ ôÓ˚l åtypeä G ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy åstructureä ÎÌy ÈüÈ áÑyç
åfoldsäñ ã%˛ƒ!ï˛ åfaultsäñ òyÓ˚î åjointsäñ Ê˛yê˛° åfracturesäñ
ܲˆÏë˛yÓ˚ï˛y åhardnessä G ˆÜ˛yÙ°ï˛y åsoftnessäñ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ƒï˛y
åpermeabilityä G x≤ÈÏÓ¢ƒï˛y åimpermeabilityä ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ xlƒylƒ !ܲS%È fl∫ï˛sf !lÎ˚sÜf ˛G xyˆÏSÈ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ
åiä §Ù%oï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ fiÌy!Î˚c åiiä Ë)˛áˆÏ[˛Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈàë˛lܲyÓ˚# fiÌy!Î˚c åiiiä
ç°ÓyÎ˚% ÈüÈ Îy Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Óܲy¢ˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~•z !ï˛l!ê˛
!lÎ˚sfˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!â¯ï˛ •ˆÏ° Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚
Ü ˛ÙÓÂô ~ÓÇ xî%Ü ˛!Ùܲ !Óܲy¢ G !ÓÓï≈˛Ïl !Ó˛õÎ≈hflÏ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛õ,¤˛yÎ˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛
ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ≤ÃÓ•Ùyl ç°ñ ˆË˛ÔÙç°ñ !•ÙÓy•ñ ï˛Ó˚Aà G ÓyÎ%̊≤ÃÓy•
≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ §¡õˆÏܲ≈ §Ç!«˛Æ !ÓÓÓ˚î ˆòGÎ˚y •°– ~•z ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
myÓ˚y Ë)˛á[˛ «˛Î˚#˲Ól ~Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚ñ ˆ§!ê˛G
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •°– ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ !ܲS%È «˛Î˚#Ë)˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ xӈϫ˛!˛õï˛
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Óܲy¢G xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ •°–
≤ÃÓ•Ùyl ç° åRUNNING WATERä ı
xyo≈ xM˛°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl xï˛ƒ!ôܲ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚ñ ˆ§áyˆÏl
≤ÃÓ•Ùyl ç° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ xÓl!ï˛Ó˚ ådegradationä çlƒñ
Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ ӈϰ !ÓˆÏÓ!ã˛ï˛
•Î˚– ≤ÃÓ•Ùyl çˆÏ°Ó˚ ò%•z!ê˛ í˛z˛õyòyl xyˆÏSÈ– ~ܲñ §yôyÓ˚î
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ã˛yòˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆôÔï˛ ≤ÃÓy• åoverland flowä–
xlƒ!ê˛ •°ñ ˜Ó˚!áܲ ≤ÃÓy• ålinear flowä Îy í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
lò#ˆÏï˛ ç°ˆÏflÀyï˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ≤ÃÓ•Ùyl ç° myÓ˚y §,T˛
59
«˛Î˚ ≤ ÃyÆ Ë) ˛ !ÙÓ˚ ) ˛ õà% ˆ Ï ° y ˆÓ¢ §Ó° ~ÓÇ ˆÎÔÓl ˛õÎ≈ y ˆÏ Î ˚ Ó ˚
lò#à%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ Îy áyí˛¸y ì˛y°à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏï˛ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
§ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ˛ áyí˛¸y ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ «˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° lò#≤Ãîy°#à%ˆ° Ï y Ù,ò% ì˛yˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï˛≈ï˛ •Î˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ lò#Ó˚
à!ï˛ˆÏÓà •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xӈϫ˛˛õî ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° áyí˛¸y
ì˛yˆÏ° ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ lò#à%ˆÏ°yG !ܲS%È Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ܲv ~•z
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ§Ù%• ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù,ò% ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
lò#à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ≤ÃÓ•Ùyl
lò#Ó˚ ì˛y° Îï˛ Ù,ò% •ˆÏÓñ xӈϫ˛˛õî ï˛ï˛ê˛y•z x!ôܲ •ˆÏÓ– Îál
Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ «˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° lò#Ó˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢ §Ùï˛° •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ
ï˛ál !l¡¨Ù%á# ܲï≈˛l ådownward cuttingä ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ
lò# ï˛#ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˛˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚ ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ ˛õy•yí˛¸ G í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y
§Ùï˛°Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zFã˛Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ §¡õ)î≈ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ܲÓ˚î !ܲ
§Ω˛Ó⁄
˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ≤ÃÓy• åOverland flowä hflÏÓ˚yÎ˚î «˛Î˚ åsheet
erosionä âê˛yÎ˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ
˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ≤ÃÓy• §Çܲ#î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤âhflÏ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ü,˛hs˝l
åsheerä â£Ïˆ≈ îÏ Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ lò# Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy• ˛õˆÏÌ
«%˛o Óy Ó,•Í ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚
ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y G §Çܲ#î≈ ly°y Óy ˆflÀyï˛!fl∫l# årillsä àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z
ˆflÀyï˛!fl∫l#à%ˆÏ°y ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ò#â≈ ~ÓÇ ≤âhflÏ áyˆÏï˛ ågulliesä
˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– ~•z áyï˛à%ˆÏ°y §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ à˲#Ó˚ñ !Óhfl,Ïï˛
G ò#â≈y!Î˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ çy° ånetworkä §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ !l¡¨Ù%á#ܲï≈˛l x!ôܲ ÌyˆÏܲñ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛ï˛y ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ç°≤Ã˛õyï˛ åwaterfallsä ~ÓÇ ˆ§y˛õyl#
ç°≤Ã˛õyï˛ Óy ܲy§ˆÏÜ˛í˛ åcascadesä •zï˛ƒy!ò °%Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
ÙôƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ñ lò#à%ˆÏ°y ï˛°ˆÏò¢ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ܲï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏ¢ ˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚ x!ôܲ •Î˚– Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÎÏ ˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y ˛õyˆÏŸª≈Ó˚
ì˛y° !l¡¨ ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ !l¡¨ ï ˛Ó˚ •ˆÏ ï ˛ ÌyˆÏ Ü ˛– ~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ lò#
xÓÓy!•Ü˛yÓ˚ åriver basinä ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó˲yàà%ˆÏ°y ï˛ï˛«˛î ˛õÎ≈hs˝
!l¡¨ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ Îï˛«˛î ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ly ~à%ˆÏ°y ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ùï˛° •ˆÏÎ˚
ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ xÓ!¢T˛yÇ¢Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˛õy•yí˛¸àˆ% °
Ï y
•zï˛/hflÏï˛ !Ó!«˛Æ˲yˆÏÓ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ~•z «˛Î˚≤ÃyÆ xÓ!¢T˛
˛õy•yí˛¸à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆÙyly퉲lܲ åmonadnocksä Ó°y •Î˚– lò#«˛Î˚
myÓ˚ y §, T ˛ ~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ùï˛° Óy §Ù≤ÃyÎ˚ Ë) ˛ !ÙˆÏ Ü ˛
Úˆ˛õ!lˆÏ≤’lÛ åpeneplainä ӈϰ– ≤ÃÓ•Ùyl ç° myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛
≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§Ù)• !l¡¨Ó˚)˛õ ı
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ˆÎÔÓl ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ åYouthä ı

~•z ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ lò#à%ˆÏ°y fl∫“ í˛z˛õyòylÎ%=˛ G §ÇáƒyÎ˚ á%Ó Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
Ù)° ì˛y° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ lò#à%ˆÏ°y xà˲#Ó˚ ÚÈVüÈxyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚Û
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~áyˆÏl ≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ly Óy Ù%რlò#Ó˚
§yˆÏÌ á%Ó §Çܲ#î≈ ≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~áyˆÏl !Ó° åmarshesäñ
ç°yË)˛!Ù åswampä ~ÓÇ •…ò ålakesä ÌyܲyÎ˚ ç°!Ó˲y!çܲy
xï˛ƒ!ôܲ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ G §Ùï˛° •Î˚– ~Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ §Ùï˛° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚
lò# ~ˆÏÜÑ˛ÈüȈÓшÏܲ åmeandersä ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z !ÙˆÏÎ˚u˛yÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y
xӈϢˆÏ£Ï í˛zFã˛Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ≤Ãy!Ìï˛ åentrenchä ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚
ˆÎáyˆÏl fiÌyl#Î˚ ܲ!ë˛l !¢°y ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆ§áyˆÏl ç°≤Ã˛õyï˛
åWaterfallsä ~ÓÇ lò#≤Ã˛õyï˛ Óy Ó˚ƒy!˛õí˛§‰ årapidsä ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ åMatureä ı
~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ lò#à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùyey x!ôܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏl
§Ù,Âô– í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yà%ˆÏ°y ~álG ÚÈVüÈxyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚Û !ܲv à˲#Ó˚– Ù%áƒ
lò# Óƒy˛õܲ G !Óhfl,Ïï˛ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ≤’yÓlË)˛!ÙG ΈÏÌT˛ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ñ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
lò#à%ˆÏ°y í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ !˲ï˛Ó˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ~шÏܲÈüȈÓшÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ˆÎÔÓl
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ §Ùï˛° G !Óhfl,Ïï˛ xyhs˝/≤ÃÓy•Î%=˛ xM˛°§Ù)• ~ÓÇ
!Ó° G ç°yË)˛!Ùà%ˆÏ°y xò,¢ƒ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ lò# !Ó˲y!çܲy flõT˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ GˆÏ벖 ç°≤Ã˛õyï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚ƒy!˛õí˛§‰ !Ó°%Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
Óyô≈ܲƒ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ åOldä ı
Óyô≈ܲƒ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y í˛z˛õlò#Ó˚ §Çáƒy Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% ì˛y°Î%=˛ !ã˛e 7.1 : ï˛y!Ù°lyí˛Y Ó˚ y ˆÏ ç ƒÓ˚ xhs˝ à ≈ ï ˛ ôÙ≈ ˛ õ% Ó ˚ # ˆç°yÓ˚
•Î˚– lò#à%ˆÏ°y fl∫ï˛sfÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ ≤’yÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆ•yˆÏàˆÏlܲ°ÈüÈ~Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ Ü˛yˆÏÓÓ˚# lò#Ó˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÎ˚ §,T˛ !à!Ó˚áyï˛–
lò# ÓÑyܲñ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ï˛ê˛ ÓÑyô ånatural levees,ä xŸª«%˛Ó˚yÜ,˛!ï˛ •…ò
åoxbow lakesä ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– •…òñ !Ó° G ç°yË)˛!ÙÎ%=˛
xM˛ˆÏ° ç°!Ó˲y!çܲy !Óhfl,Ïï˛ ~ÓÇ §Ùï˛°– x!ôܲyÇ¢ Ë)˛ò,¢ƒ
§Ù%oï˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ Óy ~ܲê%˛ í˛zÑã%˛ˆÏï˛ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
lò#Ó˚ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åEROSIONAL
LANDFORMSäı
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y åValleysä ı
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yà%ˆÏ°y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ~ÓÇ §Çܲ#î≈ «%˛o lò# årillsä !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ¢%Ó˚%
•Î˚– ~•z «%˛o lò#à%ˆÏ°y ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ °¡∫y G ≤âhflÏ áyˆÏï˛ ågulliesä !ã˛e 7.2 : Ùy!Ü≈˛l Î%=˛Ó˚yˆÏT˛…Ó˚ ܲˆÏ°yÓ˚yˆÏí˛y lò#Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– ~•z áyï˛à%ˆÏ°y Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ à˲#Ó˚ñ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ ~ÓÇ °¡∫y •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆ≤Ãy!Ìï˛ !ÙˆÏÎ˚u˛yÓ˚ Óy ÓÑyܲy °%˛õñ Îy ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÎ˚ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ Ó˚)˛õ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– àë˛l ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲƒy!lÎ˚lÓ˚)˛õ# ôy˛õ §ò,¢ ˛õy!Ÿª≈Î˚ ì˛y°–
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ VÈüÈxyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y åV- •Î˚ å!ã˛e 7.2ä– ~ܲ!ê˛ !à!Ó˚áyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤ÃfiÌ ~Ó˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y
shaped valleyäñ !à!Ó˚áyï˛ ågorgeäñ ܲƒy!lÎ˚l åcanyonä ≤Ã˲, !ï˛ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏàG ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚– x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲñ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ƒy!lÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢
!ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– lò# í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y á%Ó à˲#Ó˚ G áyí˛¸y ì˛y°Î%=˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yà x!ôܲ ≤âhflÏ •Î˚–
•ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏܲ !à!Ó˚áyï˛ ågorgeä ӈϰ å!ã˛e 7.1ä– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ƒy!lÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ ܲƒy!lÎ˚lñ !à!Ó˚áyˆÏï˛Ó˚•z xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚)˛õ– ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ
˛õyŸª≈ˆÏò¢G áyí˛¸y ì˛y°Î%=˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !à!Ó˚áyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~!ê˛G à˲#Ó˚ !¢°y myÓ˚y í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ôÓ˚l ~ÓÇ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ܲƒy!lÎ˚là%ˆÏ°y
§Ω˛Óï˛ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y ~ÓÇ !à!Ó˚áyï˛ Ü˛!ë˛l !¢°yÎ˚
à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ÙrÌÜ)˛˛õ G ≤’yO˛õ%° åPotholes and Plunge Poolsä ı
lò#Ó˚ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ• «%˛o «%˛o !¢°yáˆÏ[˛Ó˚ xÓâ£Ï≈ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
lò#àˆÏË≈˛ §,T˛ ≤ÃyÎ˚ ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ àï≈˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ÙrÌÜ)˛˛õ åpotholesä
ӈϰ– ~ܲÓyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ~ÓÇ xà˲#Ó˚ àï≈˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ÓyÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ñ
ÜÑ˛yܲÓ˚ G ˛õyÌÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y ~•z àï≈˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!eï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ç°
myÓ˚y â)î≈yÎ˚Ùyl •Î˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~•z àï≈˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
xӈϢˆÏ£Ï ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ Î%=˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
§ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ lò# í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y à˲#Ó˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– çˆÏ°Ó˚ Ü,˛hs˝l
G !¢°yáˆÏ[˛Ó˚ â)î≈ˆÏlÓ˚ myÓ˚y ç°≤Ã˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õyòˆÏòˆÏ¢G ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÓ¢
à˲#Ó˚ G ≤âhflÏ ÙrÌÜ)˛˛õ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ç°≤Ã˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õyòˆÏòˆÏ¢ ~Ó˚ܲÙ
ÓˆÏí˛¸y ~ÓÇ à˲#Ó˚ àï≈˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ≤’yO˛õ%° åPlunge Poolä Ó°y
•Î˚– ~•z ˛õ%°à%ˆÏ°yG í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yˆÏܲ à˲#Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ç°≤Ã˛õyï˛à%ˆÏ°yG xlƒylƒ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ «˛îfiÌyÎ˚# •Î˚ Îy ô#ˆÏÓ˚
ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ˛õSȈÏl §Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ç°≤Ã˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚ï˛° ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚
xÓÓy!•Ü˛yÓ˚ !l¡¨ï˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈y!Î˚ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ lò#ÓÑyܲ åIncised or Entrenched Meandersäı
áyí˛¸y ì˛yˆÏ° o%ï˛ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ lò#à%ˆ°Ï yˆÏï˛ fl∫˲yÓï˛ lò#Ó˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢
«˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ ≤Ãyôylƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– áyí˛¸y lò#ì˛y°Î%=˛ lò#à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏï˛ ˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚
x!ôܲ •Î˚ ly– !ܲv !l¡¨ G Ù,ò% ì˛yˆÏ° ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ lò#à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚
x!ôܲ •Î˚– §!Ü ˛Î˚ ˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚ ˆÓ!¢ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏîñ Ù,ò% ì˛yˆÏ° ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
lò#à%ˆÏ°y §!˛õ≈° Óy xÑyܲyÓÑyܲy ˛õˆÏÌ ~!àˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù G
ÓÈüÈm#˛õ §ÙË)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl lò#ì˛y°à%ˆÏ°y á%Ó Ù,ò% •Î˚ñ ˆ§áyˆÏl
lò#Ó˚ xÑyܲyÓyܲy à!ï˛˛õˆÏÌ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •GÎ˚y á%Ó §yôyÓ˚î !Ó£ÏÎ˚– !ܲv
ܲ!ë˛l !¢°yˆÏï˛G à˲#Ó˚ ܲ!ï˛≈ï˛ G ≤âhflÏ lò#ÓÑyܲ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•zÓ˚)˛õ
lò# ÓÑyܲˆÏܲ ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ lò#ÓÑyܲ å incised or entrenched
meandersä ӈϰ å!ã˛e 7.2ä– lò# àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ Ù,ò% ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ lò#ÓÑyˆÏܲÓ˚ °%˛õ åLoopä !Óܲ!¢ï˛ •Î˚
~ÓÇ ~•z °%˛õà%ˆÏ°y !¢°yÓ˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆ≤Ãy!Ìï˛ •Î˚ Îy ≤Ãôylï˛
lò#«˛Î˚ Óy Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ô#Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ˛Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ í˛zayˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
§ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ~à%ˆÏ°y xyÓ˚G à˲#Ó˚ G ≤âhflÏ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛!ë˛l
!¢°yÎ%=˛ ~°yܲyÎ˚ à˲#Ó˚ !à!Ó˚áyï˛ G ܲƒy!lÎ˚lÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ˆÎ Ù)° Ë)˛È üÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ lò#à%ˆÏ°y à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_
ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ xÓfiÌy §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ~à%ˆÏ°y •z!Aàï˛ Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ lò#ÓÑyܲñ ≤’yÓlË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ §,T˛ lò#ÓÑyܲ G ÓÈüÈm#˛õ
§ÙË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ §,T˛ lò#ÓÑyˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒà%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ܲ#⁄
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lò#ÈÙM˛ åRiver Terracesä ı
lò#ÈÙM˛ •° ˛õ%Ó˚yï˛l í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢ Óy ≤’yÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚ hflÏÓ˚
!ã˛!•´ï˛Ü˛yÓ˚# ˛õ,¤˛Ë)˛!Ù– ~à%ˆÏ°y ˛õ°°hflÏÓ˚ Óy ˛õ°°È ÙM˛!Ó•#l xy!ò
!¢°yhflÏÓ˚ åbedrockä ˆÎáyˆÏl lò# §M˛Î˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– lò#ÙM˛à%ˆÏ°y
Ù)°ï˛ «˛Î˚#Ë)˛ï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ܲyÓ˚î ~•z lò#à%ˆÏ°y !lçfl∫ §M˛Î˚çyï˛
≤’yÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– !Ó!˲ߨ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚ x!ôܲ
§ÇáƒÜ˛ lò#ÙM˛ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ Îy ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ lò#Ó«˛ hflÏÓ˚ˆÏܲ !lˆÏò≈¢
ܲˆÏÓ˚– lò#à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z˲Î˚ ˛õyˆÏ¢ §Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛y!Ó!¢T˛ lò#ÙM˛ˆÏܲ Î%@¬
lò#ÙM˛ åpaired terracesä Ó°y •Î˚ å!ã˛e 7.3ä–
Î%@¬ ÙM˛
xÎ%@¬ ÙM˛
!ã˛e 7.3 : Î%@¬ G xÎ%@¬ lò#ÙM˛
Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ ÙM˛ ˆÜ˛Ó° lò#Ó˚ ~ܲ˛õyˆÏ¢ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ xl%˛õ!fiÌï˛ Óy !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òܲ ~Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y ˛õ)Ó≈˛õyŸª≈
xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ~ܲòÙ !˲ߨ •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ÙM˛à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ xÎ%@¬ lò#ÙM˛
åunpaired terracesä Ó°y •Î˚– Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ô#Ó˚à!ï˛ §¡õߨ í˛zˆÏ_y°l
~°yܲyÎ˚ Óy ˆÎáyˆÏl í˛z˲Î˚ ï˛ˆÏê˛ ç°hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl x§Çà!ï˛
ÌyˆÏܲñ ˆ§áyˆÏl xÎ%@¬ lò#ÙM˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– lò#ÙM˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
í˛zͲõ!_Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y •° ÈüüüÈ åiä ¢#£Ï≈≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ ç°≤ÃÓy• •…y§
˛õyGÎ˚yó åiiä ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ ç°ã˛ˆÏܲ  Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ló åiiiä
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ àyë˛!lܲ í˛zayló åivä Î!ò lò#§Ù)• §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ !lÜ˛ê˛ xyˆÏ§ñ
ï˛ˆÏÓ §Ù%oï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •zï˛ƒy!ò–
lò#Ó˚ §M˛Î˚ ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åDEPOSITIONAL
LANDFORMSä ı
˛õ!° §!M˛ï˛ !eˆÏܲyîyܲyÓ˚ Ë)˛á[˛ Óy ˛õ°° ¢AÜ%˛ åAlluvial
Fansä ı
lò# í˛zFã˛ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ xM˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ Îál •ë˛yÍ §ÙË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ˆlˆÏÙ xyˆÏ§
ï˛ál ˛õ°° ¢AÜ%˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ å!ã˛e 7.4ä– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ ì˛yˆÏ°
≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ lò#§Ù)• ˲yÓ˚# ~ÓÇ fiÌ)° xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÓyV˛y åloadä Ó•l
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ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ù,ò% ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ lò#à%ˆÏ°y ~•z ˆÓyV˛y Ó•l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ x§ÙÌ≈
•GÎ˚yÎ˚ ~à%ˆÏ°y !Óhfl,Ïï˛ xM˛ˆÏ° !l¡¨ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢AÜ%˛
Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ°°¢AÜ%˛ åalluvial fanä ӈϰ– ˛õ°°
¢AÜ%˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ lò#à%ˆÏ°y ò#â≈ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ çlƒ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Ù)°
≤ÃÓyˆÏ• §#ÙyÓÂô ly ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢AÜ%˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy•˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ xˆÏ l ܲà% ˆ Ï ° y ¢yáy àë˛l ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ – ~ˆÏ ò Ó˚ ¢yáylò#
!ã˛e 7.4 : xÙÓ˚lyÌñ ç¡ø% G ܲyŸ¬#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õˆÏÌ ~ܲ!ê˛
˛õy•y!í˛¸ lò#≤ÃÓy• myÓ˚y §!M˛ï˛ ˛õ°° ¢AÜ%˛–
ådistributariesä Ó°y •Î˚– xyo≈ xM˛ˆÏ° ˛õ°°¢AÜ%˛ ≤Ãôylï˛ !l¡¨
í˛zFã˛ï˛y!Ó!¢T˛ ¢AÜ%˛ ï˛Ìy ¢#£Ï≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õyòˆÏò¢ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ Ù,ò% ì˛y°Î%=˛
•Î˚– ¢%‹Ò G xyo≈ÈüÈ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ~à%ˆÏ°y áyí˛¸y ì˛y° !Ó!¢T˛
í˛zFã˛ ¢AÜ%˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
ÓÈüÈm#˛õ åDeltasä ı
ÓÈüÈm#˛õ ˛õ°° ¢AÜ%˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y •Î˚ !ܲhs% ~à%ˆÏ°y !Óܲ!¢ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ fiÌyl
!˲ߨ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– lò# myÓ˚y Óy!•ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• ˆÙy•lyÎ˚ xӈϫ˛!˛õï˛
!ã˛e 7.5 : Ü,˛£÷Ïy lò# åxrô ≤ÈÏò¢ä ÓÈüÈm#˛õ xLjϢÓ˚ í˛z˛õ@˝Ã•
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆlGÎ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ SÈ!Ó–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆ§áyˆÏl !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!ò ~•z ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y §Ù%o
ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚Óï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl Óy §Ù%o í˛z˛õÜ)˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ Ó!^˝ê˛ï˛ ly •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ°
¢AÜ%˛à%ˆÏ°y !Óhfl,Ïï˛ G !l¡¨ í˛zFã˛ï˛y !Ó!¢T˛ •Î˚–
˛õ°° ¢AÜ%˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !˲ߨñ ÓÈüÈm#˛õ ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ çlƒ §!M˛ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)•
§%flõT˛ hflÏÓ˚!Ó!¢T˛ G á%Ó Ë˛yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ §!Iï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– fiÌ)° Óy ÓˆÏí˛¸y
˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• ≤Ã̈ÏÙ !Ì!ï˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ~ÓÇ §)- ˲@¿yÇ¢ ÎÌyÈüÈ˛õ!°Ùy!ê˛ñ
ܲyòyÙy!ê˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ §Ù%o x!∑ Óy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ÓÈüÈm#ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ñ ¢yáylò#à%ˆÏ°yG ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒ Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ å!ã˛e 7.5ä
~ÓÇ ÓÈüÈm#˛õ §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ àˆÏí˛¸ Gë˛ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
≤’yÓlË)˛!Ùñ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ÓÑyô ~ÓÇ ˛õˆÏÎ˚rê˛ ÓyÓ˚ åFloodplains,
Natural Levees and Point Barsä ı
ˆÎ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y §,!T˛ •Î˚ñ ˆ§•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
§M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù •° lò# §M˛ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ– Îál lò# áyí˛¸y ì˛y° ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù,ò% ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùôƒ
!òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ÓˆÏí˛¸y xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y ≤Ã̈ÏÙ §!M˛ï˛
•ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~˲yˆÏÓ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ Óy!°ñ ˛õ!°Ùy!ê˛ñ ܲyòyÙy!ê˛ •zï˛ƒy!ò
§)- xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õܲÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y §ÙË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ñ xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ Ù,ò% ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ô#Ó˚à!ï˛§¡õߨ ç°ôyÓ˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Óy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
lò#áyˆÏï˛ ÓlƒyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ çˆÏ° Óy!•ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ lò#ï˛ˆÏê˛ ~à%ˆÏ°y §!M˛ï˛
•Î˚– lò# §M˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ lò#Ó«˛ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ §!Ü ˛Î˚ ≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù–
Ù)°ï˛ ò%•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ §M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ myÓ˚y lò#ï˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !l!‹;Î˚ ≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù
à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ÈüüüÈ åiä ÓlƒyÓ˚ myÓ˚y §M˛Î˚ ~ÓÇ åiiä lò#˛õˆÏÌ §M˛Î˚–
§ÙË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ñ lò#≤Ãîy°# xyí˛¸yxy!í˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó!FSÈߨ
•GÎ˚y lò#˛õÌà%ˆÏ°y ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ˲Ó˚yê˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ à!ï˛˛õÌ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ!Ó˚ï˛ƒ=˛ Óy !Ó!FSÈߨ lò#≤Ãîy°# myÓ˚y !l!Ù≈ï˛ ~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
≤’yÓlË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ fiÌ)° ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §M˛Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚– ÓlƒyÓ˚ myÓ˚y
Óy!•ï˛ ç° ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §)- í˛z˛õܲÓ˚î ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ü˛yòyÙy!ê˛ G
˛õ!°Ùy!ê˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÓÈüÈm#ˆÏ˛õ à!ë˛ï˛ ≤’yÓlË)˛!ÙˆÏܲ ÚÓÈüÈm#˛õ
§ÙË)˛!ÙÛ ådelta plainsä ӈϰ–
fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ÓÑyô åNatural leveesä ~ÓÇ ˛õˆÏÎ˚rê˛ ÓyÓ˚ åpoint
barsä [!ã˛e 7.6] •° ≤’yÓlË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ à!ë˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ– ÓˆÏí˛¸y lò#à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛#ˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ÓÑyô ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y
lò#ï˛ˆÏê˛ fiÌ)° ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲñ xl%Fã˛ G §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y° ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ Îy ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z ˛õ,Ìܲ á![˛ï˛ hfl)Ï˛õ !ӈϢ£Ï– ÓlƒyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ Îál
ç° lò#ï˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ñ ï˛ál çˆÏ°Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ܲˆÏÙ
!àˆÏÎ˚ ÓˆÏí˛¸y xyܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• lò#Ó˚ ˛õyŸª≈Óï≈˛# ï˛ˆÏê˛ °¡∫y ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y
Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚– ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ÓÑyô lò#Ó˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ í˛zÑã%˛ ~ÓÇ lò# ˆÌˆÏܲ
ò)ˆÏÓ˚ Ù,ò% ì˛y°Î%=˛ •Î˚– lò#ï˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ !lÜ˛ê˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ÓÑyˆÏôÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
xӈϫ˛˛õîñ lò# ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚Óï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ xӈϫ˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚
xˆÏ ˛ õ«˛yÜ, ˛ ï˛ fiÌ) ° ˛õòyˆÏ Ì ≈ Ó ˚ •ˆÏ Î ˚ ÌyˆÏ Ü ˛– Îál lò#à% ˆ Ï ° y
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l
˛õˆÏÎr˚ ê˛
ÓyÓ˚
≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù
fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ÓÑyô
!ã˛e 7.6 : fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ÓÑyô ~ÓÇ ˛õˆÏÎ˚rê˛ ÓyÓ˚
xyí˛¸yxy!í˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál Ü ˛ÙÓÂô ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ÓÑyô àë˛l
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
˛õˆÏÎr˚ ê˛ ÓyÓ˚ñ !ÙˆÏÎu˚ ˛yÓ˚ ÓyÓ˚ åmeander barsä lyˆÏÙG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
~à%ˆÏ°y ÓˆÏí˛¸y lò# ÓÑyˆÏܲÓ˚ xÓï˛° ì˛yˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
ç° myÓ˚y Óy!•ï˛ ˛õ!°§Ù)• lò#ï˛ê˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲ˲yˆÏÓ §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚–
~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ°á åProfileä G ≤ÃfiÌ ≤ÃyÎ˚ ~ܲ§Ùyl •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚
xӈϫ˛˛õî !Ù◊ xyܲyÓ˚!Ó!¢T˛ ˛õ!°§Ù)• myÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– Î!ò ~áyˆÏl
~ܲy!ôܲ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˛õˆÏÎ˚rê˛ ÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Çܲ#î≈ G °¡∫y
àï≈˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ç°≤ÃÓy• ~ÓÇ ˛õ°° §Ó˚ÓÓ˚yˆÏ•Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚ lò#à%ˆÏ°y ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü ˛Ù ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ lò#Ó˚ xÓï˛°
ì˛yˆÏ° ˛õˆÏÎ˚rê˛ ÓyÓ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛y•z lò#Ó˚ í˛z_° ì˛yˆÏ° åconvex
sideä x!ôܲ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ §y!ôï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ÓÑyôñ ˛õˆÏÎ˚rê˛ ÓyÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ !˲ߨ •Î˚⁄
lò#ÓÑyܲ åMeandersä ı
!Óhfl,Ïï˛ ≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù G ÓÈüÈm#˛õ §ÙË)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ lò# á%Ó Ü˛Ù•z
ˆ§yçy ˛õˆÏÌ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ≤’yÓlË)˛!Ù G ÓÈüÈm#˛õ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !Óܲ!¢ï˛
ã%˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÜÑ˛yê˛yÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ lò#≤Ãîy°#ˆÏܲ !ÙˆÏÎ˚u˛yÓ˚ Ó°y •Î˚ å!ã˛e 7.7ä–
!ã˛e 7.7 : Ù%çÊ˛Ê˛Ó˚˛õ%Ó˚ñ !Ó•yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ Ó%Ó˚!• à[˛Ü˛ lò#Ó˚
lò#ÓÑyܲ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛˛z õ@˝Ã• !ã˛eñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ܲˆÎÏ Ü˚ ˛!ê˛ xŸª«˛% Óy˚ Ü,˛!ï˛
•…ò G ܲyê˛ÈüÈxÊ˛ åCut-Offä ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
63
lò#ÓÑyܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ lÎ˚ !ܲv ~!ê˛ ~ܲ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ lò#≤Ãîy°#
Ùye– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y •° ÈüüüÈ åiä Ù,ò% ì˛yˆÏ° ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ lò#Ó˚ çˆÏ°
˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨«˛ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛yó åiiä lò#ï˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!°§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚
x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛ G x§Çà!ë˛ï˛ §M˛Î˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y çˆÏ°Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
lò#Ó˚ ≤â!hflÏܲÓ˚îó åiiiä ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° myÓ˚y ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lñ !ë˛Ü˛ ˆÎÙl ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° myÓ˚y ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
•Î˚– Îál lò#ì˛y° xï˛ƒhs˝ Ù,ò% •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛ál lò#Ó˚ ç° ô#Ó˚à!ï˛ˆÏï˛
≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xyí˛¸yxy!í˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚– lò#ï˛ˆÏê˛ §yÙylƒ
x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛ï˛yG ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ÓÜ ˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÎ˚ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
~à%ˆÏ°y x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚˲yˆÏà §M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° à˲#Ó˚ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
Ó!•Ë≈˛yˆÏà lò#ï˛ê˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° à˲#Ó˚ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
Ó!•Ë≈˛yˆÏà lò#ï˛ê˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!ò ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xӈϫ˛˛õî
~ÓÇ «˛Î˚#˲Ól Óy !l¡¨«˛Î˚ åundercuttingä ly •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ lò#ÓÑyˆÏܲÓ˚
≤ÃÓîï˛yG •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ñ ÓˆÏí˛¸y lò#ÓÑyˆÏܲ xÓï˛° ï˛#Ó˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
§!Ü ˛Î˚ xӈϫ˛˛õî •Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z_° ï˛#Ó˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ !l¡¨«˛Î˚ •Î˚– xÓï˛°
ï˛#Ó˚!ê˛ Ü˛!ï≈˛ï˛ ï˛#Ó˚ åcut-off bankä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ñ Îy áyí˛¸y ì˛y°Î%=˛
~ÓÇ í˛z_° ì˛y°!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ò#â≈ñ Ù,ò% ˛õyŸª≈!ã˛e í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ å!ã˛e
7.8ä– lò#ÓÑyܲ à˲#Ó˚ °%ˆÏ˛õ !Óܲ!¢ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î ˲yà
xyl!ï˛ !Ó®%
˛õˆÏÎ˚rê˛ ÓyÓ˚
˛õˆÏÎr˚ ê˛
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flÒrô ì˛y° ï˛ê˛ åxÓï˛° ï˛#Ó˚ä
åxÓï˛° ï˛#Ó˚ä
flÒrô ì˛y° ï˛ê˛
í˛yl ï˛#Ó˚
ÓyÙ ï˛#Ó˚
!ã˛e 7.8 : lò#ÓÑyˆÏܲÓ˚ Ó,!Âôñ ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ °%˛õñ flÒrôì˛y° ~ÓÇ
!l¡¨Ü˛!ï˛≈ï˛ ï˛#Ó˚
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lakesä §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~áyˆÏl §¡õˆÏòÓ˚ xÇ¢Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ˆË˛ÔÙçˆÏ°Ó˚ ܲÌy Ó°y •Î˚!l– Ë)˛≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚
!Ól%l#Ó˚)˛õ# lò#≤Ãîy°# åBraided Channelsä ı «˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏl ˆË˛ÔÙçˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏl ~Ó˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲy
§¡õˆÏܲ≈ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •° Ù%რí˛zˆj
Ï ¢ƒ– !¢°yà%ˆ° Ï y ≤ÈÓÏ ¢ƒñ ˛õyï˛°y
Îál lò#à%ˆÏ°y fiÌ)°˛õòyÌ≈ Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛ál fiÌ)° í˛z˛õܲÓ˚î§Ù)•
§!M˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Ùôƒ m#˛õ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° lò#≤ÃÓy• lò#ï˛ê˛
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ !Ó˲=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ≤ÃÓy• lò#ï˛ˆÏê˛ ˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚ˆÏܲ cÓ˚y!^Ȫï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÓyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ç°≤ÃÓy• ܲˆÏÙ
ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• x!ôܲÙyeyÎ˚ ÓÈüÈm#˛õ G ˛õyŸª#≈Î˚ m#˛õ
Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛Ìy Ù)° ç°ôyÓ˚y !Ó!˲ߨ ˲yˆÏà !Ó˲=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
!Ól%l#Ó˚)˛õ# lò#≤Ãîy°# àë˛ˆÏl xӈϫ˛˛õî G ˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚ xï˛ƒhs˝
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ xÌÓy !Óܲ“˲yˆÏÓñ ÎáÈl í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùyey ܲˆÏÙ
ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ˆÓyV˛y x!ôܲ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál lò#ï˛ˆÏ° lò#m#˛õ G
Óy!°ñ l%!í˛¸ñ ÜÑ˛yܲÓ˚ •zï˛ƒy!ò !Ù!◊ï˛ ÓÈüÈm#˛õ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ç°≤ÃÓy•
!Ó!˲ߨ §%ï˛yÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ xLjϢ !Ó˲=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z§Ó §%ï˛yÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ «%˛o
lò#à%ˆ° Ï y ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!°ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y !ã˛e 7.9 : à[˛Ü˛ lò# åí˛yˆÏlä ~ÓÇ ˆ¢yî lò#Ó˚ åÓyˆÏÙä
í˛z˛õôyÓ˚yÎ˚ !Ó˲=˛ •Î˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ól%l#Ó˚˛) õ# lò#≤Ãîy°#Ó˚ !Óܲy¢ !Ól%l#Ó˚)˛õ# lò#≤Ãîy°#Ó˚ xÇ¢!ӈϢ£Ï ò!¢≈ï˛ í˛z˛õ@˝Ã• !ã˛eñ ï˛#Ó˚
âˆÏê˛ å!ã˛e 7.9ä– !ã˛•´!ê˛ lò#≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òܲ!ê˛ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–

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fiê˛ƒy°yà‰Ùy•zê˛ à%•yÙ%á

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à%•y à%•y

!ã˛e 7.10 : !Ó!˲ߨ ܲyfiê≈˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ§Ù)•

Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l
hflÓÏ !˚ Ó!¢T˛ñ xï˛ƒ!ôܲ òyÓ˚î G Ê˛yê˛°Î%=˛ •ˆÏ° ˆË˛ÔÙç° Ë˛yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ
˛õ!Ó˚flï%À ˛ •Î˚– í˛zÕ¡‘ Ë∫ ˛yˆÏÓ !ܲS%È à˲#ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ Ë)˛àˆÏ˲≈ ç°Ó˚y!¢
xl%˲) !Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ !lˆÏ¡¨ hflÓÏ y˚ Î˚îï˛°ñ §ÇˆÏÎyàfiÌ°
Óy ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •GÎ˚y ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚– çˆÏ°Ó˚ ~•z
!l¡¨Ù%á# ~ÓÇ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ≤ÃÓy••z •° !¢°yÓ˚ «˛Î˚#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î–
ˆË˛ÔÙç° myÓ˚y Óy!•ï˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Óy Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
x˛õ§Ó˚îñ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ lÎ˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏîñ
ˆË˛ÔÙçˆÏ°Ó˚ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° §Ü˛° ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ !¢°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚ ly– !ܲv !ܲS%È !¢°y ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ ålimestonesä Óy
ˆí˛yˆÏ°yÙy•zê˛ ådolomitesäñ Îy ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆlÏ ˆÏê˛ §Ù,Âô ≤Ã˲, !ï˛
ˆË˛ÔÙçˆÏ°Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y åoÓî ~ÓÇ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ä myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õˆÏܲ !Óܲ!¢ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ò%•z!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ oÓî
~ÓÇ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ÈüÈ •Î˚ˆÏï˛y ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ Óy ˆí˛yˆÏ°yÙy•zê˛ ˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
xy°yòy˲yˆÏÓ Óy xlƒ ˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ §!Ü ˛Î˚˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yÎ≈
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ Óy ˆí˛yˆÏ°yÙy•zê˛ Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ˆË˛ÔÙç°
myÓ˚y oÓî ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y G ~Ó˚ xӈϫ˛˛õî ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õˆÏܲ
ܲyfiê≈˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åKarst topographyä Ó°y •Î˚– ~!í»˛Î˚y!ê˛Ü˛ §yàÓ˚
åAdriatic Seaä ~Ó˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ Óy°Ü˛l åBalkanä ܲyfiê≈˛ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ !¢°yÎ˚ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
ܲyfiê≈ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ!ê˛G «˛Î˚çyï˛ ~ÓÇ §M˛Î˚çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ myÓ˚y
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ˛õ)î≈–
«˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åEROSIONAL LANDFORMSä ı
˛õ%° åPoolsäñ !§Aܲ ˆ•y° åSinkholesäñ ˆ°!˛õ§ åLapiesä
~ÓÇ ã%˛ly˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÙˆÏV˛ åLimestone Pavementsä ı
ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ xM˛ˆÏ° oÓî ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° x§ÇრˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚
xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ G í˛z˛õÓ,_yܲyÓ˚ xà˲#Ó˚ àï≈˛ Óy !SȈÏoÓ˚ §,!T˛
•Î˚– ~•zÓ˚)˛õ «%˛o àï≈˛ Óy !SÈoà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆ§yÎ˚yˆÏ°y ˆ•y° åswallow
holesä Ó°y •Î˚– !§Aܲ ˆ•y° ܲyfiê≈˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– !§Aܲ ˆ•y° •° ~ܲ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !SÈo Óy àï≈˛ Îy í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚
G l#ˆÏã˛ Ê˛yˆÏl° xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ Óà≈!Ùê˛yÓ˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆ•QÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ G à˲#Ó˚ï˛y xˆÏô≈ܲ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ 30 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ Óy
~Ó˚ x!ôܲ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ܲS%È ô#Ó˚ oÓî ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚
~ÓÇ !ܲS%È xlƒ o%ï˛ oÓî ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Î!ò ~•z
!§Aܲ ˆ•yˆÏ°Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ à!ë˛ï˛ à%•yÓ˚ xyFSÈyòl ôˆÏ§ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~à%ˆÏ°y
ô§ !§Aܲ åcollapse sinksä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ •Î˚– ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà
!§Aܲ ˆ•y° í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏà «˛Î˚çyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ myÓ˚y xyÓ,ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
xà˲#Ó˚ ç°y¢Î˚Óˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ˆÜ˛í˛z ~•zÓ˛)˚ õ ç°y¢Î˚àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
65
˛õy !òˆÏ°ñ ÙÓ%̊Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆã˛yÓ˚yÓy!°Ó˚ lƒyÎ˚ í%˛ˆÏÓ ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ܲálG ô§ !§Aܲ ˆÓyV˛yˆÏï˛ Úˆí˛y°y•zlÛ ådolinesä ¢∑!ê˛G ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ô§ !§Aܲ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y oÓî !§Aܲ x!ôܲ §ÇáƒyÎ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ç° !§Aܲ ˆ•y° !òˆÏÎ˚ Óy!•ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
Ë)˛àË≈˛fiÌ lò#Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !Ó°#l •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È ò)Ó˚Óï≈˛# ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
à%•yÎ˚ Ë)˛!Ùàï˛ lò#Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ xy!ÓË)≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– Îál !§Aܲ ˆ•y°
~ÓÇ ˆí˛y°y•zlà%ˆ° Ï yñ ï˛#Ó˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ fl<°l myÓ˚y Óy à%•yÓ˚
xyFSÈyòl ôˆÏ§ ÎyÓyÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!°ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál
°¡∫yñ §Çܲ#î≈ ï˛Ìy !Óhfl,Ïï˛ âyˆÏï˛Ó˚ åtrenchesä §,!T˛ •Î˚ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y !§Aܲ åvalley sinksä Óy í˛z˲y°y åUvalasä Ó°y •Î˚–
ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ñ ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà xÇ¢•z ~•z àï≈˛ Óy áyˆÏï˛Ó˚
òáˆÏ° ã˛ˆÏ° ÎyÎ˚ñ ~ÓÇ ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚y fiÌyˆÏl xï˛ƒ!ôܲ x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛ñ §Ó˚%
˜¢°!¢Ó˚y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ°!˛õ§ ålapiesä Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z§Ó
˜¢°!¢Ó˚y Óy ˆ°!˛õ§à%ˆ° Ï yñ §Ùyhs˝Óy˚ ° Óy í˛z˛õÈüȧÙyhs˝Óy˚ ° §ÇˆÏÎyàfiÌ°
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ oÓî ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y àˆÏí˛¸ í˛zˆÏ벖 ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly
ˆ°!˛õ§ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ~•z !Óhfl,Ïï˛ ˆ«˛e §Ùï˛° ã%˛ly˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÙˆÏV˛ˆÏï˛
ålimestone pavementsä ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
à•¥Ó˚ åCavesä ı
ˆÎ §Ü˛° xM˛ˆÏ° !¢°y ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ hflÏÓ˚!Ó!¢T˛ 刢°ñ Óy°%˛õyÌÓ˚ñ
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yê≈˛çy•zê˛ä Óy ÙôƒË˛yà ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ G ˆí˛yˆÏ°yÙy•zê˛ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛
•Î˚ Óy ˆÎáyˆÏl Óƒy˛õܲ xM˛° ç%ˆÏí˛¸ ã%˛ly˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ
ˆ§áyˆÏl ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ à•¥Ó˚ §,!T˛Ó˚ ˛≤ÃÓîï˛y ˆÓ!¢– Ê˛yê˛° G òyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ç° ˛õ!Ó˚flÀ%ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ hflÏÓ˚yÎ˚î ï˛ˆÏ° ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚–
~•z hflÏÓ˚yÎ˚î ï˛ˆÏ° ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ °¡∫yñ §Çܲ#î≈ G !Óhfl,Ïï˛
ÊÑ˛yܲy xLjϢÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– ~•z çyï˛#Î˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õˆÏܲ à•¥Ó˚ åCavesä
Ó°y •Î˚– ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly !Ó!˲ߨ hflψÏÓ˚ à•¥Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ çy!°Ü˛y §,!T˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ Îy ã%˛ly˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ùôƒ!fiÌï˛ !¢°yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚– à•¥Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !SÈoÎ%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ÎyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ à•¥Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy• Óy•zˆÏÓ˚
!là≈ï˛ •Î˚– í˛z˲Î˚≤Ãyhs˝ í˛zß√%=˛ à•¥Ó˚ˆÏܲ ê˛yˆÏl° åtunnelsä Ó°y •Î˚–
§M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åDepositional
Landformsä ı
x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ xӈϫ˛!˛õï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ ã%˛ly˛õÿÏÓÓ˚ ˚ à•¥ˆÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §,!T˛ •Î˚–
ã%˛ly˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ í˛z˛õyòyl •° ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlê˛ñ
Îy ܲyÓ≈lÎ%=˛ çˆÏ° åÓ,!T˛Ó˚ çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ä §•ˆÏç•z
oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– Îál oÓˆÏî Óy!•ï˛ ç° Óy‹õ#Ë)˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚
~Ó˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ˆÏܲ !là≈ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ Îy xÙ§,î !¢°y ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
G˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ §Çܲ#î≈ ˛õˆÏÌ !làÙ≈l âˆÏê˛ ï˛ál ~•z ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆlÏ ê˛
xӈϫ˛!˛õï˛ •Î˚–
66
fiê˛ƒy°y܉˛ê˛y•zê˛ åStalactitesäñ fiê˛ƒy°yà‰Ùy•zê˛ åStalagmitesä
~ÓÇ hflÏΩ˛ åPillarsä ı
fiê˛ƒy°y܉˛ê˛y•zê˛ •° !Ó!˲ߨ Óƒy§Î%=˛ !•ÙhflÏΩ˛ åiciclesä Îy V%˛°hs˝
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~à%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !˲!_fïϰ ≤âhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
x@˝Ã˲yà Ü ˛Ù¢ §Ó˚% •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ G !Ó!˲ߨ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– fiê˛ƒy°yà‰Ùy•zê˛
à•¥ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÙˆÏV˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ Óyí˛¸ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ñ
fiê˛ƒy°yà‰Ùy•zê˛ à•¥ˆÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ SÈyò ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ã%˛Ñ •zˆÎÏ ˚ ˛õí˛¸y ã%˛ly!Ù!◊ï˛
ç° ˆÌˆÏܲ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ Óy §Ó˚% lˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ã%˛l!Ù!◊ï˛ ç°
˛õ!ï˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ fiê˛ƒy°y܉˛ê˛y•zê˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ å!ã˛e 7.11ä–
!ã˛e 7.11 : ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ à•¥Ó˚fiÌ fiê˛ƒy°y܉˛ê˛y•zê˛ ~ÓÇ
fiê˛ƒy°yà‰Ùy•zê˛
fiê˛ƒy°yà‰Ùy•zê˛ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ hflÏΩ˛ Îy ~ܲ!ê˛ ã˛ƒy≤Wzy ã˛yܲ!ï˛Ó˚ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚
Óy §Ùï˛° xÌÓy ˆÜ ˛ê˛Ó˚ åcrateräÈüÈ~Ó˚ lƒyÎ˚ àˆÏï˛≈ Ó˚ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ !Óܲ!¢ï˛
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ fiê˛ƒy°yà‰Ùy•zê˛ ~ÓÇ fiê˛ƒy°y܉˛ê˛y•zê˛à%ˆ°
Ï y xӈϢˆÏ£Ï ~ܲˆÏe
!Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ Óƒy§Î%=˛ ÌyÙ åcolumnsä G hflÏΩ˛ åpillarsä
àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
!•ÙÓy• åGLACIERSä ı
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏà ã˛yòˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ lƒyÎ˚ !•Ù≤ÃÓy• åÙ•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ !•ÙÓy•
Óy ˛õÓ≈ˆïÏ ˛Ó˚ ˛õyòˆÏò¢#Î˚ !•ÙÓy• !Ó¢y° ÓÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛Ó˚ hfl˛Ï) õÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ Îál ˛õÓ≈ˆïÏ ˛Ó˚
˛õyòˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ §ÙË)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ä xÌÓy !Óhfl,Ïï˛ áyˆÏï˛Ó˚
lƒyÎ˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÎ˚ ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õyòˆÏòˆÏ¢ ˜Ó˚!áܲ !•Ù≤ÃÓy•ˆÏܲ å˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ
~ÓÇ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y !•ÙÓy•ä !•ÙÓy• Ó°y •Î˚ å!ã˛e 7.12ä– !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚
≤ÃÓy•ñ ç°≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ˆÏï˛ ô#Ó˚à!ï˛§¡õߨ •Î˚–
!ã˛e 7.12 : í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y Ùôƒ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !•ÙÓy•
!•Ù≤ÃÓy• ≤Ã!ï˛!òl ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ ˆ§!rê˛!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ Óy
~Ó˚ Ü˛Ù Óy ˆÓ!¢ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ≤Ãôylï˛ !•Ù≤ÃÓy• Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î
¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆòˆÏ¢ xˆÏlܲ !•ÙÓy• xyˆÏSÈñ Îy !•Ùy°Î˚
˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ì˛y° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ G í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
•Î˚– í˛z_Ó˚yM˛°ñ !•Ùyã˛° ≤ÈÏò¢ ~ÓÇ ç¡ø% G ܲyŸ¬#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
!ܲS%È !ܲS%È í˛zFã˛ fiÌyˆÏl ~à%ˆÏ°y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ çyl ˆÎñ ˲yà#Ó˚Ì# lò#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ àˆÏAàye#
!•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ x@˝Ã˲yà åˆàyÙ%áä ˆÌˆÏܲñ Ó›ï˛ñ x°Ü˛yl®y
lò#Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ x°Ü˛y˛õ%Ó˚# !•ÙÓy• ˆÌˆÏܲ– ˆòÓ≤ÃÎ˚yˆÏàÓ˚
!lÜ˛ê˛ x°Ü˛yl®y ~ÓÇ Ë˛yà#Ó˚Ì# lò#Ó˚ !Ù!°ï˛ ≤ÃÓy•
àAày lò# lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
ÓÓ˚Ê˛hfl)ÏˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˲yˆÏÓ˚ í˛zͲõߨ â£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ myÓ˚y ≤ÃÓ°
«˛Î˚#˲Ól •Î˚– í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• å§yôyÓ˚îï˛ ÓˆÏí˛¸y
xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ÓœÜ˛ G ˜¢°á[˛ä !•ÙÓy• myÓ˚y í˛zͲõy!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
!lˆÏ¡¨ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏŸª≈ xÓâ£Ï≈ ~ÓÇ í˛zͲõyê˛l
myÓ˚y xï˛ƒ!ôܲ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ §y!ôï˛ •Î˚– !•ÙÓy• xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚!Ó•#l !¢°yÓ˚
G˛õÓ˚G Óƒy˛õܲ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ ˛õÓ≈ï˛à%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏܲ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y
˛õÓ≈ï˛ G §ÙË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l
!•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆí˛!Ó § Óy xÓ!¢T˛yÇ¢
x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ñ !Ó˲y!çܲyÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
§yˆÏÌ ì˛y° ~ï˛ê˛y•z ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ §M˛y°l ¢!=˛G •…y§
˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨ ˛õÓ≈ï˛ G xlƒylƒ §M˛Î˚çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ §• !ÓhflÏ#î≈
!ÓˆÏôÔï˛ §ÙË)˛!Ù åoutwash plainsä à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– 7.13 lÇ ~ÓÇ
7.14 lÇ !ã˛ˆÏe !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ «˛Î˚çyï˛ ~ÓÇ §M˛Î˚çyï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ Ë)˛!ÙÓ)˚˛õ
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~Ó˚ Óî≈ly ˛õyˆÏë˛ƒÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xLjϢ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
«˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åEROSIONAL LANDFORMSä ı
§yÜ≈˛ åCirqueä ı
ÓÓ˚Ê˛yÓ,ï˛ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒyM˛ˆÏ° !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ myÓ˚y §,T˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ §yÜ≈˛ Óy ܲ!Ó˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà §yÜ≈˛ !•ÙÓy!•ï˛
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ã)˛í˛¸yÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ˛õ%O#Ë)˛ï˛ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ ã)˛í˛¸y ˆÌˆÏܲ
!lˆÏ¡¨ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~•z §yÜ≈˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ à˲#Ó˚ñ
ò#â≈ ~ÓÇ ≤âhflÏ áyï˛ Óy ˆÓ!§l àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~ܲ!òܲ á%Ó
áyí˛¸y ì˛y°Î%=˛ ≤ÃhflÏÓ˚ ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚!Ó!¢T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xlƒ!òܲ í˛zß√%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
!•ÙÓy• xhs˝!•≈ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z §yÜ≈˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ ˲yˆÏà
ç°˛õ)î≈ •…ò ˆòáy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~•zÓ˚)˛õ •…òà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ §yÜ≈˛ åCirqueä
•l≈
ˆÜ˛y°
§yÜ≈˛ Óy ܲ!Ó˚
ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ flõyÓ˚
!ÓˆÏôÔï˛ §ÙË)˛!Ù
!ã˛e 7.13 : !•ÙÓy• §,T˛ «˛Î˚çyï˛ ~ÓÇ §M˛Î˚çyï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åˆflõ™Ó˚ñ 1962 §yˆÏ° à,•#ï˛ G §ÇˆÏ¢y!ôï˛ä
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Óy ê˛yl≈ •…ò åtarn lakesä Ó°y •Î˚– ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!°ï˛ ò%•z
Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ §yÜ≈˛ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ ˆ§y˛õylÎ%=˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
•î≈ åHornsä ~ÓÇ ˆ§ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏê˛í˛ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y åSerrated
Ridgesä ı
§yÜ≈˛ ≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢#ˆÏ£Ï≈ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° •î≈ åHornsä à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
Îál !ï˛l Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ §yÜ≈˛ !Ù!°ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Óܲ#!î≈ï˛
!•ÙÓy• åradiating glaciersä ¢#£Ï≈ˆÏòˆÏ¢ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ ã˛y!°ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ
ï˛ál ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zFã˛ñ ï˛#«¯˛ ~ÓÇ áyí˛¸y ˛õyŸª≈Î%=˛ !¢áˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ñ
~ˆÏܲ •î≈ åHornsä Ó°y •Î˚– §yˆÏÜ≈˛Ó˚ ˛õyŸª≈ ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ Óy ¢#£Ï≈ ≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó˲y!çܲy Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §Çܲ#î≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ
~Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# í˛zFã˛ áyí˛¸y xÇ¢ ܲÓ˚yˆÏï˛Ó˚ òÑyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆòáˆÏï˛ •Î˚ñ
~ˆÏܲ ~!Ó˚!ê˛ åarêtesä ӈϰ– ~Ó˚ ¢#£Ï≈˲yà á%Ó ï˛#«¯˛ ~ÓÇ Ó!•/
≤Ãyhs˝ xÑyܲyÓÑyܲy •Î˚–
≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ xy“ˆÏ§Ó˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ¢,Aà ˆÙê˛Ó˚ •î≈ ~ÓÇ
!•Ùy°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ¢,Aà ~˲yˆÏÓ˚fiê˛ •Ï° •î≈ñ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y
!Óܲ#!î≈ï˛ §yˆÏÜ≈˛Ó˚ ¢#£Ï≈ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° à!ë˛ï˛–
~!Ó˚!ê˛
V%˛°hs˝ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y
˛õyŸª≈ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy Ùôƒ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy
≤Ãyhs˝ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy
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!•ÙÓy• í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y ‡ áyï˛ åGlacial Valleys/Troughsä ı
!•ÙÓy•ç!lï˛ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yà%ˆÏ°y •° áyˆÏï˛Ó˚ lƒyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !Óhfl,Ïï˛
ï˛°!Ó!¢T˛– ~!ê˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ Ù§,î G áyí˛¸y ˛õyŸª≈Î%=˛ •zLjÏÓ˚!ç x«˛Ó˚
ÚÈUüÈxyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚Û lƒyÎ˚ ˆòáˆÏï˛ •Î˚– í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÎ˚ ˆí˛!Ó § Óy ˲@¿yӈϢ£Ï
!Ó!«˛Æ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏ Ü ˛ Óy ˆí˛!Ó  § xyÜ, ˛ !ï˛Ó˚ @˝ à yÓˆÏ Ó ˚ á yÎ˚
ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly ç°yË)˛!Ù ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z •…ò§Ù)• ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒyM˛ˆÏ°
˛õyÌ%ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ í˛zͲõyê˛l myÓ˚y Óy í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÎ˚ ˆí˛!Ó § myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛
•Î˚– V%˛°hs˝ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y ≤Ãôyl !•ÙÓy• í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ Óy í˛z˲Î˚ ˛õyˆÏŸª≈
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~•z V%˛°hs˝ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
ï˛° ≤Ãôyl !•ÙÓy• í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÎ˚ V%˛°hs˝ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚ !Ó˲y!çܲy
Óy x!˲!«˛ÆyÇ¢ åSpurä ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~à%ˆÏ°y !eˆÏܲyî!Ó!¢T˛
•Î˚– á%Ó à˲#Ó˚ !•ÙÓy• áyï˛ åglacial troughsä §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ çˆÏ°
˲Ó˚yê˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°y §yÙ%!oܲ ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓ˚áy åí˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢä
˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ !Ê˛ˆÏÎ˚yí≈˛ åfiordsä Ó°y •Î˚–
!•ÙÓy•ç!lï˛ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y ~ÓÇ lò# í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒà%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ܲ#⁄
§M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ åDepositional
Landformsä ı
à!°ï˛ !•ÙÓy• myÓ˚y !Ù!◊ï˛ Ë˛y!Ó˚ G §)- ˲@¿yÇ¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
xӈϫ˛˛õîˆÏܲ !•ÙÓy• !ê˛° åglacial tillä Ó°y •Î˚– ~•zÓ˛˚) õ §M˛ˆÏÎ˚
ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà ˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ ê%˛Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚y ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ Óy í˛z˛õÈüÈˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
!ÓˆÏôÔï˛ §ÙË)˛!Ù
~§‰Ü˛yÓ˚
í»˛yÙ!°l
xyí˛zê˛ GÎ˚y¢
!ã˛e 7.14 : !•ÙÓy• Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ §M˛Î˚çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ò,¢ƒ åˆflõ™Ó˚ñ
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
•Î˚– !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ñ ˛õyˆÏŸª≈ Óy l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ à°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
«%˛o lò# à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– à!°ï˛ ç°≤ÃÓy• myÓ˚y Ó•lˆÏÎyàƒ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˛õÿÏÓÓ˚ ˚
˲@¿yӈϢ£Ï Óy ˆí˛!Ó § lò#ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•zÓ˚)˛õ
!•ÙÓy• lò# §M˛Î˚ˆÏܲ xyí˛zê˛GÎ˚y¢ §M˛Î˚ Ó°y •Î˚– !ê˛° xӈϫ˛˛õî
!˲ߨñ xyí˛zê˛GÎ˚y¢ §M˛Î˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ hflÏÓ˚#Ë)˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ ˲yˆÏà !Ó˲=˛
•Î˚– xyí˛zê˛GÎ˚y¢ §M˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !¢°yáˆÏ[˛Ó˚ ≤Ãyhs˝Ë˛yà !ܲS%Èê˛y
ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– !ã˛e 7.14ñ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !•ÙÓy• xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
!ܲS%È §M˛Î˚çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õˆÏܲ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏSÈ–
@˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy åMorainesä ı
@˝ÃyÓˆÏÓá˚ y •° !•ÙÓy• !ê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° à!ë˛ï˛ ò#â≈ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y–
!•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ¢£Ï≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ §!M˛ï˛ ˆí˛!Ó ˆÏ§Ó˚ ò#â≈ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yˆÏܲ ≤Ãyhs˝
@˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy åTerminal moraineä ӈϰ– ˛õyŸª≈ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy åLateral
moraineä !•ÙÓy• í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏŸª≈ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
˛õyŸª≈ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy ≤Ãyhs˝ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆâyí˛¸yÓ˚ á%ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
lƒyÎ˚ Óy xô≈ã˛wyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ å!ã˛e 7.13ä– ~ܲ!ê˛
!•ÙÓy• í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ í˛z˲Î˚ ˛õyˆÏŸª≈ x!ôܲ ÙyeyÎ˚ ˛õyŸª≈ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– ~•z @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓá˚ yà%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ ˛õ%ˆÓÏ y˚ ˛õ%!Ó˚ Óy xyÇ!¢Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !•ÙÓy•
lò#Óy!•ï˛ ç° myÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ Îy ~•z ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)•ˆÏܲ !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚
˛õyˆÏ¢ ˆë˛ˆÏ° ˆòÎ˚– xˆÏlܲ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ o%ï˛ ˛õŸã˛yò˛õ§Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚
§ÙÎ˚ x§Ùï˛° !ê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õyï˛ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢ ˆÊ˛ˆÏ° ÎyÎ˚–
Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏà ~•zÓ˚)˛õ !˲ߨ âlcÎ%=˛ §M˛Î˚ˆÏܲ Ë)˛!Ù @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy åground
moraineä Ó°y •Î˚–
~§‰Ü˛yÓ˚
!ÓˆÏôÔï˛ §ÙË)˛!Ù
≤Ãyhs˝ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy
í»˛yÙ!°l
~§‰Ü˛yÓ˚
1962 §yˆÏ° à,•#ï˛ G §ÇˆÏ¢y!ôï˛ä
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l
ò%È•z!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò%•z!ê˛ !•ÙÓy• ~ˆÏ§ ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ §!ߨ!•ï˛ ˛õyŸª≈
@˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áyÎ˚ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏ°ñ ~ˆÏܲ Ùôƒ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓá˚ y åmedial moraineä
Ó°y •Î˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y ˛õyŸª≈ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x§¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly Ë)˛!Ù @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy ˆÌˆÏܲ Ùôƒ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy x!ÓˆÏ˲òƒ
åindistinguishableä •Î˚–
~§‰Ü˛yÓ˚ åEskersä ı
@˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° ÓÓ˚Ê˛ àˆÏ° ÎyÓyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ç° ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
•Î˚ xÌÓy ˛õyŸª≈ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ã%Ñ˛•zˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ Óy ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ àï≈˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ l#ˆÏã˛
≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ç° !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ~ܲ!eï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛
˛lò# ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ lƒyÎ˚ Óy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ~Ó˚)˛õ lò#à%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãôylï˛ Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏàÓ˚
åí˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y lÎ˚ñ Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏàÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ܲï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ä G˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ lò# ï˛#ˆÏÓ˚ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ §!M˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– !•ÙÓy• Óy!•ï˛
≤ÃhflÏÓ˚ñ ܲÇܲÓ˚ñ Óy°%ܲy ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ à!°ï˛ ç°ôyÓ˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆÎ
§Ü˛° xM˛ˆÏ° §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛Ìy ≤ÃhflÏÓ˚á[˛ G Óy°%ܲyÓ˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛
xÑyܲyÓÑyܲy ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y åsinuous ridgesä à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ
ï˛yˆÏܲ ~§‰Ü˛yÓ˚ åeskerä Ó°y •Î˚–
!ÓˆÏôÔï˛ Óy xyí˛zê˛GÎ˚y¢ §ÙË)˛!Ù åOutwash Plainsä ı
!•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ≤Ãyhs˝ˆÏòˆÏ¢ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ àˆÏ° ˆÎ lò#Ó˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ï˛y §yôyÓ˚îï˛
≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃhflÏÓ˚á[˛ñ Óy°%ܲyñ ܲò≈Ù ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛Ó˚
myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ ÌyˆÏܲ– ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ ≤Ãyhs˝ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ Ó,•òyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ≤ÃhflÏÓ˚ á[˛
Óy ≤Ãyhs˝ˆÏò¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §)- ≤ÃhflÏÓ˚á[˛ñ Óy°%ܲyñ ܲò≈Ù ≤Ã˲, !ï˛ §!M˛ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xyí˛zê˛GÎ˚y¢ Óy !ÓˆÏôÔï˛ §ÙË)˛!Ù åOutwash
Plainä ӈϰ–
lò# ˛õ°° §ÙË)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ !•ÙÓy• !ÓˆÏôÔï˛ §ÙË)˛!ÙÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
í»˛yÙ!°l åDrumlinsä ı
í»˛yÙ!°l •° Ù§,î !í˛¡∫yÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛yñ Îy ≤Ãôylï˛ l%!í˛¸ñ
ÜÑ˛yܲÓ˚ñ Óy!°Ü˛îy !Ù!◊ï˛ !•ÙÓy• !ê˛° myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– í»˛yÙ!°ˆÏlÓ˚
°¡∫y x«˛à%ˆÏ°y ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ à!ï˛≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y°– ~à%ˆÏ°y
˜òˆÏâ≈ƒ 1 !ܲˆÏ°y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ 30 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ Óy ï˛yÓ˚G ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ Ù%ˆáÏ yÙ%!á í»˛yÙ!°ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ãyhs˝ˆÜÏ ˛ ˆfiê˛y§ åstossä
Ó°y •Î˚ñ Îy ˆê˛° åtailä lyÙܲ xlƒ ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ï˛#Ó  ì˛y°Î%=˛
•Î˚– !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ Ê˛yê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˲yÓ˚# ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛
!¢°yÓ˚ ˆí˛!Ó § çÙy •ÓyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í»˛yÙ!°l à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ x@˝Ã˲yˆÏàÓ˚
≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ÓÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛Ó˚ â£Ïˆ≈ îÏ ï˛#«¯˛ï˛y •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– í»˛yÙ!°l !•ÙÓy• ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚
!òܲ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!ê˛° ~ÓÇ ˛õ°ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲ#⁄
69
§Ù%o ï˛Ó˚Aà ~ÓÇ ˆflÀyï˛ åWAVES AND CURRENTSä
í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y §Ó≈y!ôܲ !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° ~ÓÇ ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~à%ˆÏ°y
xï˛ƒ!ôܲ !ÓôÁǧ#G •Î˚– ï˛y•zñ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚ ly ˆÎñ
í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y !l!Ù≈ï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
çyly xï˛ƒhs˝ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈⁄
í˛z˛õÜ)˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ !ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l á%Ó o%ï˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ•z
çyÎ˚àyÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ }ï%˛ˆÏï˛ «˛Î˚ ~ÓÇ x˛õÓ˚ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ }ï%˛ˆÏï˛ §M˛Î˚
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– í˛z˛õÜ)˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ x!ôܲyÇ¢ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ï˛Ó˚Aà myÓ˚y
§¡õy!òï˛ •Î˚– Îál ï˛Ó˚Aà ˆË˛ˆÏ. ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛ál ç° §Ù%o ï˛ê˛Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ §ˆÏçyˆÏÓ˚ xySȈÏí˛¸ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ~ÓÇ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢
˛õ°°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó¢y° ÙrÌl åchurningä ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚– x!ÓÓ˚yÙ
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˲y.ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ Óƒy˛õܲ˲yˆÏÓ §Ù%oˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ §yôyÓ˚î
ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ xyâyï˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ï˛Ó˚Aà V˛í˛¸ G §%ly!Ù x“ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ÓƒÓôyˆÏl
x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âê˛yÎ˚– ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢àï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl ï˛Ó˚Aà
˲y.ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛yG ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ï˛Ó˚Aà ~ÓÇ ˆflÀyï˛ §,!T˛Ü˛yÓ˚# ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
çyl⁄ Î!ò ly ˆçˆÏl Ìyܲñ ï˛ˆÏÓ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §M˛y°l
!Ó£ÏÎ˚ܲ xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ ˛õˆÏí˛¸y–
ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ SÈyí˛¸yñ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õà%ˆ°
Ï y xlƒ !ܲS%È Ü˛yÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚G !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ~à%ˆ° Ï y •° ı åiä fiÌ° ~ÓÇ §Ù%oï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ó˚˛) õˆÏÓá˚ y
åiiä í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ù%ˆÏoyß√%á# x@˝Ã§Ó˚ Óy fiÌ°y!˲Ù%á# ˛õŸã˛yò˛õ§yÓ˚î–
§Ù%oï˛°ˆÏܲ ô %Óܲ !•§yˆÏÓ ôˆÏÓ˚ñ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚
ôyÓ˚îyˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°ˆÏܲ ò%•z!ê˛ Ë˛yˆÏà !Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ı
åܲä í˛zFã˛ñ ˛õyÌ%ˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛° å!lÙ!Iï˛ ï˛ê˛ä åáä !l¡¨ñ §Ùï˛° ~ÓÇ
Ù,ò% ì˛y°Î%=˛ ˛õ°° í˛z˛õÜ)˛° åí˛z!aï˛ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°ä
í˛zFã˛ ˛õyÌ%ˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛° åHIGH ROCKY COASTSä ı
í˛zFã˛ ˛õyÌ%ˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ñ xy!ÓË)≈˛ï˛ lò#à%ˆÏ°y x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛
í˛z˛õÜ)˛°ˆÏÓá˚ y !lÙ!Iï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ӈϰ ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓá˚ yÓ˚
xï˛ƒ!ôܲ xÓlÙˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õyŸª≈ fiÌ°Ë˛yà ç°Ù@¿ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆ§áyˆÏl
!•ÙÓy• í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y Óy !Ê˛Î˚í≈˛ åfiordsä à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ˛õyŸª≈
¢y!lï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ çˆÏ° !lÙ!Iï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– §Ù%o í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ° ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ hflψÏÓ˚
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Ë,˛à%ñ ÙM˛ñ à%•y ~ÓÇ fiê˛ƒyܲ§Ù)• åCliffs, Terraces,
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ˆòáy ˆàˆÏ°ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ ôy˛õ Óy ÙM˛ Ó°y •Î˚– Ë,˛à%Ó˚
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§yÙ%!oܲ à•¥Ó˚ åsea cavesä àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– à•¥ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ SÈyòà%ˆÏ°y ôˆÏ§
ÎyGÎ˚yÎ˚ §yÙ%!oܲ Ë,˛à%à%ˆÏ°y §Ù%o ˆÌˆÏܲ xyÓ˚G ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
Ë,˛à%Ó˚ ˛õŸã˛yò˛õ§Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !¢°yÓ˚ !ܲS%È xÓ!¢T˛yÇ¢ ï˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
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Îy Ù)°ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ë,˛à% Óy ˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ xÇ¢!ӈϢ£Ïñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §yÙ%!oܲ
fiê˛ƒyܲ åsea stacksä Ó°y •Î˚– xlƒylƒ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚
§yÙ%!oܲ fiê˛ƒyܲG xfiÌyÎ˚# Ó˚)˛õñ Îy ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
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˛õ°°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ myÓ˚y xyFSÈy!òï˛ Óy xÙ§,î l%!í˛¸ Óy Óy!° myÓ˚y xyÓ,ï˛
~ܲ!ê˛ ≤âhflÏ ˜§Ü˛ï˛ åbeachä àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l
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LANDFORMSä ı
˜§Ü˛ï˛Ë)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸ åBeaches and Dunesä ı
˜§Ü˛ï˛Ë)˛!Ù •° ï˛ê˛Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ˛õ)î≈ñ Îy §M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ myÓ˚y
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚ñ !ܲv ~ÓˆÏí˛¸yÈüȈÌÓˆÏí˛¸y í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ° ˜§Ü˛ï˛Ë)˛!Ù ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y
ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y Ê˛y!°Ó˚ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ §#!Ùï˛ xLjϢ à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ˜§Ü˛ï˛Ë)˛!Ù
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myÓ˚y Óy ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• ˆÌˆÏܲ xyˆÏ§–
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Ë)˛!Ù åsandy beachäñ Îy fiÌyÎ˚# ӈϰ ÙˆÏl •Î˚ñ ~à%ˆÏ°y xlƒ
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly }ï%˛ˆÏï˛ fiÌ)° l%!í˛¸ñ ÜÑ˛yܲˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Çܲ#î≈ Ó˚yhflyÏ Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï˛≈ï˛
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà ˜§Ü˛ï˛Ë)˛!Ù Óy!°Ó˚ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ «%˛oܲîy
myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– xÙ§,î l%!í˛¸ ˜§Ü˛ï˛ åshingle beachesä lyˆÏÙ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ˜§Ü˛ï˛à%ˆÏ°y xï˛ƒ!ôܲ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y l%!í˛¸ Óy ÜÑ˛yܲÓ˚ åcobblesä
!òˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛–
˜§Ü˛ï˛Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ˛õŸã˛yÍ˲yˆÏàñ ˜§Ü˛ï˛˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%ï˛y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
í˛zˆÏ_y!°ï˛ Óy°%ܲîyñ Óy°%ܲy Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸ åSand dunesä Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ §!M˛ï˛
•Î˚– ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° ò#â≈ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ à!ë˛ï˛ Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸
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ÓÑyôñ Óƒy!Ó˚Î˚yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !flõê˛ åBars, Barriers and Spitsä ı
§Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ï˛ê˛Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ à!ë˛ï˛ Óy!° ~ÓÇ xÙ§,î l%!í˛¸
˜¢°!¢Ó˚y å!l¡¨ ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚ ç°ï˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ù%oy!˲Ù%á#ä ï˛ê˛Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚
§Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° àˆÏí˛¸ í˛zë˛ˆÏ°ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ÓÑyô åoff-shore
barä Ó°y •Î˚– ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù ˛õ%ˆÓÏ y˚ ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ÓÑyˆÏô Óy!°Ó˚ x!ôܲ §ÇˆÏÎyçˆÏlÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏ°ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ Óƒy!Ó˚Î˚yÓ˚ ÓÑyô åbarrier barä
Ó°y •Î˚– ˛õ%ˆÓÏ y˚ ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ÓÑyô ~ÓÇ Óƒy!Ó˚Îy˚ Ó˚àˆ% °
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Óy í˛z˛õ§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÓ¢myˆÏÓ˚ àˆÏí˛¸ í˛zˆÏ벖 ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
Óƒy!Ó˚Î˚yÓ˚ ÓÑyˆÏôÓ˚ ~ܲ ≤Ãyhs˝ í˛z˛õ§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛ál
ï˛yˆÏܲ !flõê˛ åspitsä Ó°y •Î˚ å!ã˛e 7.15ä–
˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ÙhflÏܲ ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚G !flõê˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
§Ù%ˆÏo í˛z˛õ§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ùôƒ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ÊÑ˛yܲy fiÌyl Óƒï˛#ï˛
Óƒy!Ó˚Î˚yÓ˚ñ ÓÑyô ~ÓÇ !flõê˛ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õ§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ù%ˆÏá !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ °y˲
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xӈϢˆÏ£Ï í˛z˛õ§yàÓ˚!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õ•…ˆòÏ ålagoonä Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– í˛z˛õ•…òà%ˆÏ°y ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ fiÌ° ˆÌˆÏܲ Óy ˜§Ü˛ï˛Ë)˛!Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ
ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y Óy!•ï˛ ˛õ!°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˲Ó˚yê˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆ°à%ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛
~ܲ!ê˛ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ G ≤âhflÏ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ §ÙË)˛!Ù Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ çyl ˆÎñ í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ÓÑyô V˛í˛¸
Óy §%ly!ÙÓ˚ ôÁǧydܲ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓ˚yô ܲˆÏÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚î ~•z ÓÑyôà%ˆ° Ï y ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ôÁǧydܲ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y •…y§
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚⁄ ~SÈyí˛¸yG Óƒy!Ó˚Î˚yÓ˚ñ ˜§Ü˛ï˛Ë)˛!Ùñ ˜§Ü˛ï˛
Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸ ~ÓÇ ÙƒylˆÏ@˝Ãy˲ñ Îy V˛í˛¸ ~ÓÇ §%ly!Ù ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚
ôÁǧydܲ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ •…y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y
í˛z˛õÜ)˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ Ú˛õ°° ÓyˆÏçê˛Û åsediment
budgetä ~ÓÇ ÙƒylˆÏ@˝Ãy˲à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ lT˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ !ܲS%È
ܲ!Ó˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°y «˛Î˚≤ÃyÆ •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ
ÙylÓ Ó§!ï˛ˆÏܲ V˛í˛¸ G §%ly!Ù ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ≤ÕyÓ˚
§•ƒ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
ÓyÎ˚% åWINDSä ı
í˛z£Ï÷ ÙÓ˚Ë% ˛) !ÙˆÏï˛ ò%•!z ê˛ ≤Ã˲yÓ¢y°# ¢!=˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÓyÎ˚% •° ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈
¢!=˛– ÙÓ˚%fiÌ°#Î˚ Ë)˛!Ùà%ˆÏ°y ¢%‹Ò G xl%Ó≈Ó˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° á%Ó ˆÓ!¢
~ÓÇ o%ï˛ í˛z£÷Ï •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– í˛z£÷Ï ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !ë˛Ü˛ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚% í˛z£÷Ï •ˆÏÎ˚
ÎyÎ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y •y°Ü˛y í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚% xyˆÏ°yí˛¸ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zôÁ≈Ù%á# •Î˚–
~•z í˛zôÁ≈Ù%á# ÓyÎ˚% ˛õˆÏÌ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Óyôy §,!T˛ •ˆÏ° â)î≈yÓï≈˛ñ â)!î≈ÓyÎ˚%ñ
xl%Óyï˛ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨Ù%á# ≤ÃÓy• í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚– ÓyÎ%̊ o%ï˛à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ÙÓ%̊Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚
˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÌ Óyôy G V˛í˛¸V˛OyÓ˚
§,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !l/§ˆÏ®ˆÏ•ñ V˛!ê˛Ü˛y ÓyÎ%̊ á%Ó ôÁǧydܲ •Î˚– ÓyÎ%̊ xÓâ£Ïñ≈
x˛õ§Ó˚î ~ÓÇ â£Ï≈î myÓ˚y «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚– x˛õ§Ó˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%
!¢°y˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !¢°yÓ˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ܲîy ~ÓÇ ô%!°Ü˛îyˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏ_y!°ï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚G x˛õ§yÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ â£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ
Óy°% ~ÓÇ ˛õ!° ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# •y!ï˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– Îál ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛
í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ Óy°%Ó˚ ܲîy !¢°y˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ôyE˛y áyÎ˚ñ ï˛ál ~Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
Ü,˛hs˝l ӈϰÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ «%˛o Óy!°Ü˛îy !Ó¢Ó˚î åsand-
blastingä ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ xl%Ó˛)˚ õ– ÓyÎ%̊ܲyÎ≈ ÙÓ%̊˲) !ÙÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ à%Óc %̊ ˛õ)î≈ !ܲS%È
«˛Î˚çyï˛ ~ÓÇ §M˛Î˚çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
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≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ñ ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !lÙ≈yî ˛õ%!Oï˛«˛Î˚
~ÓÇ ≤ÃÓy•Ùyl ç° Óy !¢ê‰˛ Êœ˛yí˛ åSheet floodä myÓ˚y •Î˚– Î!òG
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ò%°≈˲ñ !ܲv ~!ê˛ x“ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ Ù%£Ï°yôyˆÏÓ˚ Ó,!T˛
åtorrentialä Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ÙÓ%̊˲) !ÙÓ˚ !¢°yà%ˆ°
Ï y àySÈ˛õy°y!Ó•#l
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ï˛Ìy ˜ò!lܲ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Îy!sfܲ
~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y x!ôܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚– ï˛y•z ~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
¢#â  «˛Î˚«˛!ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ù%£Ï°ôyˆÏÓ˚ Ó,!T˛ ~•z xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ç!lï˛
˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)•ˆÏܲ x!ï˛ §•ˆÏç x˛õ§yÓ˚ˆÏî §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏl •°ñ
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ç!lï˛ Ë˛@¿yӈϢ£Ï ˆÜ˛Ó° ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y lÎ˚ ÓÓ˚Ç
Ó,!T˛ ‡ ˆôÔï˛Ü˛Ó˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ åsheet washä myÓ˚yG ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
ÓyÎ%̊ ˆÜ˛Ó° §)- ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)•ˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ §yôyÓ˚î ˛õ%!Oï˛
«˛Î˚ ≤Ãôylï˛ !¢ê‰˛ Êœ˛yí˛ åsheet floodsä Óy ˆôÔï˛Ü˛Ó˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
åsheet washä ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §¡õߨ •Î˚– ÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° lò#≤ÃÓy• !Óhfl,Ïï˛ñ
Ù§,î ~ÓÇ x!l!ò≈T˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ó,!T˛Ó˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ x“ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
çlƒ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
«˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ myÓ˚y §,T˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õ§Ù)• åEROSIONAL LANDFORMSäı
ˆ˛õ!í˛ˆÏÙrê˛ ~ÓÇ §Ù≤ÃyÎ˚ Ë)˛!Ù åPediments and
Pediplainsä ı
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˆ˛õ!í˛ˆÏÙˆÏrê˛Ó˚ àë˛l
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ §¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Î%=˛– ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õyòˆÏòˆÏ¢ ˆí˛!Ó § Óy
ôÁǧhfl)Ï˛õ SÈyí˛¸y Óy ôÁǧhfl)Ï˛õ §!•ï˛ Ù,ò% ì˛y°Î%=˛ ˛õyÌ%ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢ˆÏܲ
ˆ˛õ!í˛ˆÏÙrê˛ åpedimentsä Ó°y •Î˚– ˆ˛õ!í˛ˆÏÙˆÏrê˛Ó˚ àë˛lñ ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚
x@˝Ã˲yˆÏàÓ˚ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ Ù)°ï˛ «%˛o lò#Ó˚ ˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚ Óy !¢ê‰˛ Êœ˛yí˛ ÈüÈ ~•z
ò%•z!ê˛Ó˚ !Ù!°ï˛ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ myÓ˚y •Î˚–
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ ï˛#Ó  ì˛y° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ Óy Ë)˛àë˛l myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛ áyí˛¸y ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛
Ó˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛#Ó  ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õyˆÏŸª≈ «˛Î˚ܲyÎ≈ ≤ÃyÓ˚Ω˛ •Î˚– áyí˛¸y ì˛y°!Ó!¢T˛
~ÓÇ ˛õŸã˛yò‰ˆÏòˆÏ¢ Ë,˛à%Î%=˛ ˆ˛õ!í˛ˆÏÙrê˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏ°ñ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚
«˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ë,˛à%Ó˚ ˛õŸã˛yò˛õ§Ó˚î âˆÏê˛– «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ
˛õ,¤˛«˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ å backwasting ä ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y°
˛õŸã˛yò˛õ§Ó˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ӈϰ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùyhs˝Óy˚ ° ˛õŸã˛yò˛õ§Ó˚î
myÓ˚y ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ x@˝Ã˲yàˆÏܲ «˛Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ˛õ!í˛ˆÏÙrê˛ ˛õŸã˛yˆÏï˛ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚
~ÓÇ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÓ≈ï˛ «˛Î˚#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ xÓ!¢T˛yÇ¢ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
•zlˆÏ§°Óyà≈ åInselbergä Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ÙÓ%̊ xM˛ˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛
í˛zFã˛Ë)˛!Ùñ xyÜ,˛!ï˛!Ó•#l !l¡¨Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ÎyˆÏܲ
§Ù≤ÃyÎ˚Ë)˛!Ù åpediplainsä Ó°y •Î˚–
≤’yÎ˚y åPlayasä ı
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ §Ùï˛°Ë)˛!Ù •° ~ܲ!ê˛ xï˛ƒhs˝ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ– ˛õÓ≈ï˛
~ÓÇ ˛õy•yí˛¸ myÓ˚y xyÓ,ï˛ xÓÓy!•Ü˛yÎ˚ ç°!lܲy!¢ÓƒÓfiÌy Ù)°ï˛
xÓÓy!•Ü˛yÓ˚ ÙyV˛áyˆÏl xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ÓÇ xÓÓy!•Ü˛yÓ˚ ˛õyŸª≈«˛Î˚ myÓ˚y
Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ Óy!•ï˛ ˛õ!°§Ù)• §M˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî xÓÓy!•Ü˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ùï˛°Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– ˛õÎ≈yÆ ç° ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏ° ~•z
§Ùï˛°Ë)˛!Ù ~ܲ!ê˛ xà˲#Ó˚ 簈ϫ˛ˆÏeÓ˚ myÓ˚y xyÓ,ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
~•zÓ˚)˛õ xà˲#Ó˚ •…òˆÏܲ ≤’yÎ˚y åPlayasä Ó°y •Î˚– ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛
Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ç° x“ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ çlƒ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z
≤’yÎ˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ §M˛Î˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ °Óî myÓ˚y
xyÓ,ï˛ ~•zÓ˚)˛õ ≤’yÎ˚y §ÙË)˛!ÙˆÏܲ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ Ë)˛!Ù åalkali flatsä Ó°y
•Î˚–
x˛õ§Ó˚ î àï≈ ˛ ~ÓÇ à•¥ Ó ˚ å Deflation Hollows and
Cavesä ı
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ~ܲ•z!òˆÏܲ fiÌyÎ˚# ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !¢°yÓ˚ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ç!lï˛
˛õòyÌ≈ Óy x§Çà!ë˛ï˛ Ù,!_ܲy x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xà˲#Ó˚
àï≈˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ x˛õ§Ó˚î àï≈˛ ådeflation hollowsä
ӈϰ– x˛õ§Ó˚î !¢°y ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xˆÏlܲ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y àï≈˛ åpitsä
Óy à•¥ÓG ˚ åcavitiesä ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ï˛#Ó  ˆÓàÎ%=˛ ÓyÎ˚Ó% y!•ï˛ ô%!°Ü˛îyÓ˚
xÓâˆÏ£Ï≈Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ !¢°yÓ˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° ≤Ã̈ÏÙ xà˲#Ó˚ àˆÏï≈˛Ó˚ §,!T˛
•Î˚ñ ÎyˆÏܲ ˆÓœy xyí˛zê˛ åblow outsä Ó°y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛
ˆÓœy xyí˛zê˛ à˲#Ó˚ G !Óhfl,Ïï˛ •ˆÏ° ~à%ˆÏ°y à•¥Ó˚ åcavesä lyˆÏÙ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ •Î˚–
Ùy¢Ó˚%Ùñ ˆê˛!Ó° ~ÓÇ ˆ˛õˆÏí˛fiê˛y° !¢°y åMushroom, Table
and Pedestal Rocksä ı
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà !¢°y ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ x˛õ§Ó˚î Óy xÓâ£Ï≈ myÓ˚y x!ï˛
¢#â •z ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓ˚yô# !¢°yÓ˚ myÓ˚y â!£Ï≈ï˛
xÓ!¢T˛yÇ¢ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Ó˚%Ó,hs˝ Óy í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yà !Óhfl,Ïï˛ G ˆày°yܲyÓ˚
ê%˛!˛õ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Óy Ùy¢Ó˚%Ù xyܲyÓ˚ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly
≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓy˚ ô# !¢°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˛õ,¤˛!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆê˛!ӈϰÓ˚ ¢#ˆÏ£Ó≈Ï ˚ lƒyÎ˚ !ÓhflïÏ, ˛
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà §ÙÎ˚•z xÓ!¢T˛yÇ¢ hflÏΩ˛Ù)ˆÏ°Ó˚ åpedestalsä
ÙˆÏï˛y òÑy!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ÓyÎ˚Ü% ˛yÎ≈ ~ÓÇ !¢ê‰˛ Êœ˛yí˛ myÓ˚y !l!Ù≈ï˛ «˛Î˚çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚˛) õà%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏܲ
ï˛y!°Ü˛yË%˛=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
§M˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ myÓ˚y §,T˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ§Ù)• åDepositional
Landformsä ı
ÓyÎ%̊ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yçlܲyÓ˚# ÙyôƒÙ åsorting agentä– ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚
à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ !Ó!˲ߨ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ òylyà%ˆÏ°y ï˛°
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ â)î≈yÎ˚Ùyl Óy °¡≥˛òyl ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ã˛y!°ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ë˛y§Ùyl
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÓˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yçl
•Î˚– Îál ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ à!ï˛ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ Óy ~ܲòÙ ˆ¢ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ÌyˆÏܲñ
ï˛ál òylyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
§M˛Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y xyÓ˚Ω˛ •Î˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ §M˛Î˚çyï˛
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ~ܲ•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ܲîy!Ó!¢T˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ÓyÎ˚%
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§Ó≈e !ÓòƒÙyl ~ÓÇ Óy!°Ó˚ í˛zͧfïϰ ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ x!ÓÓ˚yÙ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ¢%‹Ò xM˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ §M˛Î˚çyï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸ åSand Dunesä ı
í˛z£÷Ï ¢%‹Ò ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù •° Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÎ%=˛ fiÌyl– ~à%ˆÏ°y
àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ï˛Órôܲï˛y ÌyܲyG xï˛ƒhs˝ à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î–≈ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó,•Í ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ å!ã˛e 7.16ä–
Óyá≈yl !§Ê‰˛
!ï˛Î≈ܲ
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ à!ï˛Ó˚ xyí˛¸yxy!í˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ à!ë˛ï˛ xô≈ã˛wyܲyÓ˚ Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸ÈüÈ
à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ åCrescent Dunesä Óyá≈yl åbarkhansä ӈϰ– xÌ≈yÍ
ˆÎáyˆÏl ÓyÎ%̊ ≤ÃÓy• !l¡¨Ù%á# •Î˚ñ ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ !òܲ x˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l#Î˚ G ÙyV˛y!Ó˚
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ Ù)° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Óy!° §Ù˲yˆÏÓ à!ï˛¢#°
ÌyˆÏܲ ˆ§áyˆÏl Óyá≈yl àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏ벖 Îál Óy°%ܲyÙÎ˚ ˛õ,¤˛ xyÇ!¢Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
í˛z!qò myÓ˚y xyÓ,ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ál ˆ§áyˆÏl ˛õƒyÓ˚yˆÏÓy!°Ü˛ Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸
åParabolic dunesä à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– xÌ≈yÍ Î!ò ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òܲ
~ܲ•z ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˛õƒyÓ˚yˆÏÓy!°Ü˛ Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸ Óyá≈yl ˆÌˆÏܲ
!˲ߨ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– !§Ê‰˛ åSeifä fl∫“ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒÎ%=˛ G Óyá≈yˆÏlÓ˚ xl%Ó˛)˚ õ
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ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ xÓfiÌy ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï˛≈ï˛ •ˆÏ° ~Ó˚)˛õ âˆÏê˛– !§ˆÏʉ˛Ó˚ ~•z
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Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%à!ï˛Ó˚ !òܲ !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ál xl%˜Ïòâ≈ƒ Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸
åLongitudinal dunesä àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏ벖 ~à%ˆÏ°y ò#â≈ ~ÓÇ Ü˛Ù

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dunesä ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏ벖 ˆÎáyˆÏl
ÓyÎ%̊≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òܲ !fiÌÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Óy!°ˆÏflÀyï˛ ÓyÎ%̊≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ò#â≈y!Î˚ï˛
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ˛õ)î≈ §ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆ§áyˆÏl ~•zÓ˚)˛õ Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸
à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y x!ôܲ ò#â≈ ~ÓÇ Ü˛Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ%=˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
Îál Óy!° ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ !lÎ˚!Ùï˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸
§ÇÎ%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !Ó°#l •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ,Ìܲ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚
ˆÊ˛ˆÏ°– ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ñ !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ ÙylÓ Ó§!ï˛Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#°
xl%˜òÏ â≈ƒ
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
!ã˛e 7.16 : Óy!°Î˚y!í˛¸Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚)˛õ– ï˛#Ó˚à%ˆÏ°y
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !òܲ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–

xl%¢#°l#

1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ ÓySÈy•z ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı

(i) Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ !ÓܲyˆÏ¢ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ !l¡¨y!˲Ù%á# ܲï≈˛l Ù%რË)˛!Ùܲy @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
(a) ˆÎÔÓl xÓfiÌy (c) x!hs˝Ù ˆ≤ÃÔì˛¸yÓfiÌy
(b) ≤ÃÌÙ ˆ≤ÃÔì˛¸yÓfiÌy (d) Óyô≈ܲƒ xÓfiÌy
(ii) áyí˛¸y ôyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ ˛õyŸª≈ ì˛y° myÓ˚y ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ˛õ)î≈ ~ܲ!ê˛ à˲#Ó˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ ı
(a) U-xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y (c) xrô í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y
(b) !à!Ó˚áyï˛ (d) ܲƒy!lÎ˚l
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(iii) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰ xM˛ˆÏ° Îy!sfܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y x!ôܲ ≤Ã˲yÓ¢y°#
•Î˚⁄
(a) xyo≈ xM˛° (c) ¢%‹Ò xM˛°
(b) ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ xM˛° (d) !•ÙÓy• xM˛°
(iv) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Óyܲƒà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ Ú°ƒy!˛õ§‰Û åLapiesä ¢∑!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˲yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
(a)~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o ˆÌˆÏܲ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xà˲#Ó˚ àï≈˛–
(b) ~ܲ!ê˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ÎyÓ˚ í˛zôÁ≈Ù%á# xÇ¢ Ü˛Ù ˆÓ!¢ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òܲ Ê˛yˆÏl° xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ •Î˚–
(c) ~ܲ!ê˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ˆÎ!ê˛ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ ç°«˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° àˆÏí˛¸ í˛zˆÏ벖
(d) ~ܲ!ê˛ x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛ ˛õ,¤˛ ÎyÓ˚ ï˛#«¯˛ ã)˛í˛¸yñ áÑyç ~ÓÇ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y xyˆÏSÈ–
(v) ~ܲ!ê˛ à˲#Ó˚ñ °¡∫y ~ÓÇ !ÓhflïÏ, ˛ áyï˛ Óy xÓÓy!•Ü˛y ÎyÓ˚ ÙhflÜÏ ˛ˆÏò¢ áyí˛¸y xÓï˛° ì˛y°Î%=˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õyŸª≈ˆòÏ ¢G
xl%Ó˚)˛õ •Î˚ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó°y •Î˚ ı
(a) §yÜ≈˛ (c) ˛õyŸª≈ @˝ÃyÓˆÏÓ˚áy
(b) !•ÙÓy• í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y (d) ~§‰Ü˛yÓ˚
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) !¢°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xô/ܲ!ï≈˛ï˛ lò#ÓÑyܲ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!° à!ë˛ï˛ §ÙË)˛!ÙÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ lò# ÓÑyܲ§Ù)• ܲ# !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
(ii) í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛#Î˚ Ó˚rô  Óy í˛z˲y°yÓ˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iii) ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ˛õ,¤˛ ç°≤ÃÓy• xˆÏ˛õ«˛y Ë)˛àË≈˛fiÌ ç°≤ÃÓy• á%Ó•z §yôyÓ˚î !Ó£ÏÎ˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
(iv) !•ÙÓy• í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˜Ó˚!áܲ xӈϫ˛!˛õï˛ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ lyÙà%ˆÏ°y
ӈϰy–
(v) ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù ~°yܲyÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚% ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yÎ≈ §¡õyòl ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄ ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ÓyÎ˚%•z !ܲ ~ܲÙye í˛z˛õyòyl Îy «˛Î˚#Ë)˛ï˛
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õ !lÙ≈yˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚#⁄
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) xyo≈ ~ÓÇ ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ%̊ xM˛ˆÏ° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ Ó˚)˛õyÎ˚ˆÏî ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ç°•z §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õàï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl
ÈüüüÈ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(ii) ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ xyo≈ ~ÓÇ ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ !˲ߨ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÜ˛l⁄ ã%˛ly˛õyÌÓ˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ≤Ãôyl ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÎ˚ fl∫ï˛sf
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õàï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲ# ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ܲ#⁄
(iii) ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ !•ÙÓy• ܲyÎ≈ §¡õyòl ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛zÑã%˛ ˛õÓ≈ï˛ˆÏܲ l#ã%˛ ˛õy•yí˛¸ Óy §ÙË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚⁄

≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ~°yܲyÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°y ˆÎ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ÈüüüÈ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y ¢ly=˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
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~•z ~ܲˆÏܲ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y •Ï° ı
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l §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ Ê˛° ÈüüüÈ ˛õï˛lˆÏܲyî ~ÓÇ Ó^˝ê˛lñ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ÓyˆÏçê˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛z_y˛õ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛° •GÎ˚y å˛õ!Ó˚Ó•îñ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°lñ ˛õy!Ì≈Ó !Ó!ܲÓ˚îñ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°lä
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Ó^˝ê˛lñ ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ í˛z_y˛õ–
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§#Ùyhs˝ñ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ~ÓÇ ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï â)î≈yÓyï˛–
l xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî ÈüüüÈ Óy‹õ#˲Ólñ âl#˲Ól ÈüüüÈ !¢!¢Ó˚ñ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ñ Ü%˛Î˚y¢yñ •y°Ü˛y Ü%˛Î˚y¢y ~ÓÇ ˆÙâó
Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ÈüüüÈ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà G !ÓŸªÓ^˝ê˛l–
l !ÓŸª ç°ÓyÎ˚%§Ù)• ÈüüüÈ !ÓŸª ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà åˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õläñ !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ ≤Ã˲yÓ ~ÓÇ !ÓŸª
í˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚l G ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l–
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COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
OF ATMOSPHERE

Ùy l%£Ï !ܲ ÓyÎ˚% SÈyí˛¸y ÓÑyã˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ⁄˚ xyÙÓ˚y !òˆÏl ò%•z ˆÌˆÏܲ
!ï˛lÓyÓ˚ áyòƒ áy•zñ ÙyˆÏV˛ ÙyˆÏV˛ ç° ˛õyl ܲ!Ó˚ !ܲv
Ÿªy§ xyÙÓ˚y ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ xhs˝Ó˚ xhs˝Ó˚ !lˆÏï˛ ˛Ìy!ܲ– §Ü˛°
§yÓ˚!î 8.1 ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ fiÌyÎ˚# àƒy§§Ù)•
í˛z˛õyòyl §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y xyÎ˚ï˛l

≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˜çÓ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyܲyÓ˚ çlƒ ÓyÎ˚% x˛õ!Ó˚•yÎ≈– ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl N2 78.08

ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ç#Ó ˆÎÙlÈüÈ Ùyl%£Ï áyòƒ Óy ç° SÈyí˛¸y !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ x!:ˆÏçl O2 20.95

ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyܲˆÏ°G ÓyÎ˚% SÈyí˛¸y ÓÑyã˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ly– ï˛y•z xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ xyà≈l Ar 0.93
ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ CO2 0.036
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ÓhflÏy!Ó˚ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ çyly í˛z!ã˛ï˛– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° •°
!lÎ˚l Ne 0.002
!Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !Ù◊î Îy Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏܲ˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ã˛yòˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y
!•!°Î˚yÙ He 0.0005
ˆÓT˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– ~•z ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ° Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È !ܲS%È ç#ÓlòyÎ˚# àƒy§
!Ü ˛≤Wzl Kr 0.001
ˆÎÙlÈ ü È x!:ˆÏ ç lñ Îy Ùl% £ Ï ƒ Ü) ˛ ° G ≤Ãyî#Ü) ˛ ° ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈ l È
ˆçll Xe 0.00009
í˛y•zÈx:y•zí˛ Îy í˛z!qòÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl H2 0.00005
xá[˛ xÇ¢ •° ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 99 ¢ï˛yÇ¢
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ 32 !ܲ!Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ §#ÙyÓÂô– ÓyÎ˚% Ù)°ï˛
Óî≈•#l G àrô•#l •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y ¢%ô%Ùye Óyï˛y§ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ àƒy§§Ù)• åGasesä ı
•ˆÏ°•z xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ñ xyÓ•!Óòƒyàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xlƒï˛Ù
à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ àƒy§ ܲyÓ˚îñ ~ˆÏï˛ xyàï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ fl∫FSÈ !ܲv
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ܲ“ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚y ˆÎ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ˛õy!Ì≈Ó !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ xfl∫FSÈ ÙyôƒÙ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛
GˆÏçyl àƒy§ ly ÌyܲˆÏ° ܲ# •ˆÏÓ⁄ ˛õy!Ì≈Ó˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xÇ¢ ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È xÇ¢
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ !Ê˛!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆòÎ˚– ~!ê˛ !@˝Ãl •yí˛z§ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓÓ˚ åGreen
ÓyÎ˚ % Ù [˛ˆÏ ° Ó˚ í˛z ˛ õyòyl å C OMPOSITION OF THE
house effectä çlƒ òyÎ˚#– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xlƒylƒ §Ó àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
ATMOSPHEREä ı
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° àƒy§ñ ç°#Óy‹õ ~ÓÇ ô)!°Ü˛îy !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛– §yÓ˚!î ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî x˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l#Î˚ •ˆÏ°G àï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛ ò¢ˆÏܲ ç#ÓyŸ¬ çµy°y!l
8.1 ~ ÓyÎ˚Ù % [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Óî≈ly ˆòGÎ˚y •°– Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ó,!Âô ˛õyˆÏFSÈ– Îy
í˛zFã˛hflψÏÓ˚ ~•z §Ü˛° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆSÏ È– ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ x˛õÓ˚ à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î≈
|ôÁ≈yܲyˆÏ¢ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 120 !ܲ!Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ x!:ˆÏçl ≤ÃyÎ˚ làîƒ •ˆÏÎ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl •° GˆÏçyl Îy 10 ˆÌˆÏܲ 50 !ܲ!Ù ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
˛õˆÏí˛¸– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yÓ≈lÈ í˛y•zÈx:y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ~!ê˛ !Ê˛Œê˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y˛ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ 90 !ܲ!Ù |ôÁ≈yܲy¢ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– x!ï˛ˆÏÓà%!l Ó˚!Ÿ¬ˆÏܲ åUltra-Violet raysä ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓñ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ xy§ˆÏï˛ Óyôy ˆòÎ˚–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyl G àë˛l
ç°#Î˚Óy‹õ åWater Vapourä ı
ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ x˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#° í˛z˛õyòylñ
Îy í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– í˛z£÷Ï Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°
~!ê˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ 4 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ
¢%‹Ò ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛° ÙÓ˚% G ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ~!ê˛ 1 ¢ï˛yLjϢÓ˚G ܲÙ
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ xÇ¢ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛
ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ ï˛y˛õˆÏܲ §ÇÓ˚«˛î ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ã˛yòˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ lƒyÎ˚
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÎyˆÏï˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# á%Ó ˆÓ!¢ í˛z£÷Ï Óy ¢#ï˛° ly •ˆÏÎ˚
˛õˆÏí˛¸– ç°#Î˚ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !fiÌï˛yÓfiÌy G x!fiÌÓ˚ï˛y
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ô)!°Ü˛îy åDust Particlesä ı
ÓyÎ˚ % Ù [˛ˆÏ ° Ó˚ ˆSÈ y ˆÏ ê ˛y ˆSÈ y ˆÏ ê ˛y ô) ! °Ü˛îy ôˆÏ Ó ˚ Ó˚ y áyÓ˚ ÎˆÏ Ì T˛
ôyÓ˚Ùï˛y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z§Ó ô)!°Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°y !Ó!˲ߨ í˛zͧ ˆÌˆÏܲ
í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ÎÌyÈüȧyÙ%!oܲ °Óîñ ˛õ!°Ùy!ê˛ñ ô)!°Ü˛îyñ
ˆôÑyÎ˚yñ Ê%˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÓ˚î%ñ í˛zÕÒy!˛õˆÏ[˛Ó˚ á[˛ !Óá[˛ xÇ¢– ô)!°Ü˛îy
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨hflψÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ G
ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï xM˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ° ô)!°Ü˛îyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÓ!¢ ܲyÓ˚î
ˆ§áyˆÏl ÓyÎ˚% !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ G ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ¢%‹Ò– ô)!°Ü˛îy
~ÓÇ l%ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲîy ç°@˝Ãy•# ܲîyÓ˚ˆ) Ï˛õ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÎyˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚
ç°#Î˚Óy‹õ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ àë˛l åSTRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHEREä
ı
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° !Ó!˲ߨ âlc Î%=˛ G ï˛y˛õÙyey Î%=˛ hflÏÓ˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ âlc Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ !lܲê˛Óï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl ˆÓ!¢
~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ âlc •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
hflÓÏ à˚ ˆ% °
Ï yˆÏܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ !Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– ~•z hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y •° ı ê˛∆ˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ñ fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ñ
ˆÙˆÏ§y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ñ ÌyˆÏÙ≈y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏ:y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
§Ó≈!l¡¨ hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ •° ê˛∆ˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ åTroposphereä– ~Ó˚ àí˛¸
í˛zFã˛ï˛y 13 !ܲ!Ùñ Îy !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ 8 !ܲ!Ù ~ÓÇ ˆÙÓ˚%
xM˛ˆÏ ° 18 !ܲ!Ù ˛õÎ≈ h s˝ !Óhfl, Ï ï ˛– ê˛∆ ˆ Ï ˛ õy!fl≥˛Î˚ y ˆÏ Ó ˚ Ó ˚ âlc
!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ §Ó≈y!ôܲ ܲyÓ˚î !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ≤ÃÓ°
˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î xˆÏlܲ í˛zFã˛ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝
•Î˚– ~•z hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ô)!°Ü˛îy G ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z hflψÏÓ˚
ï˛y˛õÙyey •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ≤Ã!ï˛ 165 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ 1 0
ˆ§°!§Î˚y§ åcä– ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~•z hflÓÏ !˚ ê˛ ˜ç!Óܲ ܲyÎ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ çlƒ
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈–
77
ˆÎ xM˛°!ê˛ ê˛∆ˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ˆÏܲ fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛˛õ,Ìܲ
ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ï˛y ˆê˛∆ y ˆÏ ˛ õy˛õç å Tropopause ä lyˆÏ Ù ˛õ!Ó˚ ! ã˛ï˛–
ˆê˛∆ y ˆÏ ˛ õy˛õˆÏ ç Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey !lÓ˚ « ˛#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ ° ≤ÃyÎ˚ – 80 0
ˆ§°!§Î˚y§ ~ÓÇ ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° – 450 ˆ§°!§Î˚y§– ~•z xLjϢ
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï˛≈l •Î˚ lyñ ï˛y•z ~•z xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ lyÙ
ˆê˛∆yˆÏ˛õy˛õç– fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆê˛∆yˆÏ˛õy˛õˆÏçÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ 50 !ܲ!Ù ˛õÎ≈hs˝
!ÓhflïÏ, ˛– fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xlƒï˛Ù ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •° ÈüüüÈ ~áyˆÏl
GˆÏçyl hflÓÏ !˚ ê˛ xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ˆSÏ È– GˆÏçyl hflÓÏ !˚ ê˛ §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyàï˛
x!ï˛ˆÏÓà%!l Ó˚!Ÿ¬ˆÏܲ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ó˚«˛yܲÓã˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚–
fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÙˆÏ§y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
åMesosphereä Îy 80 !ܲ!Ù ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Óhfl,Ïï˛– ~•z hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏï˛
xyÓyÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y
80 !ܲ!Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ – 1000 ˆ§°!§Î˚y§ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆ˛õÑÔˆÏSÈ ÎyÎ˚–
ˆÙˆÏ§y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï xÇ¢!ê˛ ˆÙˆÏ§y˛õç åMesopauseä
lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ˆÙˆÏ§y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ |ˆÏôÁ≈ 80 ˆÌˆÏܲ 400 !ܲ!ÙÉ
˛~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yˆÏly!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ åIonosphereä hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛–
~•z hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ xyôylÎ%=˛ xyÎ˚l ܲîy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ï˛y•z ~•z
hflÓÏ !˚ ê˛ xyˆÏÎy˚ ˆÏly!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ˆÓ˚!í˛ˆÏÎy˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà Îy ˛õ,È!ÌÓ#
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆ≤Ã!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛y ~•z hflψÏÓ˚ ˛≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ§–
~•z hflψÏÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
~ˆÏ:y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
ÌyˆÏÙy≈ !fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
ˆÙˆÏ§y˛õç
ˆÙˆÏ§y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
í˛zFã˛ï˛y å!ܲ!Ùä
fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y˛õç
fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
ˆê˛∆yˆÏ˛õy˛õç
ê˛∆ˆ˛Ï õy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
ï˛y˛õÙyey å0Cä
!ã˛e 8.1 : ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ àë˛l
78 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ hflÓÏ ˚ Îy ÌyˆÏÙy≈ !fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÓ•yGÎ˚y G ç°ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyl åElements of Weather
ï˛yˆÏܲ ~ˆÏ:y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ åExosphereä ӈϰ– ~!ê˛ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ hflÏÓ˚ and Climateä ı
~ÓÇ á%Ó Ü˛Ù•z ~•z hflÏÓ˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çyly ˆàˆÏSÈ– ~•z hflψÏÓ˚ ˆÎ
ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÎ§Ü˛° í˛z˛õyòyl ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ÙylÓç#ÓlˆÏܲ
§Ü˛° í˛z˛õyòyl Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛y xï˛ƒhs˝ !ÓÓ˚° •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ~ÓÇ ô#ˆÏÓ˚
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y •° ï˛y˛õÙyeyñ ã˛y˛õñ ÓyÎ%̊≤ÃÓy•ñ xyo≈ï˛yñ
ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ !Ù!°ï˛ •Î˚– Î!òG ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Óܲ!ê˛ hflÏÓ˚
ˆÙâ ~ÓÇ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî– ~•z §Ü˛° í˛z˛õyòyl §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˛õÓ˚Óï˛≈#
ÙylÓ ç#ÓˆÏl ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflyÏ Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y §ˆÏ_G ¥ Ë)˛ˆÏày°!ÓòÓ˚y ≤ÃÌÙ
xôƒyÎ˚ 9, 10 ~ÓÇ 11 ˆï˛ !ÓhflïÏ, ˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È–
ò%!ê˛ hflÏÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚•z !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ !ã˛hs˝y ܲˆÏÓ˚–

xl%¢#°l#
1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ ˆÓˆÏSÈ lyG ı
(i) ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yl‰ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §Ó≈y!ôܲ È⁄
(a) x!:ˆÏçl (c) xyà≈l
(b) ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl (d) ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛
(ii) ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÎ hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ç#ÓˆÏl à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˆ§!ê˛ •Ï° ı
(a) fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ (c) ˆÙˆÏ§y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
(b) ˆê˛∆yˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ (d) xyÎ˚ˆl Ï y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
(iii) §yÙ%!oܲ °Óîñ ˛õÓ˚yàˆÏÓ˚î%ñ SÈy•zñ ˆôÑyÎ˚yñ ˛õ!°Ùy!ê˛ ÈüüüÈ Ü˛#ˆÏ§Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ ⁄
(a) àƒy§ (c) ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ
(b) ô)!°Ü˛îy (d) í˛zÕÒy!˛õ[˛
(iv) ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ x!:ˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî làîƒ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ⁄
(a) 90 !ܲ!Ù (c) 100 !ܲ!Ù
(b) 120 !ܲ!Ù (d) 150 !ܲ!Ù
(v) !lˆÏ¡¨ Ó!î≈ï˛ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰ àƒy§!ê˛ xyàï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ fl∫FSÈ ÙyôƒÙ G ˛õy!Ì≈Ó˛
!Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ xfl∫FSÈ ÙyôƒÙ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ⁄
(a) x!:ˆÏçl (c) !•!°Î˚yÙ
(b) ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ (d) ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ 30 !ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄
(ii) xyÓ•yGÎ˚y G ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyl Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄
(iii) ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iv) ˆê˛∆yˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛l ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ hflÏÓ˚⁄
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ 120 !ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòylàï˛ àë˛l xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(ii) ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚àï˛ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ã˛e xAܲl ܲˆÏÓ˚y G xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îñ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚˚ §Ùï˛y
~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey
(SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE
AND TEMPERATURE)
ˆï˛y ÙÓ˚y !ܲ ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛Ó˚⁄
ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ !ܲ çyl xyÙÓ˚y ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ~ܲ Ó,•Í hfl)ÏˆÏ˛õÓ˚
l#ˆÏã˛ Óy§ ܲ!Ó˚⁄ xyÙÓ˚y ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ Ÿªy§@˝Ã•î G ï˛ƒyà ܲ!Ó˚ !ܲv
xyÙÓ˚y ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ ï˛ál•z xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛!Ó˚ Îál ï˛y à!ï˛¢#° ÌyˆÏܲ–
~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •Ï° à!ï˛¢#° ÓyÎ˚%•z •ˆÏFSÈ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy•– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈•z
ˆçˆÏlSÈ ˆÎ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ!T˛ï˛– ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ~•z
xyÓÓ˚î•z •Ï° ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° Îy !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚
à!ë˛ï˛– ~•z àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ çlƒ•z ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ x!hflÏc
Óï≈˛Ùyl–
˛õ,!ÌÓ# ï˛yÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ §¡õ)î≈ xÇ¢ §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ @˝Ã•î
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ# §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ à,•#ï˛ ~•z ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ xyÓyÓ˚
!Ê˛!Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˚ ˆòÎ˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ˛õÓ˚ x!ôܲ
í˛z£÷Ï •Î˚ ly xyÓyÓ˚ ¢#ï˛° •ˆÏÎ˚G ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ly– ~˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
!Ó!˲ߨ ˲yà Óy xÇ¢ myÓ˚y à,•#ï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ
ly– ~•z !˲ߨï˛y ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ï˛Ùƒ Óy ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ §,!T˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° ~ܲ xM˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ xM˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ •Î˚– ~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ï G ¢#ï˛° •GÎ˚yÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• ~ÓÇ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l !lˆÏÎ˚
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î åSolar Radiationä ı
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ï˛yÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà xÇ¢•z «%˛o ï˛Ó˚Aà˜ÏòˆÏâƒ≈ åshort
wave lengthsä @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ à,•#ï˛ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ Úxyàï˛
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î åIncoming Solar RadiationäÛ Óy §ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ
Úˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îÛ åSolar insolationä Ó°y •Î˚–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Ú!çÎ˚í˛Û ågeoidä Îy ˆòáˆÏï˛
ˆày°ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y˛– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬ !ï˛Î≈ܲ˲yˆÏÓ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏà ˛õˆÏí˛¸ñ ï˛y•z ˆ§ÔÓ˚¢!=˛Ó˚ á%Ó Ü˛Ù xÇ¢•z ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ˆ¢y£Ïî
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ# àˆÏí˛¸ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ |ôÁ≈hflψÏÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ !Ù!lˆÏê˛
x ôƒy Î˚
≤Ã!ï˛ Óà≈ ˆ§!ÙˆÏï˛ 1.94 ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚ ¢!=˛ ˛@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ≤Ã!ï˛ ÓSÈÓ˚
ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ |ôÁ≈˲yˆÏà à,•#ï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî §yÙylƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
•Î˚– ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ~ÓÇ §)ˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ò)Óˆ˚ cÏ Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ
•Î˚– 4 ç%°y•z ï˛y!Ó˚ˆáÏ §)ˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ  ÙˆÏîÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#
§)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó≈y!ôܲ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc å152 !Ù!°Î˚l !ܲ!ÙÉä å1 !Ù!°Î˚l
=10,000,00ä xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ~•z xÓfiÌylˆÏܲ Úx˛õ§)Ó˚
åaphelionäÛ ÓˆÏ°– çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ ï˛y!Ó˚ˆÏá ˛õ,!ÌÓ# §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚
!lܲê˛Óï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ å147 !Ù!°Î˚l !ܲ!ÙÉä– ~•z
xÓfiÌylˆÏܲ xl%§)Ó˚ åperihelionä ӈϰ– ˆ§çlƒ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# myÓ˚y
à,•#ï˛ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 3 çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ ï˛y!Ó˚ˆÏá 4
ç%°y•z ï˛y!Ó˚ˆÏáÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ x!ôܲ •Î˚– ï˛y §ˆÏ_¥G §)Î≈ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~•z
!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ xlƒylƒ ܲyÓ˚î ÎÌyÈüÈfiÌ°Ë˛yà G ç°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚
Ó^˝ê˛l ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛°ˆÏlÓ˚ myÓ˚y •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ~ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z
§)Îï≈ ˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~•z !˲ߨï˛y Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ ˜òl!®l xyÓ•yGÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl
á%Ó ˆÓ!¢ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˆÊ˛°ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly–
Ë)˛˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°ï˛y åVariability of
Insolation at the Surface of the Earthä ı
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyey G ï˛#Ó ï˛y ≤Ã!ï˛!òlñ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ }ï%˛ ~ÓÇ
≤Ã!ï˛ ÓSȈÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚– ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛y Óy
ï˛yÓ˚ï˛ˆÏÙƒÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î§Ù)• •Ï° ÈüüüÈ åiä !lç xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
xyÓï≈˛l åiiä §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ˛õï˛lˆÏܲyî åiiiä !òˆÏlÓ˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ åivä
ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ fl∫FSÈï˛y åvä fiÌ° !Ólƒy§– !ܲv ˆ¢ˆÏ£ÓÏ ˚ ò%!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚
≤Ã˲yÓ Ü˛Ù ˛õˆÏí˛¸–
Ù)° !Ó£ÏÎê˚ ˛y •ˆÏFSÈ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ x«˛ §)ˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚ ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ  ÙˆÏîÓ˚
ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ 66½ !í˛!@˝Ã ˆÜ˛yˆÏî ˆ•ˆÏ° xyˆÏSÈ Îy !Ó!˲ߨ x«˛yLjϢ
à,•#ï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyey Óy ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚–
§yÓ˚!î 9.1üÈ~ xÎ˚lܲy° xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ å!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy ˆÌˆÏܲ §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚
ò) Ó ˚ ˆ Ï c Ó˚ xÓfiÌylä !Ó!˲ߨ x«˛ˆÏ Ó ˚ á yÎ˚ !òˆÏ l Ó˚ fiÌy!Î˚ ˆ Ï c Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛là%ˆÏ°y °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
80 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ !mï˛#Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î!ê˛ xyܲyˆÏ¢ Ó˚Ç Óy Óî≈ ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ°y !ÓFS%È!Ó˚ï˛
•° §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ˛õï˛lˆÏܲyî– ~!ê˛ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°•z §)ˆÏÎ≈yòÎ˚ G §)Î≈yˆÏhflÏÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ó˚Ç °y° ~ÓÇ
x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚– xyܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ó˚Ç l#°y˲ ˆòáyÎ˚–
§yÓ˚!î 9.1 : í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ xÎ˚lyhs˝ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î xÎ˚lyhs˝ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ â^˝ê˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !Ù!lˆÏê˛ !òˆÏlÓ˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ
x«˛yÇ¢ 0° 20° 40° 60° 90°
!í˛ˆÏ§¡∫Ó˚ 22 12 â^˝ê˛y 00 !ÙÉ 10 â^˝ê˛y 48 !ÙÉ 9 â^˝ê˛y 8 !ÙÉ 5 â^˝ê˛y 33 !ÙÉ 0
ç%l 21 12 â^˝ê˛y 13 â^˝ê˛y 12 !ÙÉ 14 â^˝ê˛y 52 !ÙÉ 18 â^˝ê˛y 27 !ÙÉ 6 Ùy§

x«˛yÇ¢ Îï˛ í˛zFã˛˛ •ˆÏÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ˛õï˛lˆÏܲyî ï˛ï˛•z Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ fiÌy!lܲ Ó^˝ê˛l åSpatial
Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÓ– xï˛~Ó §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬ !ï˛Î≈ܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˛õí˛¸ˆÏÓ– !ï˛Î≈ܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ Distribution of Insolation at the Earth’s
ï%˛°lyÎ˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ Ü˛Ù fiÌyˆÏl ˛õˆÏí˛¸– §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬ Î!ò Surfaceä ı
xyÓ˚G ˆÓ!¢ fiÌyl ç%ˆÏí˛¸ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ¢!=˛G ˆÓ!¢ fiÌyl ç%ˆÏí˛¸ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ à,•#ï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° 320
SÈ!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ Ê˛ˆÏ° ≤Ã!ï˛ ~ܲˆÏܲ à,•#ï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– GÎ˚yê˛ åWattä ‡ Óà≈!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° 70 GÎ˚yê˛
§ˆÏÓy≈ ˛õ!Ó˚ ï˛#Î≈ܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ x!ôܲ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ åWattä ‡ Óà≈!ÙÉ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !˲ߨï˛y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– §Ó≈y!ôܲ ˆ§ÔÓ˚
x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ x!ôܲ ˆ¢y£Ïî åabsorptionäñ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î à,•#ï˛ •Î˚ xyhs˝/Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ÙÓ%̊˲) !Ù xM˛ˆÏ° ܲyÓ˚î ˆ§áyˆÏl
!ӈϫ˛˛õî åscatteringä ~ÓÇ !ÓFS%ÈÓ˚î ådiffusionä •Î˚– ˆÙâyFSÈߨï˛y Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚
xM˛ˆÏ° xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ Ü˛Ù ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î à,•#ï˛ •Î˚– §yôyÓ˚îï˛
0
66½ í˛z_Ó˚ ~ܲ•z x«˛yLjϢ xÓ!fiÌï˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢ x!ôܲ
23½ 0
23½
0
§)ÎÓ≈ !˚ Ÿ¬ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Ùôƒ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢ
ܲÜ≈˛ê
˛Ü ˛y!hs 0 @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ° Ü˛Ù ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î à,•#ï˛ •Î˚–
0 ˝ ˆÓ˚á 47
0 y
0
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛°#ܲÓ˚î åHeating and
23½ 0
Ó˚yï˛ !òl 90 Cooling of Atmosphereä ı
ÙÜ˛Ó 66½
0
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° !Ó!˲ߨ˲yˆÏÓ í˛z£÷Ï G ¢#ï˛° •Î˚–
˚Ü ˛y!hs
˝ ˆÓ˚á Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚y í˛z_Æ •ÓyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ~•z í˛z_y˛õ
66½ 0 y 0

o
43
0 ï˛Ó˚AàÓ)˚ˆÏ˛õ §M˛y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ÓyÎ%̊ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÎyˆÏà ~ˆÏ° ô#Ó˚˲yˆÏÓ
ò!«˛î
!ã˛e 9.1 : í˛z_Ó˚yÎ˚î
ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ˛õÌ åThe Passage
of Solar Radiation through the Atmosphereä ı
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ x!ôܲyÇ¢ «%˛o ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ çlƒ fl∫FSÈ
•Î˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ xyˆÏà §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyàï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
ÓyÎ˚ % Ù [˛ˆÏ ° Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏ Î ˚ x!ï˛Ü  ˛ Ù Ü˛ˆÏ Ó ˚ – ê˛∆ ˆ Ï ˛ õy!fl≥˛Î˚ y ˆÏ Ó ˚ Ó ˚
åtroposphereä ÙˆÏôƒ ç°#Î˚Óy‹õñ GˆÏçyl åOzoneä ~ÓÇ
xlƒylƒ àƒy§§Ù)• •zlÊ ˛yˆÏÓ˚í˛ åinfraredä !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ
!Ó!ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚– ê˛∆ˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚ «%˛o «%˛o !l°!¡∫ï˛ Ü˛îy
åSuspended particlesä Ù•yܲy¢ ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
ò,¢ƒÙyl Óî≈FSÈê˛y Óy Óî≈y°#ˆÏܲ !Ó!«˛Æ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ hflψÏÓ˚ ò#â≈
í˛z_Æ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ ÓyÎ˚G
% í˛z_Æ
•ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î åconductionä ӈϰ– ò%!ê˛
x§Ùyl í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Óy ï˛y˛õÙyey!Ó!¢T˛ Ó› Îál ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
§ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xyˆÏ§ ï˛ál ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ¢%Ó%˚ •Î˚– í˛z£Ï÷ ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢#ï˛° Ó›Ó˚
!òˆÏܲ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy• âˆÏê˛– ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ï˛ï˛«˛î ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ã˛°ˆÏï˛
ÌyˆÏܲ Îï˛«˛î ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ò%!ê˛ Ó› §Ùyl ï˛y˛õÙyey !Ó!¢T˛ •Î˚
xÌÓy ò%!ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §ÇˆÏÎyà !SÈߨ •Î˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨hflÏÓ˚ˆÏܲ
í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î á%Ó•z à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xy§y ÓyÎ%̊ í˛z£÷Ï •ˆÏÎ˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ• í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚
í˛zˆëÏ ˛ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ° ï˛y˛õ §M˛y°l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~•z
í˛zÕ‘¡∫ í˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l åconvectionä ӈϰ–
¢!=˛Ó˚ ~•zÓ˚)˛õ ˛Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ Óy fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ ¢%ô%Ùye ê˛∆ˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚•z
§#ÙyÓÂô ÌyˆÏܲ– ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ xl%˲) !Ùܲ ã˛°l myÓ˚y ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛Ó˚˛) õyhs˝Ó˚ Óy
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îñ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ §Ùï˛y ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey 81

fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚% §M˛y°l åadvectionä ӈϰ– ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫
§M˛y°l xˆÏ˛õ«˛y xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ §M˛y°l x!ôܲ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– Ùôƒ
x«˛yLjϢ ˜òl!®l xyÓ•yGÎ˚yÎ˚ xy§y ˜ò!lܲ å!òl G Ó˚y!eä
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ¢%ô%Ùye §M˛y°l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚
xM˛ˆÏ° !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ í˛z_Ó˚ ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛ @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ fiÌyl#Î˚ ÓyÎ%̊
Ú°%Û ~•z §M˛y°l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°•z •Î˚–
˛õy!Ì≈Ó !Ó!ܲÓ˚î åTerrestrial Radiationä ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ xyàï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î «%˛o ï˛Ó˚AàÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ xyˆÏ§ ~ÓÇ
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏܲ í˛z_Æ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# í˛z_Æ •ÓyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ !lˆÏç•z !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛
!˛õ[˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ò#â≈ ï˛Ó˚AàÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ ¢!=˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z
¢!=˛ ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛°ˆÏܲ l#ã˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z_Æ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ˛õy!Ì≈Ó˛
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î ӈϰ–
ò#â≈ ï˛Ó˚Aà !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛°#Î˚ !Ó!˲ߨ àƒy§ !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l
í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ !@˝Ãl •yí˛z§ àƒy§ ågreen house
gasä myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ •Î˚– ~˲yˆÏÓ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
myÓ˚y ˛õˆÏÓy˚ «˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ í˛z_Æ •Î˚– ï˛ò%˛õ!Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛°G Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ ï˛y˛õ
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î G §M˛y°l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ¢ˆÏ£Ïñ §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ à,•#ï˛ ˆÙyê˛
ï˛y˛õ Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
ï˛y˛õÙyey !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ÓyˆÏçê˛ åHeat Budget of the Planet
Earthä ı
!ã˛e 9.2 ~ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ÓyˆÏçê˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#
§¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ï˛y˛õ §M˛Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly xyÓyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ï˛ƒyàG ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly–
˛õ,!ÌÓ# ï˛yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá– ~!ê˛ ï˛ál•z §Ω˛Ó •Î˚ Îál
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ≤ÃyÆ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ì≈Ó˛
!Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚ï˛ƒ=˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §Ùyl •Î˚–
ôÓ˚y Îyܲñ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ |ôÁ≈hflψÏÓ˚ à,•#ï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 100 ¢ï˛yÇ¢– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù •ÓyÓ˚
§ÙÎ˚ !ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢!=˛ ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ñ !Ó!«˛Æ ~ÓÇ !ÓFS%È!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
¢%ôÙ% ye xÓ!¢T˛ xÇ¢ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ ~ˆÏ§ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚– ˆÙyê˛yÙ%!ê˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
35 ˲yà ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈•z ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢
≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 27 ˲yà ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ |ôÁ≈yÇ¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ
~ÓÇ 2 ˲yà ˛õ, ! ÌÓ#Ó˚ ï% ˛ £Ï y Ó˚ G ÓÓ˚ Ê ˛yÓ, ï ˛ xM˛° ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛
≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛
!Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xƒy°ˆÏÓˆÏí˛y åalbedoä ӈϰ–
xÓ!¢T˛ 65 ˲yˆÏà 14 ˲yà ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ~ÓÇ 51 ˲yà
˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,¤˛ myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ •Î˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ# myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ~•z 51 ˲yà
˛õy!Ì≈Ó˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ !Ê˛!Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˚ ˆòGÎ˚y •Î˚– ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 17
˲yà ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ x!Ó!¢T˛ 34 ˲yà
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ å6 ˲yà ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° myÓ˚y ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ •Î˚ñ 9 ˲yà ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l G V˛í˛¸V˛Py myÓ˚y ~ÓÇ 19 ˲yà
âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ °#lï˛y˛õ myÓ˚yä– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ 48 ˲yà G
å14 ˲yà ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ + 34 ˲yà ˛õy!Ì≈Ó !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
ˆÌˆÏÜ˛ä ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚– xï˛~Óñ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ~ÓÇ
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ ≤Ãï˛ƒyÓ!ï≈˛ï˛ ˆÙyê˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î •ˆÏFSÈ
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 17 G 48– ÎyÓ˚ ˆÎyàÊ˛° •ˆÏFSÈ 65– ≤Ãï˛ƒyÓ!ï≈˛ï˛ ~•z

«%˛o ï˛Ó˚Aà ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ò#â≈ ï˛Ó˚Aà myÓ˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î

ˆÙyê˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ˛

Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ !ÓFS%È!Ó˚ï˛ 100% Ù•yܲy¢ myÓ˚y ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛
– 27 ˆÙâ myÓ˚y
–6 – 2 ˛õ,!ÌÓ# myÓ˚y – 17 – 48
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î

+19
!Ó!«˛Æ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î

+6 +9

ˆÙâ
≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛

+ 14 â)î≈l
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ˆÌˆÏܲ G âl#˲Ól
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l
+ 17 + 34
˛õ,!ÌÓ# myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ – 23 –9 –19

!ã˛e 9.2 : ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ÓyˆÏçê˛

82
65 ˲yà ï˛y˛õ ˙ 65 ˲yà ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §Ùyl Îy §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ @˝Ã•î
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~ˆÏܲ•z ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ÓyˆÏçê˛ xÌÓy ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ §Ùï˛y
Ó°y •Î˚–
~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z ¢!=˛Ó˚ ~ï˛ !Ó¢y° fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚î §ˆÏ_¥G ˛õ,!ÌÓ#
ˆÓ!¢ í˛z£÷ÏG •Î˚ ly xyÓyÓ˚ ¢#ï˛°G •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ly–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ÓyˆÏçˆÏê˛ !˲ߨï˛y åVariation in
the Net Heat Budget at the Earth’s Surfaceä ı
˛õ)ˆÓÏ •≈ z Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ˆÎñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ à,•#ï˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî
!˲ߨï˛y Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !ܲS%È xLjϢ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î xï˛ƒ!ôܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
!ܲS%È xLjϢ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏî âyê˛!ï˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
!ã˛e 9.3 ~ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x«˛yÇ¢àï˛ !˲ߨï˛yÎ˚
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §Ùï˛yˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !ã˛e!ê˛ˆÏï˛
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È 40 !í˛!@˝Ã í˛z_Ó˚ G ò!«˛î x«˛yLjϢ ˆÙyê˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
xï˛ƒ!ôܲ ~ÓÇ ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ xM˛°§Ù)•
!Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü˛Ù– í˛z£÷Ï Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ xï˛ƒ!ôܲ
ï˛y˛õ ˆÙÓ%̊Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˛õ%l/Ó!^˝ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ í˛z£÷Ï Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°
ï˛y˛õ §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî x!ôܲ í˛z£÷Ï •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ly xyÓyÓ˚G í˛zFã˛˛
x«˛yLjϢ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xï˛ƒ!ôܲ âyê˛!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ fiÌyÎ˚#˲yˆÏÓ !•Ùy!Î˚ï˛G
åFrozenä •Î˚ ly–
ï˛y˛õÙyey åTemperatureä ı
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛z_y˛õ §,!T˛ •Î˚ Îy
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ Ùy˛õy •Î˚– ˆÎáyˆÏl ï˛y˛õ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
350
300
xï˛ƒ!ôܲ
250
200
˛!ï˛
âyê
150
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
âyê
˛!ï˛
100
˛õy!Ì≈Ó !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
50
í˛z_Ó˚
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
x«˛yÇ¢
!ã˛e 9.3 : ˛ˆÙyê˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §Ùï˛yÓ˚ x«˛yÇ¢àï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
xyî!Óܲ à!ï˛ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ˆ§áyˆÏl ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó›
Óy fiÌyl ܲï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ í˛z£÷Ï Óy ¢#ï˛° ï˛y Ùy˛õy •Î˚ !í˛!@˝ÃˆÏï˛–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
˛ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !lÎ˚sfܲ§Ù)• åFactors Controlling
Temperature Distributionä ı
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚î myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛
•Î˚– ÎÌy ÈüÈ åiä fiÌyl!ê˛Ó˚ x«˛yÇ¢ åiiä fiÌyl!ê˛Ó˚ §Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ
í˛zFã˛ï˛y åiiiä §Ù%o ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚c ÈüÈ ÓyÎ%̊˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ §M˛y°l åivä í˛z£÷Ï
G ¢#ï˛° §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ åvä fiÌyl#Î˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚–
x«˛yÇ¢ åThe latitudeä ı ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˙
fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ à,•#ï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈•z
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ x«˛yÇ¢ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
ï˛yÓ˚ï˛Ùƒ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !˲ߨï˛y
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
í˛zFã˛ï˛y åThe altitudeä ı ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨hflÓÏ ˚ ˛õy!Ì≈Ó˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
myÓ˚y ˛õˆÏÓ˚y«˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ í˛z_Æ •Î˚– ˆ§çlƒ•z §Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛
fiÌyˆÏl xÓ!fiÌï˛ fiÌyl§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛
xÓ!fiÌï˛ fiÌyl§Ù)ˆÏ• ï˛y˛õÙyey x!ôܲ •Î˚– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏï˛
ˆàˆÏ°ñ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏ° í˛z£÷Ïï˛y •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– í˛zFã˛ï˛y
Ó,!Âô ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y •…y§ ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ •yÓ˚ˆÏܲ §yôyÓ˚î
ï˛y˛õ •…y§ ånormal lapse rateä ӈϰ– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ≤Ã!ï˛ 1,000
!Ùê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ 6.5°C ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ •…y§ ˛•Î˚–
§Ù%o ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚c åDistance from the seaä ı xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛
ܲyÓ˚î Îy ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y •Ï°
§Ù%o ˆÌˆÏܲ G•z fiÌyl!ê˛Ó˚ ò)Óc˚ – fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ §Ù%o ô#ˆÏÓ˚
ô#ˆÏÓ˚ àÓ˚Ù •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ë˛yu˛y •Î˚– fiÌ°Ë˛yà o%ï˛ àÓ˚Ù
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ ë˛yu˛yG •Î˚ o%ï˛– ˆ§ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•zñ fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚
§Ù%ˆoÏ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ !˲ߨï˛y Óy ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ– §Ù%o !lܲê˛Óï≈˛#
fiÌyl§Ù)ˆÏ• §Ù%o ~ÓÇ fiÌ°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !Ù!°ï˛ ˛≤Ã˲yÓ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ Îy
ï˛y˛õÙyeyˆÏܲ §Ù˲yÓy˛õߨ Ó˚yˆÏá–
ÓyÎ˚ % ˛ õ% O ~ÓÇ §Ù% o ˆÏ fl À y ï˛ å Air-mass and Ocean
currentsä ı fiÌ° ~ÓÇ §Ù%oÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ÓyÎ%̊˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ ã˛°yã˛°G
ï˛y˛õÙyeyˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ í˛z£Ï÷ ÓyÎ%̊˛õ%ˆO
Ï Ó˚ xhs˝àï≈ ˛ fiÌyl§Ù)ˆ•Ï
ò!«˛î í˛zFã˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ fiÌyl§Ù)ˆÏ•
ï˛y˛õÙyey Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ ¢#ï˛° §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚
xhs˝à≈ï˛ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°Óï≈˛# fiÌyl§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ í˛z£÷Ï §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚
xhs˝à≈ï˛ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°Óï≈˛# fiÌyl§Ù)ˆÏ• ï˛y˛õÙyey x!ôܲ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l åDistribution of Temperatureä ı
çyl%Îy˚ !Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ç%°y•zÈüÈ~Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó^˝ê˛l xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓñ˚ xyÙÓ˚y
!ÓŸªÓƒy˛õ# ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó^˝ê˛l §¡∫ˆÏrô Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏe
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îñ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ §Ùï˛y ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey 83

ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l §yôyÓ˚îï˛ §ˆÏÙy£÷ψÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆòáyˆÏly •Î˚–
§ˆÏ Ù y£÷ Ï ˆ Ï Ó ˚ á y •ˆÏ F SÈ G•z ˆÓ˚ á y Îy §Ùyl ï˛y˛õÙyey!Ó!¢T˛
fiÌyl§Ù)•ˆÏܲ ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ §ÇÎ%=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ã˛e 9.4 (a)
~ÓÇ (b)ÈüÈ~ çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ç%°y•z ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
ï˛y˛õÙyeyˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏe
§%flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ܲyÓ˚î §ˆÏÙy£÷ψÏÓ˚áyà%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãôylï˛
x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° •Î˚– ~•z §yôyÓ˚î ≤ÃÓîï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó§Ó˚î
Óy !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ ç%°y•z ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚
çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ ÙyˆÏ§ x!ôܲ §%flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ò!«˛î
ˆày°yˆÏôÓ≈ ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî x!ôܲ–
ï˛y•z ~áyˆÏl Ë)˛!Ù˲yà ~ÓÇ §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ §%flõT˛–
çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ §ˆÏÙy£÷ψÏÓ˚áy§Ù)• Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢ ò!«˛î !òˆÏܲ !Ó§!Ó˚ï˛ Óy !Óã%˛ƒï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~!ê˛ í˛z_Ó˚
xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– í˛z£÷Ï §Ù%oˆÏflÀyï˛ñ
í˛z˛õ§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˆflÀyï˛ åGulf Streamä ~ÓÇ í˛z_Ó˚ xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛
≤ÃÓy• •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî í˛z_Ó˚ xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚
x!ôܲ í˛z£Ï÷ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛Ìy §ˆÏÙy£÷ˆÏ ÓÏ á˚ y§Ù)• í˛z_Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆÓшÜÏ ˛ ÎyÎ˚–
fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏà ï˛y˛õÙyey o%ï˛•yˆÏÓ˚ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛õ
§ˆÏÙy£÷ψÏÓ˚áyà%ˆÏ°y ò!«˛î !òˆÏܲ ˆÓшÏܲ ÎyÎ˚–
§y•zˆÓÏ !Ó˚Îy˚ §ÙË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ~!ê˛ xyÓ˚G §%flõT˛– 600 ˛õ) oy!âÙyÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ 400 í˛z_Ó˚ G 500 í˛z_Ó˚ x«˛yLjϢ çyl%Îy˚ !Ó˚ ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚
àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey 20° C 刧°!§Î˚y§ä ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ˆÏï˛
àí˛¸ Ùy!§Ü˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ §Ù%ˆÏo 27° CÈüÈ~Ó˚ x!ôܲñ
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° 24° CÈüÈ~Ó˚ x!ôܲó Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢ 2°C ˆÌˆÏܲ
0° C ï˛Ìy •zí˛zˆÓÏ !˚ ¢Î˚yÓ˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ xhs˝≈˲yˆÏà ï˛y˛õÙyey –18°C
ˆÌˆÏܲ – 48°C ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏô≈ §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ §%flõT˛– ~áyˆÏl §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï
ˆÓ˚áyà%!° Ü˛ÙˆÏÓ!¢ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyàï˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛
•Î˚– 20° C, 10° C ~ÓÇ 0° C §ˆÏÙy£÷ψÏÓ˚áy§Ù)• ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
35° ò!«˛îñ 45° ò!«˛î ~ÓÇ 60° ò!«˛î x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Óy˚ ˆÏ°
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ç% ° y•z ÙyˆÏ § §ˆÏ Ù y£÷ Ï ˆ Ï Ó ˚ á y§Ù) • §yôyÓ˚ î ï˛ x«˛yÇˆÏ ¢ Ó˚
§Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ Óy !Ó£Ï%Ó#Î˚ §Ù%ˆÏo
ï˛y˛õÙyey 27°CÈüÈ~Ó˚ x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~!¢Î˚yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚

90° 0° 90° 180°

°C
-25°C

-25

-25°C
°C
-25
-12.5°C
.5°C
-12 °C
0°C 0
C
10°
10°C
20°C
20°C
30°C
0° !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy Óy !Ó£Ï%ÓˆÏÓ˚áy
°C

0°
30

ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !Ó£Ï%Ó ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !Ó£Ï%Ó

30°C 30°C
20°C 20°C

10°C
0°C 10°C

90° 0° 90° 180°

!ã˛e 9.4 (a) : ˛çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ ÙyˆÏ§ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l

84 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

90° 0° 90° 180°

10°C
0°C

10°C
30°C 10°C
20°C 30°C 20°C
ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !Ó£Ï%Ó
30°C
ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !Ó£Ï%Ó 30°C
0° 0°
!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy Óy !Ó£Ï%ÓˆÏÓ˚áy
20°
C
20°C
10°C
10°C

60°
90° 0° 90° 180°

!ã˛e 9.4 (b) : ˛ç%°y•z ÙyˆÏ§ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l

90° 0° °C 90° 180°

°C

°C
C
30°C

°C

20 0°C
30°

20

10
10

0° C
50° 6 C
30°
C 40° C 30°
C 40° C
C 20°
20°
C C
10°
C 10°
3°C
30°C 3°C

0° 0°
!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy Óy !Ó£Ï%ÓˆÏÓ˚áy 3°C
3°C
20°C 20°C

10°C
60°
10°C
90° 0° 90° 180°

!ã˛e 9.5 : ˛çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ç%°y•z ÙyˆÏ§ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚

ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îñ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ §Ùï˛y ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey
Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ 30° í˛z_Ó˚ x«˛yÇ¢ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
ï˛y˛õÙyey È30°CüÈ~Ó˚ x!ôܲ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– 40° í˛z_Ó˚ x«˛yÇ¢
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ §ˆÏÙy£÷ψÏÓ˚áy 10° C ~ÓÇ 40° ò!«˛î x«˛yÇˆÏ ¢
ï˛y˛õÙyey 10° C ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
!ã˛e 9.5 ~ çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ç%°y•z ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– §Ó≈y!ôܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚!¢Î˚y
Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ÈüÈ˛õ)Óy≈ LjϢ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ Îy 600CÈüÈ~Ó˚ x!ôܲ–
~Ó˚ Ù)° ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏFSÈ ÚÙ•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ï˛yÛ åcontinentalityä–
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ Îy 3°C Îy 20° ò!«˛î ~ÓÇ
15° í˛z_Ó˚ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ åInversion of Temperatureä ı
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ï˛y˛õÙyey •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ~ˆÏܲ
fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ï˛y˛õÙyey •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ •yÓ˚ ӈϰ– !ܲv ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ÙÎ˚
~•z xÓfiÌyÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛G •Î˚ ~ÓÇ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ï˛y˛õ •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ •yÓ˚
!Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~ˆÏܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ ӈϰ– ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ x“ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ çlƒ •Î˚ !ܲv ~!ê˛ á%Ó•z §yÙylƒ âê˛ly–
~ܲ ò#â≈ ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°#l ˆÙâÙ%=˛ Ó˚yï˛ ~ÓÇ ¢yhs˝ ÓyÎ˚% ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ˆÏï˛ƒÓ˚
çlƒ xyò¢≈ ˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌ!ï˛– !òˆÏl ≤ÃyÆ ï˛y˛õ Ó˚yˆÏï˛ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆË˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !òˆÏܲ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌï˛ ÓyÎ%̊ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛
x!ôܲ ¢#ï˛° •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° §yÓ˚y ÓSÈÓ˚ ç%ˆÏí˛¸
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ ~ܲ §yÙylƒ âê˛ly–
xl%¢#°l#
1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚ ÓySÈy•z ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
(i) !lˆÏ¡¨ Ó!î≈ï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ 21 ç%l ò%˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚ §)Î≈ °¡∫˲yˆÏÓ !ܲÓ˚î ˆòÎ˚⁄
(a) !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÎ˚
(b) 23.5° ò!«˛î
(ii) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ¢•Ó˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò#â≈ï˛Ù !òl ˆÜ˛yÌyÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚⁄
(a) !ï˛Ó˚%Ólhs˝˛õ%Ó˚Ù
(b) ã˛[˛#àí˛¸
85
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛#Î˚ ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ï˛y Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ–˚
ˆôÑ y Î˚ y G ô) ! °Ü˛îy ˜Ó˛õÓ˚ # ï˛ƒ hflÏ ˆ Ï Ó ˚ Ó ˚ l#ˆÏ ã ˛ ~ܲ!eï˛ •ˆÏ Î ˚
xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨hflÏÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚˛õ)î≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ° §Ü˛yˆÏ° âl Ü%˛Î˚y¢yÓ˚
§,!T˛ •Î˚ñ Îy á%Ó•z §yôyÓ˚î âê˛ly– ~•z ˜ÏÓ˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ !ܲS%È â^˝ê˛yÓ˚
çlƒ fiÌyÎ˚# •Î˚ó §)Î≈ í˛zòÎ˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# í˛z_Æ
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ~•z ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ ˆ¢£Ï •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ˛õy•yí˛¸ G
˛õÓ≈ï˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚% ˲yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ !l‹Òy!¢ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ ˜Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ƒ
§Çâ!ê˛ï •Î˚– ˛õy•yí˛¸ G ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛ Ó˚yˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆÓ°yÎ˚ §,!T˛ •GÎ˚y
¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊ Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
˲yÓ˚# ~ÓÇ âl •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚% ˛≤ÃyÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y
xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì˛y° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ~ˆÏ§ à•¥Ó˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õï˛ƒyܲyÓ˚
l#ˆÏã˛ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ à˲#Ó˚˲yˆÏÓ hfl)Ï˛õ#Ü,˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~ˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%
!l‹Òy¢l åair drainageä ӈϰ– ~!ê˛ í˛z!qòˆÏܲ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚˛õyï˛
ç!lï˛ «˛!ï˛Ó˚ •yï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó˚«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚–
l ≤’ƒyAܲÈüÈ~Ó˚ l#!ï˛ !ÓÓ,!ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó›
Îï˛•z í˛z _ Æ Óy àÓ˚ Ù •ˆÏ Ó ï˛y ï˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢ ¢!=˛
!Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ G•z !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà˜Ïòâ≈ƒ
ï˛ï˛•z Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÓ–
l xyˆÏ ˛ õ!«˛Ü˛ ï˛y˛õ •Ï ° ~ܲ @˝ à yÙ ˛õòyˆÏ Ì ≈ Ó ˚
ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ܲ ˆ§°!§Î˚ y § ˛õÎ≈ h s˝ Ó, ! Âô ܲÓ˚ y Ó˚
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛–
(c) 23.5° í˛z_Ó˚
(d) 66.5° í˛z_Ó˚
(c) •yÎ˚oyÓyò
(d) lyà˛õ%Ó˚
86 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

(iii) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° Ù%áƒï˛ í˛z_Æ •Î˚⁄

(a) «%˛o ï˛Ó˚Aà ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î (c) ò#â≈ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˛õy!Ì≈Ó !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
(b) ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î (d) !Ó!«˛Æ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
(iv) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ò%!ê˛ hflψÏΩ˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §!ë˛Ü˛ ˆçyí˛¸y ˆÙ°yG ı
(i) !Ó!ܲÓ˚î (a) í˛z£÷Ïï˛Ù G ¢#ï˛°ï˛Ù ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ–
(ii) xƒy°ˆÏÓˆÏí˛y (b) §Ùyl ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ%=˛ fiÌyl§Ù)•ˆÏܲ Î%!=˛Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy–
(iii) §ˆÏÙy£÷ψÏÓ˚áy (c) xyàï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î–
(iv) Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ≤çÓ˚ (d) ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó› myÓ˚y ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ ò,¢ƒÙyl xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y •yÓ˚–

(v) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ï˛y˛õÙyey x!ôܲ •GÎ˚yÓ˚
Ù)° ܲyÓ˚î ı
(a) !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛° xˆÏ˛õ«˛y í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ˆÙâyFSÈߨï˛y Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ–
(b) í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° !òˆÏlÓ˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚–
(c) í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° Ú!@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ ≤Ã˲yÓÛ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛° xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ–
(d) í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛° !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛–
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Ü˛Ù˛õˆÏ«˛ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ fiÌyl G ܲy°ˆÏ˲ˆÏò ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ x§Ù Ó^˝ê˛l ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ xyÓ•yGÎ˚y G ç°ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚⁄
(ii) Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !lÎ˚sfܲ§Ù)• ܲ# ܲ#⁄
(iii) ˲yÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˆÙ ÙyˆÏ§ ï˛y˛õÙyey §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ !ܲv í˛z_Ó˚yÎ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey x!ôܲ ÌyˆÏܲ ly– ˆÜ˛l⁄
(iv) §y•zˆÏÓ!Ó˚Î˚y §ÙË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ x!ôܲ ÌyˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛l⁄
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Ü˛Ù˛õˆÏ«˛ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) x«˛yÇ¢ ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !lç xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ˆ•°yˆÏly xÓfiÌy ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ Ë)˛˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ à,•#ï˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyeyˆÏܲ
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚⁄
(ii) ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ï˛Ìy ~Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ˆÜ˛yl‰ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ §Ùï˛y ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá ï˛y xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iii) çyl%Îy˚ !Ó˚ ÙyˆÏ§ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ G ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏôÓ≈ ˚ !ÓŸªÓƒy˛õ# ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
ï%˛!Ù ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ ¢•ˆÏÓ˚ xÌÓy ¢•ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÓ•yGÎ˚y ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛îyàyÓ˚ !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛îyàyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% §¡∫rô#Î˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y ï˛y˛õÙyey !Ó£ÏÎ˚ܲ ï˛ÌƒˆÏܲ ï˛y!°Ü˛yÓÂô ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(i) ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛îyàyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yñ x«˛yÇ¢ ~ÓÇ ˆ§•z §ÙÎ˚ܲy° !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ˆÎ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ àí˛¸ àîly ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îñ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ §Ùï˛y ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey 87

(ii) §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y ˛ï˛y˛õÙyey §¡∫rô#Î˚ ¢∑§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §ÇK˛y !lÓ˚)˛õî ܲˆÏÓ˚y–

(iii) ~ܲ ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ !òˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ àí˛¸ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iv) ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ°á!ã˛ˆÏe ågraphä ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ˜ò!lܲ àí˛¸ñ §Ó≈!l¡¨ ˜ò!lܲ àí˛¸ ~ÓÇ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyeyˆÏܲ xAܲl ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(v) Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(vi) ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ÙyˆÏ§ ˜ò!lܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˛≤çÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ~ÓÇ §Ó≈!l¡¨ ï˛y ˆÓÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(vii) ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey !lô≈yÓ˚îܲyÓ˚# ܲyÓ˚î§Ù)• ~ÓÇ çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ñ ˆÙñ ç%°y•z G xˆÏQyÓÓ˚ ÙyˆÏ§ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ !˲ߨï˛yÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚î§Ù)• ï˛y!°Ü˛yË%˛=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î
˛õÎ≈ˆÓÏ «˛îyàyÓ˚ : lï%˛l !ò!Õ‘ å§Ê˛òÓ˚çÇä
x«˛yÇ¢ : 28°35' í˛z_Ó˚
˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛îÈüÈ~Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ܲy° : 1951 - 1980
§Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ àí˛¸ í˛zFã˛ï˛y : 216 !Ùê˛yÓ˚

Ùy§ ˜ò!lܲ §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ ˜ò!lܲ §Ó≈!l¡¨ §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ §Ó≈!l¡¨

ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ï˛y˛õÙyey
àí˛¸ (°C) àí˛¸ (°C) (°C) (°C)
çyl%Îy˚ !Ó˚ 21.1 7.3 29.3 0.6
ˆÙ 39.6 25.9 47.2 17.5

~ܲ ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˜ò!lܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ àí˛¸

21.1+7.3
çyl%Îy˚ !Ó˚ 2
= 14.2OC

39.6+25.9
ˆÙ 2
= 32.75OC

Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚

ˆÙ ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey ÈüÈ çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey
Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ = 32.75°C – 14.2°C = 18.55°C
x ôƒy Î˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛y°l ~ÓÇ
xyÓ•yGÎ˚yàï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)•
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
AND WEATHER SYSTEMS

˛õ) ˆÏÓ≈ lÓÙ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ x§ÙÓ^˝ê˛l

§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ÓyÎ˚% í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚
~ÓÇ ë˛yu˛yÎ˚ §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~!ê˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛y˛õ ˜Ó!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚
Ê˛°yÊ˛°– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ÓyÎ˚% à!ï˛¢#° •Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ
!l¡¨ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ à!ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y •zˆÏï˛yÙˆÏôƒ
ˆçˆÏlSÈ ˆÎñ xl%˲) !Ùܲ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ÓyÎ%̊ •Ï° Óyï˛y§– ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚
í˛zayl Óy xÓlÙl ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛°#Î˚ ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ ÓyÎ˚≤% ÃÓy•
myÓ˚y ï˛y˛õ G xyo≈ï˛y ˛õ%l/Ó!^˝ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §yÓ˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
x!ÓÓ˚ï˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey ÓçyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– xyo≈ ÓyÎ˚% G˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zˆÏë˛ ë˛yu˛y
•ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÙâ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õîÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆlˆÏÙ xyˆÏ§– ~•z
xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚îñ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚
§M˛y°l !lÎ˚sîf ܲyÓ˚# !Ó£ÏÎñ˚ ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ â)îl≈ ˛õÂô!ï˛ñ ÓyÎ˚˛% õ%ˆO
Ï Ó˚ àë˛lñ
!Ó!˲ߨ ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ !Ó˛õòçlܲ xyÓ•yGÎ˚y
~ÓÇ !ÓôÁǧ# Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ V˛í˛¸ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛y˛õ åATMOSPHERIC PRESSUREä ı
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ çyl ˆÎ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ¢Ó˚#Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚ã% ˛y˛õ myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚⁄
Î!ò ˆÜ˛í˛z í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ í˛zë˛ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ál í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ï˛yÓ˚ Ÿªy§ !lˆÏï˛
x§%!Óôy •Î˚–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛y˛õ åatmospheric pressureä Ó°ˆÏï˛
àí˛¸ §Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛zôÁ≈§#Ùy ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~ܲ ~ܲܲ
ˆ«˛eÊ˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%hflψÏΩ˛Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲ åweightä ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
~ܲܲˆÏ Ü ˛ ˛õy§Ü˛ƒy° å Pascal Óy Pa ä myÓ˚ y Óy !Ù!°ÓyÓ˚
åMilibarä myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ àí˛¸ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚
ã˛y˛õ •Ï° 1,013.2 !Ù!°ÓyÓ˚– Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚
ܲyˆÏSÈ ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ âlc ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y•z í˛zFã˛ ã˛y˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ÓyÎ%̊ ã˛y˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyÓ˚ò åmercuryä ÓƒyˆÏÓy˚ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ åBarometerä
Óy xƒyˆÏlyˆÏÎ˚í˛ ÓƒyˆÏÓ˚y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ åAneroid barometerä ~Ó˚
§y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ÓƒyÓ•y!Ó˚ܲ Ë)˛ˆÏày° ÈüÈ Ë˛yà 1 (NCERT, 2006)
Ó•z!ê˛ ˆòˆÏáy ~ÓÇ ~•z Îsfàˆ% ° Ï y §¡õˆÏܲ≈ ˆ¢ˆÏáy– ÓyÎ%̊ã˛y˛õ í˛zFã˛ï˛y
Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ~ܲ•z í˛zFã˛ï˛y!Ó!¢T˛ !Ó!˲ߨ fiÌyˆÏl
ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z !Ó!˲ߨï˛y•z ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
à!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl ܲyÓ˚îñ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ÓyÎ˚% í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ xM˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ
!l¡¨ã˛y˛õ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l åVertical Variation of
Pressure ä ı
!l¡¨ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà o%ï˛ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–
í˛zFã˛ï˛y ≤Ã!ï˛ 10 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛ ÓyÎ%̊ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ≤ÃyÎ˚
1 mb •Î˚– ~ê˛y §Ó§ÙÎ˚ ~ܲ•z •yˆÏÓ˚ •…y§˛ ˛õyÎ˚ ly– ~ܲ!ê˛
!l!ò≈T˛ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyò¢≈ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ àí˛¸ ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ
ï˛y˛õÙyeyˆÏܲ §yÓ˚!î 10.1-~ ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
§yÓ˚!î 10.1 ı !l!ò≈T˛ hflψÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyî ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey
hflÓÏ ˚ ã˛y˛õ åmbä ï˛y˛õÙyey å°Cä
§Ù%ohflÓÏ ˚ 1,013.25 15.2
1 km 898.76 8.7
5 km 540.48 –17. 3
10 km 265.00 – 49.7
í˛zÕ‘¡∫ ÓyÎ%̊ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ÓyÎ%̊ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y°
xˆÏ˛õ«˛y xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– !ܲv ~Ó˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚
Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï ≈ # Î˚ Ó° myÓ˚ y ~Ó˚ ˲yÓ˚ § yÙƒ ÓçyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏ Ü ˛– ï˛y•z ñ
|ôÁ≈àyÙ# ÓyÎ˚% x!ôܲ ¢!=˛¢y°# •Î˚ ly–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛y°l ~ÓÇ xyÓ•yGÎ˚yàï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• 89

xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l åHorizontal Distribution of ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yàï˛ ≤Ã˲yÓˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ~ÓÇ
Pressureä ı ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÓ˚ í˛zˆÏjˆÏ¢ƒ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆfiê˛¢ˆÏl
ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ !òܲ ~ÓÇ à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆ≤Ï Ã!«˛ˆÏï˛ ÓyÎ˚ã% ˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y §Ù%oï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲ!ÙˆÏÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒG xï˛ƒhs˝ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ !Ó£ÏÎ˚– ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ §Ù%oï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l xyÓ•yGÎ˚yÓ˚ Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏe
ˆòáyˆÏly •Î˚–
í˛zFã˛ !ã˛e 10.1-~ !Ó!˲ߨ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §ÙˆÏ≤Ã£Ï ˆÓ˚áy
Óy §Ùã˛y˛õ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ åisobarsä xyÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
!l¡¨ã˛y˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛w!ê˛ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õÎ%=˛ §Ùã˛y˛õ
x«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy ê˛∆yʉ˛ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ COL !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ ˆÓ˚áy myÓ˚y xyÓÂô ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ åHigh pressure
systemä ˆÜ˛w!ê˛ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õÎ%=˛ §Ùã˛y˛õ ˆÓ˚áy
˜¢°!¢Ó˚y myÓ˚y xyÓÂô ÌyˆÏܲ–
í˛zFã˛
§Ù%oï˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !ÓŸªÓ^˝ê˛l åWorld Distribution of
!ã˛e 10.1 : í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ §ÙˆÏ≤Ã£Ï ˆÓ˚áyñ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ Sea Level Pressure ä ı
Óy%Î˚≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y çyl%Îy˚ !Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ç%°y•z ÙyˆÏ§ §Ù%oï˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚ã% ˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !ÓŸªÓ^˝ê˛l !ã˛e
Ó^˝ê˛l x˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l#Î˚ hflψÏÓ˚ §ÙˆÏ≤ãψÏÓ˚áy Óy §Ùã˛y˛õ ˆÓ˚áy 10.2 ~ÓÇ 10.3ÈüÈ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ
åIsobarä xAܲˆÏlÓ˚ myÓ˚y xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– §ÙˆÏ≤ãψÏÓ˚áy •Ï° §Ù%oï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ Ü˛Ù •GÎ˚yÎ˚ xM˛°!ê˛ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ
~Ùl ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÓ˚áy Îy §Ùã˛y˛õÎ%=˛ xM˛°§Ù)•ˆÏܲ Î%=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– åEquatorial Lowä !•§yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ •Î˚– 300 í˛z_Ó˚ ~ÓÇ

!ã˛e 10.2 : ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l å!Ù!°ÓyˆÏÓ˚ä ÈüÈ çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚

90
!ã˛e 10.3 : ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l å!Ù!°ÓyˆÏÓ˚ä ÈüÈ ç%°y•z
300 ò!«˛Ïî x«˛yLjϢ í˛zFã˛ ã˛y˛õ xM˛° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ӈϰ ~•z í˛zFã˛
ã˛y˛õÎ%=˛ xM˛°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ í˛z˛õÈüÈÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ åSubtropical
highsä !•§yˆÏÓ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– xyÓyÓ˚ ˆÙÓ˚%≤ÈÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
60 0 í˛z É ~ÓÇ 60 0 òÉ x«˛yÇˆÏ ¢ Ó˚ !l¡¨ ã ˛y˛õ Ó°Î˚ à % ˆ Ï ° yˆÏ Ü ˛
ˆÙÓ˚%ˆÏò¢#Î˚ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ Ó°Î˚ åSubpolar lowsä Ó°y •Î˚–
ˆÙÓ˚%≤ÈÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ í˛zFã˛ •ˆÏ° ï˛ál ~!ê˛ ˆÙÓ˚%Ó,_#Î˚
í˛z F ã˛ã˛y˛õ å Polar high ä !•§yˆÏ Ó ˛õ!Ó˚ ! ã˛ï˛ •Î˚ – ~•z
ã˛y˛õÓ°Î˚à%ˆÏ°y xfiÌyÎ˚# ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ xy˛õyï˛ à!ï˛
myÓ˚y xyˆÏ®y!°ï˛ •Î˚– í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ° ~à%ˆÏ°y ò!«˛î
!òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° í˛z_Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ~ÓÇ !òܲ !lÓ˚)˛õˆÏî ≤Ã˲yÓܲyÓ˚# Ó°§Ù)•
åForces Affecting the Velocity and Direction
of Windä ı
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y •zˆÏï˛yÙˆÏôƒ ˆçˆÏlÏSÈ ˆÎñ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ ÓyÎ%̊ à!ï˛¢#° •Î˚– ~•z≤ÃܲyÓ˚ à!ï˛¢#° ÓyÎ%̊ˆÜÏ ˛ ÓyÎ%̊≤ÃÓy•
ӈϰ– ÓyÎ%̊≤ÃÓy• í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ !l¡¨ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ôÓ˚yï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî â£Ï≈î §,!T˛ •Î˚– ~SÈyí˛¸y
˛õ, ! ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÓï≈ ˛ l à!ï˛ G ÓyÎ˚ % ≤ ÃÓyˆÏ • Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏ Ü ˛ å wind
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
movementä ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÓï≈˛lç!lï˛ Ó° Îy
ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° åCoriolis forceä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ xl%˲) !Ùܲ ÓyÎ˚≤% ÃÓy• !ï˛l!ê˛ ÓˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùß∫Îç
˚ !lï˛
Ê˛°– ~à%ˆÏ°y •° ÈüüüÈ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y°ç!lï˛ Ó° åpressure
gradient forceäñ â£Ï≈îç!lï˛ Ó° åfrictional forceä ~ÓÇ
ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° åCoriolis forceä– ~SÈyí˛¸yñ Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ Ó°
ågravitational forceä ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy•ˆÏܲ !l¡¨Ù%á# ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y°ç!lï˛ Ó° åPressure Gradient
Forceäı
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !˲ߨï˛y ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó° åforceä í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ò)Óˆ˚ cÏ Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ï˛y° !Ù!°ˆÏÎ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛ Ó°y •Î˚
ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y° åpressure gradientä– ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y°
¢!=˛¢y°# •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl §Ùã˛y˛õ ˆÓ˚áyà%ˆÏ°y åisobarsä ~ˆÏܲ
x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ò%Ó≈° •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl §Ùã˛y˛õ
ˆÓ˚áyà%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
â£Ï≈îç!lï˛ Ó° åFrictional Forceä ı
~!ê˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° §Ó≈y!ôܲ •Î˚
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛y°l ~ÓÇ xyÓ•yGÎ˚yàï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)•
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ 3 !ܲˆÏ°y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝
!Óhfl,Ïï˛– §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ â£Ï≈î l)ƒlï˛Ù •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° åCoriolis Forceä ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛–
1844 §yˆÏ° Ê˛Ó˚y!§ ˛õòyÌ≈!Óò ~•z Ó° §¡õˆÏܲ≈ Óî≈ly ˆòl ~ÓÇ
~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~•z Ó°!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° åCoriolis Forceä
Ó°y •Î˚– ~!ê˛ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏô≈
ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• !Ó!«˛Æ ådeflectä •Î˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !ӈϫ˛˛õî
ï˛ál•z x!ôܲ •Î˚ Îál ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà í˛zFã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§
Ó° x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚ §Ùyl%˛õyˆÏï˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ~!ê˛ ˆÙÓ%̊ˆÏÓ˚áyÎ˚
§ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÎ˚ xl%˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ#Î˚ ì˛y°ç!lï˛ ÓˆÏ°Ó˚ §ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî
ܲyç ˛Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ ÓyÎ˚ã% ˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y°ç!lï˛ Ó° §ÙˆÏ≤Ã£Ï ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî
ÌyˆÏܲ– ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y°ç!lï˛ Ó° åpressure gradient
forceä í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ •ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ !ӈϫ˛˛õî Ó,•_Ó˚ •Î˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° ~•z ò%•z!ê˛ Ó°
~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚yÎ˚ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ xM˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%
~Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° ¢)lƒ
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏ≤Ã£Ï ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ
Ó°Î˚!ê˛ ˆçyÓ˚òyÓ˚ •Î˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ •z Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)!î≈V˛í˛¸ !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓá˚ yÓ˚
!lܲˆÏê˛ àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏë˛ ly–
ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• åPressure and Windä ı
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ~ÓÇ !òܲ!ê˛ •° ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y í˛zͲõy!òï˛ ÓˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛
Ê˛°yÊ˛°– Ë)˛˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ 2-3 !ܲ!ÙÉ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
ÈCüÈ ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó°
ÈVüÈ Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ÓyÎ˚%
ÈPHüÈ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y°
í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yô≈
ò!«˛î ˆày°yô≈
!ã˛e 10.4 : Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ÓyÎ˚%
§yÓ˚!î 10.2 : â)î≈Óyï˛ ~ÓÇ ≤Ãï˛#˛õ â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ ôÓ˚l
ÓyÎ%̊ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛ˆÏw ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
xÓfiÌy
â)î≈Óyï˛ !l¡¨
≤Ãï˛#˛õ â)î≈Óyï˛ í˛zFã˛
91
ÓyÎ˚% Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ â£Ï≈î#Î˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ≤Ãôylï˛
ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y° ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚– Îál
§ÙˆÏ≤ãψÏÓ˚áy ˆ§yçy •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly â£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ÌyˆÏܲ lyñ
ï˛ál ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y°ç!lï˛ Ó°!ê˛ ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° myÓ˚y ˲yÓ˚§yÙƒ
ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ%̊ §ÙˆÏ≤Ã£Ï ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Óy˚ ˆÏ° ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
•Î˚– ~•z ÓyÎ%̊ Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ÓyÎ%̊ ågeostrophic windä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛
å!ã˛e 10.4ä–
!l¡¨ã˛y˛õ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ ÓyÎ˚% §M˛y°lˆÏܲ â)î≈Óyï˛ §M˛y°l
åcyclonic circulation ä Ó°y •Î˚– í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~Ó˚)˛õ
•ˆÏ ° ~ˆÏ Ü ˛ ≤Ãï˛#˛õ â) î ≈ Ó yï˛ §M˛y°l å anti cyclonic
circulationä Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z ˛≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !òܲ !lˆÏò≈¢ly ò%•z
ˆày°yˆÏô≈ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl xl%ÎyÎ˚# !Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚ å§yÓ˚!î 10.2 ä–
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ xˆÏlܲ §ÙÎ˚ í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ Óy !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚
ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ ÓyÎ˚% §M˛y°l Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ÓyÎ˚% §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ •Î˚– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ñ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%
≤Ã!ï˛§Ó˚î x!˲§Ó˚î
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛
x!˲§Ó˚î ≤Ã!ï˛§Ó˚î
!l¡¨ã˛y˛õ í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ
!ã˛e 10.5 : ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ x!˲§Ó˚î ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!ï˛§Ó˚î
âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ |ôÁ≈àyÙ# •Î˚– í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚% í˛z˛õÓ˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˛xÓl!Ùï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢ ≤Ã!ï˛§y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚
å!ã˛e 10.5ä– x!˲§Ó˚î åconvergenceä SÈyí˛¸yG !ܲS%È ≤Ã!ï˛Ü)˛°
ˆflÀyï˛ åeddiesäñ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyï˛ åconvection currentsäñ
˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ì˛y° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ í˛zˆÏ_y°l åorographic upliftä ~ÓÇ §#Ùyhs˝
åfrontsä ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ í˛zˆÏ_y°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚% |ôÁ≈àyÙ# •Î˚ñ Îy ˆÙâ
~ÓÇ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ åprecipitationä çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°l åGeneral circulation of
the atmosphereä ı
!lÎ˚ï˛ ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ åplanetary windsä ôÓ˚l åpatternä xˆÏlܲyLjϢ
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ı åiä ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ x«˛yÇ¢àï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ ôÓ˚l
í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yô≈ ò!«˛î ˆày°yô≈
â!í˛¸Ó˚ ÜÑ˛yê˛yÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ â!í˛¸Ó˚ ÜÑ˛yê˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ
â!í˛¸Ó˚ ÜÑ˛yê˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ â!í˛¸Ó˚ ÜÑ˛yê˛yÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ
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í˛z˛õÓ˚ åiiä ã˛y˛õÓ°ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ åpressure beltsä í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ åiiiä §)ˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚
xy˛õyï˛ à!ï˛ xl%§Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ Ó°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy˛õl åivä
ˆÙÓ˚% ˲ˆÏê˛≈:
ˆÙÓ˚% ˆÜ˛y¢
˛õ%Óy!° ˆÙÓ˚% ˛ÓyÎ˚%
ˆÙÓ˚% ˆçê !fiê˛∆Ù
˛õ!Ÿã˛ÙyÓyÎ˚% ˆÊ˛ˆÏÓ˚°
ˆÜ˛y¢
í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚
ˆ•í˛ˆÏ° ˆçê˛ !fiê˛∆Ù
í˛z_Ó˚ÈüÈ˛õ)Ó≈ ÓyÎ˚% ˆÜ˛y¢
!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓá˚ y
ò!«˛îÈüÈ˛õ)Ó≈ ÓyÎ%̊
˛õ!Ÿã˛ÙyÓyÎ˚%
˛õ%Óy!° ˆÙÓ˚% ˛ÓyÎ˚%
!ã˛e 10.6 : ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ó˚°#Ü,˛ï˛ §yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°l
Ù•yˆÏò¢ åcontinentsä ~ÓÇ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ åoceansä Ó^˝ê˛l åvä
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÓï≈˛l– !lÎ˚ï˛ ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ à!ï˛Ó˚ åmovementä ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°l ågeneral circulation of
the atmosphereä ӈϰ– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°l
§Ù%ˆoÏ Ó˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢ˆÏܲ à!ï˛¢#° ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆï˛yˆÏ° Îy ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚ˆ% ÜÏ ˛
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– §yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ!“ï˛ Óî≈ly !ã˛e
È10.6üÈ~ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •Î˚–
ÓyÎ˚% xyhs˝/Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ §!¡ø°l xM˛ˆÏ° åInter Tropical
Convergence Zone - ITCZ ä í˛z F ã˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ î
åinsolationä ~ÓÇ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° G˛õˆÏÓ˚
í˛zˆÏë˛ ÎyÎ˚– !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓyÎ%̊ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ xM˛ˆÏ° âl#Ë)˛ï˛
•Î˚– âl#Ë)˛ï˛ ÓyÎ%̊ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆÜ˛y¢ åconvective cellä ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ GˆÏ벖 ~!ê˛ 14 !ܲ!Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ ê˛∆ˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ åtropo-
sphereä í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚– ≤ÃyÎ˚
300 í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚% ~ܲ!eï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ~•z
~ܲ!eï˛ ÓyÎ˚% ò!«˛î !òˆÏܲ ≤â!Ùï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚
í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ åsubtropical highä àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˛≤â!Ùï˛ åsinkingä
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ˚î •° 300 í˛z_Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î x«˛yLjϢ
ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ¢#ï˛°#ܲÓ˚î– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
ÓyÎ˚%!ê˛ ˛˛õ%Óy!° ÓyÎ˚% åeasterliesä È~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚
åequatorä !òˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ x˛õÓ˚ ˛õy¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ
˛õ%Óy!° ÓyÎ˚% xyhs˝/Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ §!¡ø°l xM˛ˆÏ° åITCZä x!˲/§,ï˛
åConvergeä •Î˚– ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ í˛zˆÏŒê˛y˲yˆÏÓ ~•z
ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ §M˛y°lˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛y¢ åcellsä Ó°y •Î˚– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ~•z
ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛y¢ˆÏܲ ˆ•í˛ˆÏ° ˆÜ˛y¢ åHadley Cellä Ó°y •Î˚–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
ÙôƒÓï≈ ˛ # x«˛yÇˆÏ ¢ ˆÙÓ˚ % ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ ≤â!Ùï˛ ë˛yu˛y ÓyÎ˚ % ~ÓÇ
í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z£Ï÷ ÓyÎ%̊ §M˛y!°ï˛ •Î˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ ~•z
ÓyÎ˚%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ÿã˛ÙyÓyÎ˚ % å westerliesä Ó°y •Î˚– ~ÓÇ
ˆÜ˛y¢!ê˛ ˆÊ˛ˆÏÓ˚° ˆÜ˛y¢ åFerrel cellä !•§yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ˆÙÓ%̊
x«˛yLjϢ ë˛yu˛y âl ÓyÎ%̊!ê˛ ˆÙÓ%̊Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ¢yhs˝ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ
ˆÙÓ˚% ˛˛õ%Óy!° ÓyÎ˚% åpolar easterliesä !•§yˆÏÓ ÙôƒÓï≈˛#
x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ÓˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ˆÜ˛y¢!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆÙÓ˚%ˆÏܲy¢ åpolar
celläG Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆÜ˛y¢ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î
§M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ôÓ˚l !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– !l¡¨ x«˛yÇ¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛
x«˛yLjϢ ï˛y˛õ¢!=˛Ó˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ åtransfer of heat energyä
§yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°lˆÏܲ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°l Ù•y§yàÓ˚ˆÏܲG ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛
ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ó,•Í ÙyeyÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy•Ùyl ÓyÎ%̊ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ô#Ó˚
~ÓÇ x!ôܲ ¢!=˛¢y°# §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ G˛õˆÏÓ˚G ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚– x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚
ˆÎyàyl ˆòÎ˚– ~•z !ÙÌ!fl;Îy˚ åinteractionä Ù•y§yàˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
ÓˆÏí˛¸y xLjϢ á%Ó ô#Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°l ~ÓÇ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ~Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ
≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛°ï˛y §yôyÓ˚î
ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe á%Ó•z à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈– Ùôƒ ≤âyhs˝
Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ï ç° ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚
í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ë˛yu˛y ˆ˛õÓ%̊ ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
åPeruvian currentä ~!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ •Î˚– ˆ˛õÓ%̊ í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°
í˛z£÷Ï çˆÏ°Ó˚ ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ Ú~° !lˆÏlyÛ åEl Ninoä
!•§yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ~•z å~° !lˆÏlyä âê˛ly!ê˛ Ùôƒ ≤âyhs˝
Ù•y§yàÓ˚ åCentral Pacificä G xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚yÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ â!l¤˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ç!í˛¸ï˛– ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚
xM˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l!ê˛ ò!«˛î# xyˆÏ®y°l
åsouthern oscillationä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ò!«˛î# xyˆÏ®y°l
~ÓÇ ~° !lˆÏlyÓ˚ ˆÎÔÌ âê˛ly!ê˛ ENSO !•§yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛
•Î˚– ˆÎ ÓSÈÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ENSO ¢!=˛¢y°# •Î˚ñ ˆ§•z
ÓSÈÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛˛ !ÓŸªç%ˆÏí˛¸ xyÓ•yGÎ˚yÓ˚ ÓˆÏí˛¸y ÙyeyÓ˚ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ
˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚– ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ¢%‹Ò ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ùy í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°
˲yÓ˚# Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ñ xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚y ~ÓÇ Ü˛áˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛
áÓ˚y ~ÓÇ !ã˛ˆÏl Ólƒy ˆòáy ˆòÎ˚– ~•z âê˛ly!ê˛ à˲#Ó˚˲yˆÏÓ
˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl xÇ¢à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ò#â≈
˛õ!Ó˚§ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈y˲yˆÏ§Ó˚ çlƒ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛y°l ~ÓÇ xyÓ•yGÎ˚yàï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)•
ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ÓyÎ˚% åSeasonal Windä ı
!Ó!˲ߨ fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ ï˛y˛õñ ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚% Ó°ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÓÏ Ó˚ ˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !Ó!˲ߨ }ï%˛ˆÏï˛ ÓyÎ˚% §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ôÓ˚ˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚– Ó£Ï≈yܲyˆÏ° !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ ò!«˛îÈüÈ˛õ)Ó≈ ~!¢Î˚yÎ˚ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ §%flõT˛ ≤Ã˲yÓ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
˲yÓ˚ï˛ı≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ (India:Physical Environment)
(NCERT, 2006) Ó•zˆÏÎ˚ ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ÓyÎ˚% §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ÓhflÏy!Ó˚ï˛
xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ– §yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°l ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ xlƒylƒ fiÌyl#Î˚
!Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛à%ˆÏ°y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !lˆÏ¡¨ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Ï°–
fiÌyl#Î˚ ÓyÎ˚% åLocal Windsä ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏàÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y åheatingä ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛°#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
§Ù%o ÓyÎ˚%
fiÌ° ÓyÎ%̊
!ã˛e 10.7 : fiÌ°ÓyÎ˚% ~ÓÇ §Ù%oÓyÎ˚%
åcoolingä ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ~ÓÇ ˜òl!®l Óy Óy!£Ï≈ܲ !Óܲ!¢ï˛
ã˛ˆÏ Ü   ˛ Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏ Ù Ü˛ˆÏ Î ˚ Ü ˛!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚ î ñ fiÌyl#Î˚ Óy xyM˛!°Ü˛
ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚–
93
fiÌ°ÓyÎ˚% ~ÓÇ §Ù%oÓyÎ˚% åLand and Sea Breezesä ı
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ fiÌ°Ë˛yà ~ÓÇ §Ù%o ˛õ,Ìܲ˲yˆÏÓ
ï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !òˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓ°y fiÌ°Ë˛yà
o%ï˛ í˛z_Æ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §Ù%o xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x!ôܲ í˛z£÷Ï •Î˚– xï˛~Óñ
fiÌ°Ë˛yà ç%ˆÏí˛¸ ÓyÎ%̊ !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ñ xÌã˛ §Ù%o
ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ¢#ï˛° ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ
≤Ãôylï˛ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ – ~˲yˆÏ Ó §Ù% o ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ fiÌ°Ë˛yà ˛õÎ≈ h s˝
ÓyÎ%̊ã˛y˛õ#Î˚ ì˛y° åpressure gradientä ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §Ù%oÓyÎ%̊
!•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ÓyÎ˚% §Ù%o ˆÌˆÏܲ fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ÓˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– Ó˚y!eˆÏÓ°y
!ë˛Ü˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ xÓfiÌy ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– fiÌ°Ë˛yà o%ï˛ ˛ï˛y˛õ •yÓ˚yÎ˚
~ÓÇ §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ x!ôܲ ¢#ï˛° •Î˚– ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ#Î˚ ì˛y°!ê˛
fiÌ°Ë˛yà ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ù%o ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ fiÌ°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
Ê˛°yÊ˛° å!ã˛e 10.7ä–
˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• åMountain and Valley
Windsä ı
˛õy•y!í˛¸ xM˛ˆÏ° !òˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓ°y ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ ì˛y° í˛z_Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚% ì˛y°
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !òˆÏܲ í˛zë˛ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~•z ÊÑ˛yܲy çyÎ˚ày!ê˛ ˛õ)î≈
ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓyÎ%̊ ~•z fiÌyˆÏl ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ÓyÎ%̊!ê˛
í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛y ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• åvalley breezeä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– Ó˚yˆÏï˛Ó˚
ˆÓ°yÎ˚ ì˛y°à%ˆÏ°y ¢#ï˛° •GÎ˚yÎ˚ âlc˛õ)î≈ ÓyÎ˚% ˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ì˛y°
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ lyÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~ˆÏܲ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ ÓyÎ%̊≤ÃÓy•
åmountain windä ӈϰ– ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ ã)˛í˛¸yÎ˚ Îál ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚˛õyï˛ •Î˚ñ
ï˛ál ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ÓyÎ%̊ ¢#ï˛° G ˲yÓ˚# ӈϰ ï˛y Ü ˛Ù¢ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚
!òˆÏ Ü ˛ lyÙˆÏ ï ˛ ÌyˆÏ Ü ˛ñ ï˛yˆÏ Ü ˛ ܲƒy!ê˛Î˚ y ˆÏ Ó !ê˛Ü˛ Óy !lܲy¢#
ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• åkatabatic windä Ó°y •Î˚– xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ï
ÓyÎ˚% ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ì˛yˆÏ° §,!T˛ •Î˚– ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒyM˛°
x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~•z xyo≈ ÓyÎ%̊ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛
âê˛yÎ˚– Îál ~!ê˛ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ lyˆÏÙ ï˛ál ¢%‹Ò ÓyÎ˚%
§Ùï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y åadiabatic processä myÓ˚y í˛z£÷Ï •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
~•z ¢%‹Ò ÓyÎ%̊ x“ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆïÏ ˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O åAir Massesä ı
Îál ÓyÎ%̊ ˛õÎ≈yÆ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ù≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ åhomogenousä
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛ál ~!ê˛ G•z xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ
xyÎ˚c ܲˆÏÓ–˚ §Ù≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ xM˛°!ê˛ !Ó¢y° §Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ Óy !Ó¢y° §Ùï˛°
Ë)˛!Ù •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏï˛ fl∫ï˛sf
˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O åairmassä Ó°y •Î˚– ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ
xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚ §yÙylƒ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒÎ%=˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓˆÏí˛¸y xÇ¢
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í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ åstationary frontä Ó°y •Î˚–
í˛z£ÓÏ÷ yÎ%̊ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊ Îál ë˛yu˛y ÓyÎ%̊ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ%̊≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál
ï˛yÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÎyà fiÌ°!ê˛ˆÏܲ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ åcold frontä Ó°y
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•Î˚ñ ï˛ál G•z §ÇˆÏÎyà fiÌ°!ê˛ˆÏܲ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ åwarm
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x«˛yLjϢ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey G ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ áyí˛¸y
ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ åsteep gradientä myÓ˚y !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y
¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ xyܲ!fløܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xyˆÏl ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ í˛zôÁ≈àyÙ#
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í˛z£ÓÏ÷ yÎ%̊ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ
¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊ x!ï˛Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ åExtra Tropical Cyclonesä ı
xhs˝ô≈ï) ˛ ÓyÎ%̊≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy•zˆÓÏ ˚ Ùôƒ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢ Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl §,T˛
!ã˛e 10.8 : í˛zÕ‘¡∫ !Ó˲yà ı åaä í˛z£÷Ï ˛ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ó åbä ¢#ï˛° ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y à% ˆ Ï ° yˆÏ Ü ˛ Ùôƒ x«˛yÇ¢#Î˚ åmiddle latitude ä Óy
ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ó åcä xhs˝ô)≈ï˛ ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚– x!ï˛Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ åextra tropical cyclonesä Ó°y •Î˚–
Ùôƒ G í˛zFã˛ x«˛yÇ¢#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ÓyÎ%̊≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ã˛°yã˛°
!•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ~ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y° ˛õ,¤˛ï˛°ñ ÎyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ í˛zͧ xM˛° åsource regionsä
Ó°y •Î˚–
í˛zͧ xM˛° xl%ÎyÎ˚# ÓyÎ%̊˛õ%Oà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ ˆ◊!îÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl í˛zͧ xM˛° xyˆÏSÈ– ~•zà%ˆÏ°y •° ÈüüüÈ åiä í˛z£÷Ï
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ åiiä í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ï ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù
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í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚% ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊
x«˛yLjϢ á%Ó ë˛yu˛y ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚yÓ,ï˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢ åvä §%ˆÏÙÓ˚% ~ÓÇ Ü%˛ˆÏÙÓ˚%
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í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ%̊ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%

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•Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÙÓ˚% ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%Oà%ˆÏ°y ¢#ï˛° •Î˚–

ÓyÎ˚%È ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ åFrontsä ı
Îál ò%!ê˛ !˲ߨ ÓyÎ%̊˛õ%O !Ù!°ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ò%!ê˛ ÓyÎ%̊˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
~ܲê˛y !Ó˲yçl ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– ~•z !Ó˲yçlˆÏÓá˚ yˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚≤% Ãyã˛#Ó˚
Ó°y •Î˚– §#Ùyhs˝ Óy ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚% í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚% í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚% ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%
§Çàë˛l åfrontogenesisä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ã˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ÓyÎ˚≤% Ãyã˛#Ó˚ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È ı åaä ¢#ï˛° åcoldäñ åiiä í˛z£Ï÷ åwarmäñ åiiiä !ã˛e 10.9 : x!ï˛ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛
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ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆ§áylܲyÓ˚ xyÓ•yGÎ˚yÓ˚ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyܲ!fløܲ
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âê˛yÎ˚–
x!ï˛Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ ˆÙÓ˚% ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏ벖
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓñ ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚!ê˛ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ñ
ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ò!«˛î !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚% ~ÓÇ í˛z_Ó˚!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ
¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– Îál ÓyÎ%̊ã˛y˛õ ÓyÎ%̊≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛
ˆlˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛ál í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚% í˛z_Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚% ò!«˛î
!òˆÏܲ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ â!í˛¸Ó˚ ÜÑ˛yê˛yÓ˚ åanticlockwiseä !Ó˛õÓ˚#ˆÏï˛
â)î≈Óyï˛#Î˚ §M˛y°l ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– â)î≈Óyï˛#Î˚ §M˛y°l ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z£÷Ï
ÓyÎ˚≤% Ãyã˛#Ó˚ åwarm frontä ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚≤% Ãyã˛#Ó˚ åcold frontä
~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ~ܲ!ê˛ x!ï˛Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛
!Óܲ!¢ï˛ â)!î≈V˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ≤ÃfïÏFSÈò !ã˛e 10.9ÈüÈ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
≤ÃÌÙ˲yˆÏàñ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚% Óy í˛z£÷Ï ¢yáyÓ˚ à•¥Ó˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §¡ø%ˆÏá ~ÓÇ
˛õŸã˛yˆÏï˛ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊ Óy ¢#ï˛° ¢yáyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– í˛z£Ï÷ ÓyÎ%̊
¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ÓˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xyܲyˆÏ¢ ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
hflÓÏ ˚ í˛z£Ï÷ ÓyÎ˚% ≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ âˆÏê˛–
ˆ˛õSÈl ˆÌˆÏܲ xyàï˛ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˆë˛ˆÏ° ˆòÎ˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ !ܲí˛zÙ%°y§
åCumulusä ˆÙâ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ !Óܲ!¢ï˛ •Î˚– í˛z£÷Ï
ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ fiÌyl x!ôܲyÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚% ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ï
ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x!ôܲ o%ï˛ S%ȈÏê˛ ÎyÎ˚– í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚% §¡õ)î≈
í˛zay!˛õï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ xhs˝ô)≈ï˛ (occluded) •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
â)!î≈V˛í˛¸ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ «˛#î •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸–
ÓyÎ˚% §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ~ÓÇ ¢)ˆÏlƒ åaloft ä
í˛z˲Î˚!òˆÏܲ â!l¤˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– x!ï˛Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚
â)î≈Óyï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!˲ߨ˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ,Ìܲ– x!ï˛Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
§%flõT˛ ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ åfrontal systemä xyˆÏSÈ Îy Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚
â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛ xl%˛õ!fiÌï˛–
~à%ˆ° Ï y ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó,•_Ó˚ xM˛° ç%ˆíÏ ˛¸ !ÓhflyÏ Ó˚ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
fiÌ°Ë˛yà G ç°Ë˛yà í˛z˲ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ G˛õÓ˚•z ~à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ ˆòáy
xM˛ˆÏ° Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
à!ï˛¢#° •Î˚ñ Îy ã˛Ü ˛yܲyÓ˚ ï˛#Ó  ÓyÎ%̊ñ ˲yÓ˚# Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ G §yÙ%!oܲ
ˆì˛í˛zÈüÈ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ÓˆÏí˛¸y ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ôÁǧ âê˛yÎ˚– ~!ê˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚
!ÓôÁǧ# ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ò%ˆÏÎ≈yà– ~!ê˛ Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ â)î≈Óyï˛
å cyclones ä !•§yˆÏ Ó ˛õ!Ó˚ ! ã˛ï˛ñ xyê˛°y!rê˛ˆÏ Ü ˛ •ƒy!Ó˚ ˆ Ï Ü ˛l
åHurricanesäñ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ xM˛° ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î
!ã˛l §yàˆÏÓ˚ ê˛y•zÊ˛% l åTyphoonsä ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚y §yàÓ˚
xM˛ˆÏ° í˛z•!z ° í˛z•!z ° åWilly-Williesä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
í˛z£÷Ï Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)!î≈Óyï˛ §,!T˛ •Î˚
~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ V˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ àë˛l ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚
xl%Ü)˛° xÓfiÌyà%ˆÏ°y •Ï° ı åiä 270c ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ x!ôܲ Ó,•Í
§Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ åiiä ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ åCoriolisä ӈϰÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ åiiiä
í˛zÕ‘¡∫ ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛˛ §yÙylƒ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ åivä ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ !ÓòƒÙyl ~ܲ!ê˛
ò%Ó≈° !l¡¨ã˛y˛õ xM˛° Óy !l¡¨hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ §M˛y°l åvä
§Ù%ohflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ ≤Ã!ï˛§Ó˚î ådivergenceä–
âl#˲Ól ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y ˆÎ ¢!=˛ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ ï˛y V˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛yˆÏܲ
Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y !ܲí˛zÙ%ˆÏ°y!l¡∫y§ ˆÙâ §,!T˛ •Î˚ Îy V˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚
ˆÜ˛ˆÏwÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– §Ù%o ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ xyo≈ï˛y
§Ç@˝ÃˆÏ•Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° V˛í˛¸!ê˛ xyÓ˚G ¢!=˛¢y°# •ˆÏÎ˚ GˆÏ벖 fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏà
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•ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– x!ï˛Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛!ê˛ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚
xˆÏlܲ ÓˆÏí˛¸y xM˛°ˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ã˛«%˛
à!ï˛ˆÏÓà xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ ï˛#Ó  •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ á%Ó•z ôÁǧydܲ–
x!ï˛Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ àÙl ܲˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚
â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛ ˛õ)Ó≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ÿã˛ˆÏÙ àÙl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
V˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ !òܲ
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ åTropical Cyclonesä ı
!ã˛e 10.10 : Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏFSÈò
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)îÓ≈ yï˛à%ˆ°
Ï y •° ~ܲ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ï˛#Ó  ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ V˛í˛¸ Îy Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ (after Rama Sastry)
96 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ xyo≈ï˛y §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• Órô •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ V˛í˛¸ ܲˆÏÙ
ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎáyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ñ í˛z˛õÜ)˛° x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˙
fiÌyl!ê˛ â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙÊ˛° åLandfall of the cycloneä
ӈϰ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ˆÎ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ 200 í˛z_Ó˚ x«˛yÇ¢ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ
ˆ§•z â)î≈Óyï˛!ê˛ ˆ˛õSÈl !òˆÏܲ ˆÓшÏܲ !àˆÏÎ˚ xyÓ˚G !ÓôÁǧ# •ˆÏÎ˚ GˆÏ벖
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ V˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
˛õ!Ó˚ܲ!“ï˛ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õly !ã˛e 10.10ÈüÈ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
Ü%˛[˛°yܲyˆÏÓ˚ à!ï˛¢#° â)îÓ≈ yˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛wfiÌ°!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ¢yhs˝ ÓyÎ˚% °«˛
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆ§•z§ˆÏAà â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏà ¢yhs˝ ÓyÎ%̊ ~ܲ!ê˛ hflψÏΩ˛Ó˚
ÙˆÏï˛y xyܲyÓ˚ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ ~•z hflÏΩ˛ˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚
â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ã˛«%˛ åEye of the cycloneä– §M˛y°l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
Óƒy§àï˛ ÓƒÓôyl 150 ~ÓÇ 250 !ܲ!ÙÈÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ã˛«%˛ •Ï° xô/àyÙ# ÓyÎ%̊Î=% ˛ ¢yhs˝ ~ܲ!ê˛ xM˛°– ã˛«%˛Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢
ã˛«%˛≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ åeyewallä xÓ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ˆÎ!ê˛ ê˛∆ˆÏ˛õy˛õˆÏçÓ˚
åtropopauseä í˛zFã˛ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ¢!=˛¢y°# ã˛Ü ˛Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– ~•z xM˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà §Ó≈y!ôܲ •Î˚ñ Îy â^˝ê˛yÎ˚ 250
!ܲ!Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚– ~•z â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ù%£Ï°ôyˆÏÓ˚ Ó,!T˛
åtorrential rainä •Î˚– ã˛«%˛≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ˚•zl Óƒyu˛à%ˆÏ°y årain
bandsä !ÓÜ,˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !ܲí˛zÙ%°y§ åcumulusä ~ÓÇ
!ܲí˛zÙˆ% °
Ï y!l¡∫y§ åcumulonimbusä ˆÙâ˛õ%ˆO Ï Ó˚ Ó!•/xM˛ˆÏ° àÙl
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ– ÓˆÏAày˛õ§yàÓ˚ñ xyÓ˚Ó §yàÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛
Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ §Ù%oV˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ Óƒy§ 600 ˆÌˆÏܲ 1200 !ܲ!ÙÈüÈÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ •Î˚– ~•z §M˛y°l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛!òl 300 ˆÌˆÏܲ 500 !ܲ!ÙÉ
ô#Ó˚à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ àÙl ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z â)îÓ≈ yï˛ V˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ˆflÀyï˛ åstorm surgesä
§,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ !l¡¨Ë)˛!Ù xM˛°ˆÏܲ ≤’y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚–
~•z V˛í˛¸ fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏà ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ «˛#î •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸–
ÓLV˛í˛¸ ~ÓÇ ê˛ˆÏl≈ˆÏí˛y åThunderstorms and
Tornadoesä ı
xlƒylƒ !ÓôÁǧ# fiÌyl#Î˚ V˛í˛¸à%ˆÏ°y •° ÓLV˛í˛¸ ~ÓÇ ê˛ˆÏl≈ˆÏí˛y–
~!ê˛ fl∫“ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ çlƒ ÌyˆÏܲñ xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ~°yܲyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
§#ÙyÓÂô ÌyˆÏܲñ!ܲv ï˛#Ó  ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– ÓLV˛í˛¸ xyo≈ í˛z£÷Ï !òˆÏl
ï˛#Ó  ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l myÓ˚y §,!T˛ •Î˚– ÓLV˛í˛¸ •Ï° ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ)î≈ !Óܲ!¢ï˛
!ܲí˛z Ù % ˆ Ï ° y!l¡∫ y § ˆÙâ å cumulonimbus cloud ä Îy
ÓL!Óò%ƒÍ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÙâ Îál í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ñ
ˆÎáyˆÏl í˛z˛õÈüÈ¢)lƒ ï˛y˛õÙyey ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ ˆ§áyˆÏl !¢°yÓ˚
åhailsä §,!T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !¢°yÓ,!T˛ åhailstormä !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ l#ˆÏã˛
ˆlˆÏÙ xyˆÏ§– x˛õÎ≈yÆ xyo≈ï˛y ÌyܲˆÏ° ÓLV˛í˛¸ ô)!°V˛í˛¸ ådust-
stormsä ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ÓLV˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •° í˛z£Ï÷ ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚
≤ÃÓ° |ôÁ≈≤ÃÓy•ñ ÎyÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ ÓyˆÏí˛¸ñ xyÓ˚ ~!ê˛
x!ôܲ í˛zFã˛ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛•z xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚î– ˛õˆÏÓ˚ñ Óyï˛≤ÃÓy• ådowndraftä l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛
¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊ G Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§– ˲Î˚yÓ• ÓLV˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî
ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly ÓyÎ˚% x!ôܲ Ó°˛õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ •y!ï˛Ó˚ ¢%шÏí˛¸Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y
§!˛õ≈° xÓï˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÜ˛ˆÏw xï˛ƒhs˝ Ü˛Ù ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ
§,!T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ˛õˆÏÌ ~!ê˛ Óƒy˛õܲ ôÁǧ âê˛yÎ˚– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
âê˛lyˆÏܲ Úê˛ˆÏl≈ˆÏí˛yÛ åtornadoä Ó°y •Î˚– ê˛ˆÏl≈ˆÏí˛y §yôyÓ˚îï˛
Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢ §,!T˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ê˛ˆÏl≈ˆÏí˛yˆÏܲ
ç°hflÏΩ˛ åwater spoutsä Ó°y •Î˚–
~•z !•Ç§ydܲ V˛í˛¸ à % ˆ Ï ° y ÓyÎ˚ % Ù [˛ˆÏ ° í˛z Í ˛õߨ ¢!=˛Ó˚
!Ó!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l G §Ùß∫Î˚ §yôlˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z V˛ˆÏí˛¸Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ !fiÌÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õ¢!=˛ à!ï˛¢#° ¢!=˛ˆÏï˛ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
x!fiÌÓ˚ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛° ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° xÓfiÌyˆÏl !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ§–

xl%¢#°l#

1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı

(i) Î!ò Ë)˛˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ 1,000 mb •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ 1 km í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ •ˆÏÓı
(a) 700 !Ù!°ÓyÓ˚ (c) 900 !Ù!°ÓyÓ˚
(b) 1,100 !Ù!°ÓyÓ˚ (d) 1,300 !Ù!°ÓyÓ˚
(ii) xyhs˝/Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ §!¡ø°l xM˛° §yôyÓ˚îï˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ı
(a) !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ (b) ܲÜ≈˛ê˛Ü ˛y!hs˝ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ
(c) ÙܲÓ˚Ü ˛y!hs˝ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ (d) §%ˆÏÙÓ˚% Ó,ˆÏ_Ó˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛y°l ~ÓÇ xyÓ•yGÎ˚yàï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)• 97

(iii) í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ !l¡¨ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !òܲ •Î˚ ı

(a) â!í˛¸Ó˚ ÜÑ˛yê˛yÓ˚ xl%Ó˚)˛õ (c) â!í˛¸Ó˚ ܲÑyê˛yÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ
(b) §Ùã˛y˛õ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî (d) §Ùã˛y˛õ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ°
(iv) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛zͧ fiÌ°⁄
(a) !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ ÓlyM˛° (c) §y•zˆÏÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÓ˚ §ÙË)˛!Ù
(b) !•Ùy°Î˚ ˛õÓ≈ï˛ (d) ˆí˛Ü˛yl Ùy°Ë)˛!Ù
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~ܲܲ ܲ#⁄ xyÓ•yGÎ˚y Ùyl!ã˛e ÓylyˆÏlyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ
§Ù%oï˛° ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ܲ!ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˆÜ˛l Ùy˛õy •Î˚⁄
(ii) Îál ÓyÎ%̊ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ì˛y°ç!lï˛ Ó° í˛z_Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò!«˛î !òˆÏܲ ÌyˆÏܲ xÌ≈yÍ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚
í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚% í˛z_Ó˚ ˛õ%Óy!° •Î˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
(iii) Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ÓyÎ˚% ågeotrophic windä ܲyˆÏܲ ӈϰ⁄
(iv) fiÌ° ~ÓÇ §Ù%o ÓyÎ˚% åland and sea breezesä Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !òܲ ~ÓÇ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ≤Ã˲yÓܲyÓ˚# ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(ii) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛°#Î˚ §yôyÓ˚î §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ã˛e xAܲl ܲˆÏÓ˚y– 300 í˛z_Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î
x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ í˛zFã˛ã˛y˛õ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ܲ#⁄
(iii) Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ ˆÜ˛l §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚⁄ Ü ˛yhs#Î˚ â)î≈ÓyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰ xLjϢ Ù%£Ï°ôyÓ˚yÎ˚ Ó,!T˛
åtorrential rainsä •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚% ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛l⁄

≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
(i) xyÓ•yGÎ˚y ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ çlƒ !Ó!˲ߨ ÙyôƒÙ ˆÎÙlÈüȧÇÓyò˛õeñ ò)Ó˚ò¢≈l ~ÓÇ ˆÓ˚!í˛ˆÏÎ˚y ˆÌˆÏܲ
xyÓ•yGÎ˚y §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°y §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(ii) ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ÇÓyò˛õˆÏeÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ xyÓ•yGÎ˚y !Ó˲yà!ê˛ ˛õˆÏí˛¸yñ !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ ˆÎáyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùyl!ã˛e Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È
Îy !ܲ ly í˛z˛õ@˝Ã• !ã˛eˆÏܲ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆSÏ È– ˆÙâyFSÈy!òï˛ ˆ«˛eà%ˆ°
Ï y ˆÓ˚áy!AÜ˛ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓy˚ – ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l
ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛y°lˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ò)Ó˚ò¢≈ˆÏl ˆòáyˆÏly ˛õ)Ó≈y˲yˆÏ§Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
§ÇÓyò˛õˆÏe ≤Ãò_ ˛õ)Ó≈y˲yˆÏ§Ó˚ ï%˛°ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– §ÆyˆÏ•Ó˚ ܲï˛!òˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈y˲y§ §!ë˛Ü˛ !SÈ° ï˛y !•§yÓ
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ӈϰy–
x ôƒy Î˚
ˆï˛y ÙÓ˚y •zˆÏï˛yÙˆÏôƒ•z !¢ˆÏáSÈ ˆÎ ÓyÎ˚% ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ myÓ˚y
à!ë˛ï˛– ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l 0% – 4%
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ xyÓ•yGÎ˚yàï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ âê˛lyÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈
Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ç° !ï˛l!ê˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÌyˆÏܲ ÈüüüÈ Ü˛!ë˛lñ
ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ àƒy§#Î˚– ç°Ë˛yà ˆÌˆÏܲ Óy‹õ#˲Ól ~ÓÇ í˛z!qò ˆÌˆÏܲ
≤ÈÏfl∫òˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°ñ
Ù•y§yàÓ˚ G Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óy‹õ#˲Ólñ ≤ÈÏfl∫òlñ âl#˲Ól G
xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xlÓÓ˚ï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyòylÈ≤Ãòyl ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ÓyÎ˚ˆ% ïÏ ˛ ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏܲ xyo≈ï˛y åmoistureä ӈϰ–
~!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ ӈϰ !Ó¢%Âô xyo≈ï˛y Óy ã˛Ó˚Ù
xyo≈ï˛y åabsolute humidityä– xÌ≈yÍ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ fiÌyˆÏlñ
!l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ç°#Î˚ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛
Óy ˆÙyê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ !Ó¢%Âô xyo≈ï˛y ӈϰ– ≤Ã!ï˛ ~ܲܲ xyÎ˚ï˛l
ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ Gçl @˝ÃyÙ‡!Ùê˛yÓ˚3ÈüÈ~ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚– ÓyÎ˚%
ܲï˛ê˛y ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ fiÌylˆÏ˲ˆÏò !Ó¢%Âô xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚
¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîG G•z ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ G•z ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ xyo≈ï˛y @˝Ã•î
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛yÓ˚ ï%˛°lyˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ xyo≈ï˛y årelative
humidityä– ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà xyo≈ï˛y @˝Ã•ˆÏîÓ˚
«˛Ùï˛y ÓyˆÏí˛¸ ~ÓÇ Ü˛ˆÏÙ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ xyo≈ï˛yG ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚–
~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏà ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚
í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yˆÏà Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
!l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚% Îál §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç°#Î˚Óy‹õ ôyÓ˚î
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ §¡õ,=˛ ÓyÎ˚% åsaturatedä ӈϰ– ~ˆÏï˛ ˆÓyV˛y
ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ%=˛ G•z ÓyÎ˚% G•z ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xyo≈ï˛y @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ §«˛Ù lÎ˚– ˆÎ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚
ÓyÎ˚% §¡õ,=˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ӈϰ !¢!¢Ó˚yAܲ ådew pointä–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ç°
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Óy‹õ#˲Ól ~ÓÇ âl#˲Ól åEVAPORATION AND
CONDENSATIONä
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛ G x˛õ§yÓ˚îˆÏܲ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
Óy‹õ#˲Ól åevaporationä ~ÓÇ âl#˲Ól åcondensationä
ӈϰ– ˛Óy‹õ#˲Ól •° ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ÎyˆÏï˛ ç° ï˛Ó˚° ˆÌˆÏܲ
àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl ܲyÓ˚î •°
ï˛y˛õ– ˆÎ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy‹õyÎ˚l ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
°#l ï˛y˛õ ålatent heat of vapourisationä ӈϰ–
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏ° !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ç° ˆ¢y£Ïî
G ôyÓ˚î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– xl%Ó˛˚) õ˲yˆÏÓ Î!ò ÓyÎ%̊ˆÏï˛ xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü˛Ù •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚% xyÓ˚G 簈Ϣy£Ïî ~ÓÇ ôyÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
§«˛Ù •Î˚– ÓyÎ˚% §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî §¡õ,=˛ hflÏÓ˚ x§¡õ,=˛ hflψÏÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– Î!ò ÓyÎ˚% ã˛°yã˛° ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚ Óy ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ Ùyey
ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚G ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚–
ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ çˆÏ° Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ˆÏܲ ӈϰ âl#˲Ól åconden-
sationä– ï˛y˛õ ܲˆÏÙ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî âl#˲Ól •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– Îál
xyo≈ ÓyÎ˚% ë˛yu˛yÎ˚ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛ál G•z ÓyÎ˚% ~Ùl ~ܲ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚
ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ï˛yÓ˚ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ @˝Ã•ˆÏîÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛y fiÌ!àï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
ï˛ál x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– Î!ò
ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ ܲ!ë˛l Ó˚)˛õ ˆlÎ˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° G•z
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ӈϰ í˛zôÁ≈˛õyï˛l åsublimationä– ¢#ï˛°ï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî
Ù%=˛ Óyï˛yˆÏ§ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y x!ï˛ «%˛o ܲ!îܲyˆÏܲ ˲Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ âl#˲Ól
âˆÏê˛ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ ç°yܲ£Ï≈# âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲw
åhygroscopic condensation nucleiä – !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ ô)!°Ü˛îyñ
ˆôÑyÎ˚yñ §Ù%o ˆÌˆÏܲ xy§y °Óîܲîy ~à%ˆ° Ï y âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ í˛zˆÕÏ á‘ ˆÏÎyàƒ
˲Ó˚ˆÏܲw xÌ≈yÍ ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xy◊Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ ç°Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°y
˲y§ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Îál xyo≈ ÓyÎ˚% ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ¢#ï˛°ï˛Ó˚ Ó›Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈
xyˆÏ§ ï˛álG âl#˲Ól âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ âl#˲Ól ï˛álG •Î˚ Îál ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
ï˛y˛õÙyey !¢!¢Ó˚yˆÏAܲÓ˚ ådew pointä ܲyˆÏSÈ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚– xï˛~Ó
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ç°
âl#˲Ól !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ë˛yu˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛lñ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yñ ã˛y˛õ G xyo≈ï˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y âl#˲Ól
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚– âl#˲Ól §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ åiä Îál ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey
ܲˆÏÙ !¢!¢Ó˚yˆÏAܲ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l !fiÌÓ˚˛ ÌyˆÏܲó åiiä Îál
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ò%ˆÏê˛y•z ~ܲ§ˆÏAà ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚ ï˛álG
âl#˲Ól âˆÏê˛ó åiiiä Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ ÓyÎ%̊ˆÏï˛ Î%=˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ âl#˲Ól âê˛yÎ˚– âl#˲Ól âê˛yÓ˚ çlƒ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# xÓfiÌy
•° ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ܲˆÏÙ ÎyGÎ˚y–
âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ xyo≈ï˛y ï˛Ìy ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ
!l¡¨!°!áï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛Ó˚ Ó˚)˛õ ˆlÎ˚ ÈüüüÈ !¢!¢Ó˚ñ
ï%˛!•lñ Ü%˛Î˚y¢y ~ÓÇ ˆÙâ– í˛z£÷Ïï˛y G xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yçl •Î˚– !¢!¢Ó˚yAܲ Îál
!•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál ˆÎÙl âl#˲Ól âˆÏê˛ ˆï˛Ù!l
!¢!¢Ó˚yAܲ !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏ°G âl#˲Ól âˆÏê˛–
!¢!¢Ó˚ åDewä ı
x!ôܲ ¢#ï˛° Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏà !Ó!˲ߨ ܲ!ë˛l Ó›Ó˚ åË)˛!Ù˲yˆÏàÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌï˛
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲw SÈyí˛¸yä í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ˛˛õyÌÓ˚ñ ây§ ˛õyï˛y ~ÓÇ àyˆÏSÈÓ˚
˛õyï˛yÎ˚ Îál ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ «%˛o «%˛o ç°!Ó®%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ çÙy •Î˚ ï˛ál
ï˛yˆÏܲ !¢!¢Ó˚ ӈϰ– !¢!¢Ó˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xyò¢≈ xÓfiÌy •° ÈüÈ ˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚
xyܲy¢ñ ¢yhs˝ ÓyÎ˚%ñ í˛zFã˛ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ xyo≈ï˛y ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛° G ò#â≈
Ó˚y!e– !¢!¢Ó˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ~!ê˛ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ ˆÎñ !¢!¢Ó˚yAܲ !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚
(00C) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– xÌ≈yÍ !¢!¢Ó˚yˆÏAܲÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚
(00C) ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏï˛ ˛•ˆÏÓ–
ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ åFrostä ı
¢#ï˛° Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏà Îál !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ (00C) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ âl#˲Ól
âˆÏê˛ ï˛ál ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ !¢!¢Ó˚yAܲ xÌÓy !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ~ê˛y •Î˚– x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ Îál âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
ç°!Ó®% ˆÌˆÏܲ §)- fl≥˛!ê˛Ü˛yܲyÓ˚ ÓÓ˚Ê˛Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ çÙy •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ
ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ ӈϰ– ˆÎ xyò¢≈ ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §yòy ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ G !¢!¢Ó˚
àˆÏí˛¸ í˛zˆÏë˛ ï˛y ≤ÃyÎ˚ ~ܲ•zÓ˚ܲÙñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ï%˛£ÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
!•ÙyAܲ xÌÓy !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ •ˆÏï˛•z •ˆÏÓ–
Ü%˛Î˚y¢y ~ÓÇ !Ùfiê˛ åFog and Mistä
≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ §Ù,Âô ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ •ë˛yÍ
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˆlˆÏÙ ˆàˆÏ° ï˛ál ˆÎ âl#˲Ól âˆÏê˛ ï˛yˆÏï˛ âl#Ë)˛ï˛
ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ §)- §)- ô)!°Ü˛îyˆÏܲ xy◊Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˲y§ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ÈüüüÈ
~ˆÏܲ Ü%˛Î˚y¢y ӈϰ– ~•z Ü%˛Î˚y¢y åfogä ï˛yÓ˚ !˲!_fiÌyˆÏl xÌÓy
Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏàÓ˚ á%Ó Ü˛yˆÏSÈ ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ü%˛Î˚y¢y G
!Ùfiê˛ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ò,¢ƒÙylï˛y åvisibilityä ¢)lƒï˛yÎ˚ !àˆÏÎ˚ ˆë˛ˆÏܲ–
ˆ˛õÔÓ˚ ~°yܲy ~ÓÇ !¢“ˆÏܲwà%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z!aï˛ ˆôÑyÎ˚y ï˛Ìy
âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲˆÏwÓ˚ ånucleiä ≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ Ü%˛Î˚y¢y G !Ùfiê˛ àë˛ˆÏl
99
§y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Îál Ü%˛Î˚y¢y ˆôÑyÎ˚yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !وϢ
ÎyÎ˚ ï˛ál ï˛y ˆôÑyÎ˚y¢y åsmogä !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ Ó!î≈ï˛ •Î˚– Ü%˛Î˚y¢y G !Ùfiê˛
~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲÙye ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ •° !Ùfiê˛ Ü%˛Î˚y¢yÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ!¢
ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛– !Ùfiê˛ ~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ë˛Ó˚ˆÏܲw
âl#Ë)˛ï˛ ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ âl hflÏÓ˚ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ì˛y°
ˆÓˆÏÎ˚ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚% í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zˆÏë˛ ¢#ï˛° Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏàÓ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xyˆÏ§ ӈϰ
˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ xM˛ˆÏ° âl âl !Ùfiê˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– Ü%˛Î˚y¢y !Ùfiê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%‹Ò •Î˚
~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ í˛z£Ï÷ ˆflÀyï˛ ˆÎáyˆÏl ¢#ï˛° ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xyˆÏ§ ˆ§áyˆÏl
Ü%˛Î˚y¢yÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ x!ï˛ §yôyÓ˚î âê˛ly– Ü%˛Î˚y¢y àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
âl#Ë)˛ï˛ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ ˲Ó˚ˆÜÏ ˛w ï˛Ìy ô%ˆ° Ï yñ ˆôÑyÎ˚yñ °ÓîܲîyˆÏܲ xy◊Î˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˲y§ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ï˛y•z Ü%˛Î˚y¢y •° ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚•z lyÙyhs˝Ó˚ Ùye–
ˆÙâ åCloudsä ı
Ù%=˛ Óyï˛yˆÏ§ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° à!ë˛ï˛ «%˛o «%˛o ç°Ü˛îyÓ˚ §Ù!T˛ Óy «%˛o «%˛o fl≥˛!ê˛Ü˛yܲyÓ˚
ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ hfl)Ï˛õ •° ˆÙâ– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ !ܲS%Èê˛y í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ lyly
xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÙâ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚– ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yñ !Óhfl,Ï!ï˛ñ âlc ~ÓÇ
fl∫FSÈï˛yÓ˚ G xfl∫FSÈï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÙâˆÏܲ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ Ë˛yˆÏà ˲yà
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ÈüüüÈ åiä !§Ó˚y§ åcirrusäó åiiä !ܲí˛zÙ%°y§ åcumulusäó
åiiiä fiê˛∆ƒyê˛y§ åstratusäó åivä !l¡∫y§ ånimbusä–
!§Ó˚y§ Óy x°Ü˛ ˆÙâ åCirrusä ı
!§Ó˚y§ ˆÙâ xˆÏlܲ xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ!¢ í˛zã˛ã˛ï˛yÎ˚ å8,000 - 12,000 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ä
à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ˆÙâ ˛õyï˛°y G !Ó!«˛Æ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õy°ˆÏܲÓ˚
ÙˆÏï˛y ˆòáˆÏï˛ •Î˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y §Ó§ÙÎ˚ §yòy Ó˚ˆÏ.Ó˚ •Î˚–
!ܲí˛zÙ%°y§ Óy hfl)Ï˛õ ˆÙâ åCumulusä ı
~•z ˆÙâ ˆ˛õÑçy ï%˛ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y– ~!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ 4,000 - 7,000
!Ùê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y ˛õ%O#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ~áyˆÏlÈüȈ§áyˆÏl
!Ó!«˛Æ˲yˆÏÓ ˆË˛ˆÏ§ ˆÓí˛¸yÎ˚– ~•z ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ !l¡¨Ë˛yà §Ùï˛° •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ
ï˛°ˆÏò¢ §Ùï˛° åflat baseä–
fiê˛∆ƒyê˛y§ Óy hflÏÓ˚ ˆÙâ åStratusä ı
lyÙyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ hflψÏÓ˚ hflψÏÓ˚ §!Iï˛ ~•z ˆÙâ xyܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ xˆÏlܲê˛y çyÎ˚ày
ç%ˆÏí˛¸ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ~•z ˆÙâ ò%˲yˆÏÓ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ÈüüüÈ
ï˛y˛õ Óç≈ˆlÏ Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xÌÓy !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚˛% õ%ˆOÏ Ó˚ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ –
!l¡∫y§ Óy Óyò° ˆÙâ åNimbusä ı
!l¡∫y§ ˆÙâ ܲyˆÏ°y xÌÓy àyì˛¸ ô)§Ó˚ ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ •Î˚– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ àë˛l ÙôƒÙ
hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ xÌÓy ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z ˆÙâ xï˛ƒhs˝
âl G xfl∫FSÈ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ §)Î≈!ܲÓ˚î xy§ˆÏï˛ Óyôy ˛õyÎ˚– ÙyˆÏV˛ ÙyˆÏV˛ ~•z
ˆÙâ á%Ó l#ˆÏã˛ ˆlˆÏÙ xyˆÏ§ ÎyˆÏï˛ ÙˆÏl •Î˚ ˆÎñ Ë)˛!ÙˆÏܲ flõ¢≈ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
!l¡∫y§ ˆÙâ •° âl ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛•#l hfl)Ï˛õ–
ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ ~•z ã˛yÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl ˲yˆÏàÓ˚ §Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚
≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– í˛zÑã%˛ ˆÙâ ÈüüüÈ !§Ó˚y§ñ
100
!§ˆÏÓy˚ fiê˛∆ƒyê˛y§ñ !§ˆÏÓy˚ !ܲí˛zÙ°
% y§– ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ í˛zãÑ ˛% ˆÙâ ÈüüüÈ xˆÏŒê˛yfiê˛∆ƒyê˛y§
~ÓÇ xˆÏŒê˛y!ܲí˛zÙ%°y§– l#ã%˛ ˆÙâ ÈüüüÈ fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!ܲí˛zÙ%°y§ G
!lˆÏ¡∫yfiê˛∆ƒyê˛y§– í˛zÕ‘¡∫ ˆÙâ Óy í˛z˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ΈÏÌT˛ ≤çyÓ˚î¢#° ˆÙâ
ÈüüüÈ !ܲí˛zÙ%°y§ G !ܲí˛zÙ%ˆÏ°y!l¡∫y§–
!ã˛e 11.1
!ã˛e 11.2
!ã˛e 11.1 ~ÓÇ 11.2 ˆï˛ ˆÎ ˆÎ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ ˆÙâ ˆòáy ÎyˆÏFSÈ
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ly=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî åPrecipitationä ı
Ù%=˛ Óyï˛yˆÏ§ x!ÓÓ˚yÙ âl#˲Ól ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y âl#Ë)˛ï˛ ç°Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏô
Îál ÓyÎ˚% ~•z ç°Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ x§ÙÌ≈ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
G•zà%ˆÏ°y Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˛õ!ï˛ï˛ •Î˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
˛õÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚° ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !làÙ≈l Óy §,!T˛ •GÎ˚yˆÏܲ ӈϰ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî
åPrecipitationä– xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî ï˛Ó˚° G ܲ!ë˛l ò%•z Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ•z •ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚– xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî Îál ï˛Ó˚° Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ •Î˚ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ ӈϰ
Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ årainfallä– Îál í˛z£÷Ïï˛y 00 ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝ÃˆÏí˛Ó˚ Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ï˛ál
ˆÎ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî âˆÏê˛ ï˛yˆÏï˛ hflψÏÓ˚ hflψÏÓ˚ §)- ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ òyly à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
˛õí˛¸ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ~ˆÏܲ ӈϰ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚˛õyï˛ åsnowfallä– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚
~•z fl≥˛!ê˛Ü˛yܲyÓ˚ òylyà%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ï%˛£ÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õyï˛°y xyÓÓ˚î ˜ï˛!Ó˚
•Î˚– Ó,!T˛ ~ÓÇ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ SÈyí˛¸yG xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ xlƒ ò%!ê˛ Ó˚)˛õ •° !fl‘ê˛
~ÓÇ !¢°yÓ,!T˛– ~à%!°Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ §#!Ùï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
§ÙˆÏÎ˚ ~Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ §ÙÎ˚ ~ÓÇ fiÌylˆÏ˲ˆÏò •Î˚–
!fl‘ê˛ åSleetä •° !•Ùy!Î˚ï˛ Ó,!T˛Ó˚ ˆÊÑ˛yê˛y– ~SÈyí˛¸y à!°ï˛ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚
çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ%l/!•Ùy!Î˚ï˛ Ó˚)˛õˆÏܲG !fl‘ê˛ ÓˆÏ°– í˛z˛õ!•Ùy!Î˚ï˛ ÓyÎ˚%hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
åˆÎ!ê˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˲yˆÏàÓ˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ xÓ!fiÌï˛ä í˛z˛õÓ˚ Îál !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y!Ó!¢T˛ ÓyÎ˚%hflÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ
ï˛yˆÏï˛ !fl‘ê˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– Ó,!T˛Ó˚ ˆÊÑ˛yê˛yà%ˆÏ°y í˛z£÷Ïï˛Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚% ï˛ƒyà ܲˆÏÓ˚
l#ˆÏã˛ xy§yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ ܲ!ë˛l Ó˚)˛õ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚
~ÓÇ «%˛o «%˛o ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ Ó!ê˛Ü˛y åSleetä Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Ë)˛È üÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ÈüüüÈ
~•z Ó!ê˛Ü˛y Óy !fl‘ê˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÎ Ó,!T˛Ó˚ ˆÊÑ˛yê˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ ÓˆÏí˛¸y •Î˚ ly–
ˆÙ⠈̈Ïܲ §,T˛ Ó,!T˛Ó˚ ˆÊÑ˛yê˛yà%ˆ° Ï y ܲ!ë˛l •ˆÏÎ˚ «%˛o «%˛o ˆày°yܲyÓ˚
ܲ!ë˛l ÓÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛Ó˚ ê%˛Ü˛ˆÏÓy˚ Î˚ åÓÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛Ó˚ «%˛o Ó°ä ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛
~ˆÏ§ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ÈüüüÈ ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !¢°yá[˛ åHailstoneä ӈϰ– Ó,!T˛Ó˚
ç° Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ%̊hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál
~à%ˆÏ°y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– !¢°yá[˛§Ù)• åhailstonesä ÈüüüÈ Ü˛ï˛à%ˆÏ°y
~ܲˆÏܲ!wܲ ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ ˆÎ hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!ê˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
x˛õÓ˚!ê˛ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˆÎ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏî ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù !¢°yá[˛ §•ˆÏÎyˆÏà
Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ӈϰ !¢°yÓ,!T˛ åhailä–
Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò åTypes of Rainfallä ı
í˛zͲõ!_àï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ãôylï˛ !ï˛l!ê˛ Ë˛yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
ÈüüüÈ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°lñ ˜¢ˆÏ°y͈ϫ˛˛õ ~ÓÇ â)î≈Óyï˛ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛–
˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ åConvectional Rain ä ı
ÓyÎ˚% í˛z_Æ •ˆÏ° •y°Ü˛y •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zˆÏë˛
ÎyÎ˚– í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zˆÏë˛ ~!ê˛ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ G ï˛y˛õ •yÓ˚yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ
âl#˲Ól âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ !ܲí˛zÙ%°y§ ˆÙâ Óy hfl)Ï˛õ ˆÙâ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ÓL!Óò%ƒÍ §• ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ âˆÏê˛ñ !ܲv ~•z Ó,!T˛ ˆÓ!¢«˛î fiÌyÎ˚#
•Î˚ ly– ~ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° xÌÓy !òˆÏlÓ˚
í˛z£÷Ïï˛Ù §ÙÎ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z Ó,!T˛˛ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ~ÓÇ
Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ ˲yˆÏà •Î˚ñ !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ ~!ê˛
~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î âê˛ly–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ç° 101

˜¢ˆÏ°y͈ϫ˛˛õ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ åOrographic Rainä ı
§¡õ,=˛ ÓyÎ%̊˛õ%O Îál ˛õÓ≈ï˛ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ï˛y ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛ ≤Ã!ï˛•ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏÓ˚y•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ Óyôƒ •Î˚ñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zˆÏë˛ ~Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ܲˆÏÙ
ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •° ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛≤Ã!ï˛Óyï˛ ì˛yˆÏ° ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˛Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚–
≤Ã!ï˛Óyï˛ ì˛yˆÏ° Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚% ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ xlƒ ì˛yˆÏ° ˆ˛õÑÔˆÏSÈ
xÓï˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏï˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ï˛ál ˙
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛y ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z xl%Óyï˛
ì˛y° Ó,!T˛•#l G ¢%‹Ò •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– ≤Ã!ï˛Óyï˛ ì˛yˆÏ° xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÎ xM˛ˆÏ°
ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ Ü˛Ù Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ӈϰ Ó,!T˛FSÈyÎ˚ xM˛° årain-
shadow areaä– ˜Ï¢ˆÏ°y͈ϫ˛˛õ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ •zLjÏÓ˚!çˆÏï˛ Úrelief
rainÛG Ó°y •Î˚–
â)î≈Óyï˛ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ åCyclonic Rainä ı
ò%!ê˛ !˲ߨôÙ≈# ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ñ xyo≈ï˛y ~ÓÇ âlc!Ó!¢T˛ ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O Îál
!Ù!°ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛ál ÓyÎ%̊˛õ%ˆO Ï Ó˚ §#ÙyˆÏhs˝ åFrontä ˆÎ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛
•Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ â)î≈Óyï˛ Ó,!T˛ ӈϰ– ≤Ãôylï˛ â)î≈Óyï˛ç!lï˛ Ü˛yÎ≈yÓ!°Ó˚
myÓ˚y•z ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ •Î˚– •zˆÏï˛yÙˆÏôƒ•z ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
ò¢Ù xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ G â)î≈Óyï˛ç!lï˛ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ §¡∫ˆÏrô
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ˆÎ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛y ˛õí˛¸ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l åWorld Distribution of
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Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ xyÙÓ˚y Î!ò !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚
••zñ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü˛ÙˆÏSÈ–
Ù•ˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ ˲yˆÏàÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚
xM˛°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ˆÓ!¢ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚– çˆÏ°Ó˚ Ó,•_Ó˚ í˛zͧ •GÎ˚yÎ˚
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ ï˛Ìy ç°Ë˛yˆÏàñ fiÌ° ˲yˆÏàÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛
•Î˚– !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ G ò!«˛ˆÏî 350 ˆÌˆÏܲ 400 x«˛yLjϢÓ˚
ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ˛õ)Ó≈ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° xï˛ƒ!ôܲ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ÿã˛ˆÏÙ
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!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ G ò!«˛ˆÏî 450 ~ÓÇ 650 x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛#
xLjϢ Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ §)ã˛ly •Î˚
~ÓÇ ˛õ)Ó≈!òˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ù¢ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÎáyˆÏl
˛õÓ≈ï˛ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÜ)˛° §Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§áyˆÏl ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚
≤Ã!ï˛Óyï˛ ì˛yˆÏ° åwindward sideä xÓ!fiÌï˛ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°
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˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚–
xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õîÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî ï˛Ìy Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àï˛ !Ó˲yàà%ˆÏ°y
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Ó°Î˚ñ ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛Óyï˛ ì˛y° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ¢#ï˛° ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xLjϢ ~ÓÇ ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ÓyÎ˚% ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏàÓ˚
í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° xï˛ƒ!ôܲ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ï˛Ìy Óy!£Ï≈ܲ àí˛¸ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛
200 ˆ§!ÙÈüÈ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ •Î˚–
åiiä 100 - 200 ˆ§!Ù Óy!£Ï≈ܲ àí˛¸ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ÈüüüÈ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚
x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚˲yàñ Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
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åiiiä 50 - 100 ˆ§!Ù Óy!£Ï≈ܲ àí˛¸ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ÈüüüÈ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚
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Óy!£Ï≈ܲ àí˛¸ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ 50 - 100 ˆ§!ÙÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
åivä 50 ˆ§!ÙÓ˚G Ü˛Ù Óy!£Ï≈ܲ àí˛¸ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ÈüüüÈ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚
x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î ˲yà ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢÏÓ˚ ˆÎ fiÌylà%ˆÏ°y !ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚
Ó,!T˛FSÈyÎ˚ xM˛°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ 50 ˆ§!ÙÈüÈ~Ó˚G ܲÙ
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ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ §%flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚–
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ˆÎÙl !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛° ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
˛õ!Ÿã˛ÙyLjϢ–

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(a) ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ (c) ô)!°Ü˛îy
(b) ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl (d) x!:ˆÏçl
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(ii) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚°ˆÏܲ ÓyˆÏ‹õ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚#⁄
(a) âl#˲Ól (c) ˛Óy‹õ#˲Ól
(b) ≤ÈÏfl∫òl (d) xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî
(iii) ˆÎ ÓyÎ˚% ï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ @˝Ã•î «˛Ùï˛y xl%ÎyÎ˚# ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ÈüüüÈ
(a) xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ xyo≈ï˛y (c) !Ó¢%Âô xyo≈ï˛y
(b) !ӈϢ£Ï xyo≈ï˛y (d) §¡õ,=˛ ÓyÎ˚%
(iv) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ xyܲyˆÏ¢ xÓ!fiÌï˛ í˛zFã˛ ˆÙâ ⁄
(a) !§Ó˚y§ (c) !l¡∫y§
(b) fiê˛∆ƒyê˛y§ (d) !ܲí˛zÙ%°y§
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) !ï˛l ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ lyÙ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
(ii) xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ xyo≈ï˛y ÈüüüÈ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iii) í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà ç°#Î˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
(iv) ˆÙâ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ⁄ ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) !ÓŸªÓƒy˛õ# xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ °«˛î#Î˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒyÓ!°Ó˚ Óî≈ly òyG–
(ii) âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ܲ#⁄ !¢!¢Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ÈüÈ~Ó˚ àë˛l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–

≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
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!°!˛õÓÂô ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
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WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

˛õ, !ÌÓ#Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ §•ç˲yˆÏÓ çylˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° §Ù@˝Ã

xÇ¢ˆÏܲ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ~ܲˆÏܲ !Ó˲=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§§Ü˛° xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
ç°ÓyÎ%̊ §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ï˛Ìƒ §Ç@˝Ã• G §Çà!ë˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÓyôàÙƒï˛yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
!lô≈yÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓl˚ ˆÎñ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ç°ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ â!l¤˛
§¡õÜ≈˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !ï˛!l !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎñ !l!ò≈T˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey G
Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ ˆ§•z xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l !lË≈˛Ó˚
Óî≈ly G !ӈϟ’£îÏ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xô#ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ !ï˛!l ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ܲˆÏÓ˚l– Óy!£Ï≈ܲ G
~•z ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ çlƒ !ï˛l!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl ˛õrÌy xl%§Ó˚î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ùy!§Ü˛ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚˛ !˲!_ˆÏï˛
~à%ˆÏ°y •Ï° ÈüüüÈ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy Óy ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛ åempiricaläñ §,!T˛ Óy àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÙ)°Ü˛ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ܲˆÏÓl˚ – !ï˛!l ÓˆÏí˛¸y •Ó˚Ê˛ G ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y •Ó˚ˆÊÏ ˛Ó˚
í˛zqÓ §¡∫rô#Î˚ åGeneticä ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyˆÏÎ˚y!àܲ Óy ÓƒyÓ•y!Ó˚ܲ •zLjÏÓ˚!ç x«˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ܲˆÏÓ˚l– Î!òG
åappliedä àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÙ)°Ü˛ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ §Çà,•#ï˛ ï˛Ìƒñ !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ 1918 §yˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÜ,˛ï˛ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛
ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– §,!T˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §ÙÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏ°G ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§
§¡∫rô#Î˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ç°ÓyÎ˚% §Çàë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y xyçG Ó•%° ã˛!ã≈˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛–
•Î˚– ≤ÃyˆÏÎ˚y!àܲ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛zˆÏjˆÏ¢ƒ ܲÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õl ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ%̊ˆÜÏ ˛ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl ˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ Èl–
•Î˚– ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey G ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È–
ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §yÓ˚!î 12.1 ÈüÈ~˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ !Ó˲yà G
åKOEPPEN ’S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION OF ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ÓˆÏí˛¸y •Ó˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ A, C, D ~ÓÇ E
CLIMATEä ı myÓ˚y xyo≈ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ~ÓÇ B myÓ˚y ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó•%° ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛ •° !˲ }ï%˛àï˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey G Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛
ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÜ,˛ï˛ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÙ)°Ü˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§– xyÓ•!Óò ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õl ç°ÓyÎ˚à% ï˛ !Ó˲yà G í˛z˛õ!Ó˲yàˆÏܲ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y •Ó˚ˆÊÏ ˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Óî≈ly
§yÓ˚!î 12.1 : ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà
ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ
A - Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ¢#ï˛°ï˛Ù ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey 18° C xÌÓy ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢
B - ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y Óy‹õ#˲Ól x!ôܲ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚
C - í˛z£÷Ï ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢ ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢#ï˛°ï˛Ù ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey Èüü 3° ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝ÃˆÏí˛Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ !ܲv
18° ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝ÃˆÏí˛Ó˚ Ü˛Ù–
D - ÓÓ˚Ê˛yÓ,ï˛ ÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚ ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚% ¢#ï˛°ï˛Ù ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey üü 3° ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝ÃˆÏí˛Ó˚ Ü˛Ù–
E - ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˛≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey 10° ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝ÃˆÏí˛Ó˚ Ü˛Ù–
H - í˛zFã˛Ë)˛!Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ ¢#ï˛°
104 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– f, m, w ~ÓÇ s ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y •Ó˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ åiä Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xyo≈ ç°ÓyÎ%̊ åTropical Wet Climate -Af ä ı
¢%‹Ò }ï%˛ˆÏܲ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ Èl– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe f myÓ˚y ¢%‹Ò }ï%˛ ˆòáyˆÏly xyo≈ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ≤Ãôyl
•Î˚!l– m = ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ç°ÓyÎ˚%ñ w = ¢%‹Ò ¢#ï˛Ü˛y° ~ÓÇ s = xM˛°à%ˆÏ°y •Ï° ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ xyÙyçl xÓÓy!•Ü˛yñ
¢%‹Ò @˝Ã#‹øܲy°– ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y •Ó˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ a, b, c ~ÓÇ d myÓ˚y ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛ÙyÇ¢ G ˛õ)Ó≈ ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ m#˛õ˛õ%O– ÓSȈÓÏ Ó˚ ˚
ï˛#Ó ï˛y Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– B ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% í˛z˛õ!Ó˲=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ÙyˆÏ§ !ÓˆÏܲˆÏ°Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ÓL!Óò%ƒÍ§• Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚–
ÓˆÏí˛¸y •Ó˚Ê˛ S !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆfiê˛˛õ Óy ly!ï˛ ¢%‹Ò ~ÓÇ W myÓ˚y ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù ï˛y˛õÙyey x!Ó!FSÈߨ˲yˆÏÓ Ü ˛Ù¢ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏ°G Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚
!ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– §yÓ˚!î 12.2ÈüÈ~ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ≤çÓ˚ Ü˛Ù– ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !òˆÏlÓ˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ ï˛y˛õÙyey ÌyˆÏܲ
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– §yÓ˚!î 12.1ÈüÈ~ ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ 300 ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝Ãí˛ ~ÓÇ §Ó≈!l¡¨ ï˛y˛õÙyey ÌyˆÏܲ 200 ˆ§É– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚
G ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§yÓ˚!î 12.2 : ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÜ,˛ï˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ !Ólƒy§
ˆ◊!î ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ x«˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛!ï˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ
A-Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ Ó,!T˛Ó•%° Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xyo≈ ç°ÓyÎ˚% Af ¢%‹Ò }ï%˛ ˆl•z–
ç°ÓyÎ%̊ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ç°ÓyÎ˚% Am Ó£Ï≈yñ fl∫“ܲy°#l ¢%‹Ò }ï%˛–
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xyo≈ G ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% Aw ¢%‹Ò ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°–
í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ˆfiê˛˛õ ç°ÓyÎ˚% BSh !l¡¨ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ly!ï˛ xyo≈ Óy ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚%
B-¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ÙÓ˚% ç°ÓyÎ˚% BWh !l¡¨ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ xyo≈ Óy ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚%
Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ˆfiê˛˛õ BSk Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ly!ï˛ xyo≈ Óy ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚%
Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ÙÓ˚% ç°ÓyÎ˚% BWk Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ xyo≈ Óy ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚%
í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xyo≈ ç°ÓyÎ˚% Cfa ¢%‹Ò }ï%˛ ˆl•zñ í˛z£÷Ï @˝Ã#‹øܲy°
C-í˛z£÷Ï ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï
Ë)˛Ùôƒ§yàÓ˚#Î˚ Cs ¢%‹Ò G í˛z£÷Ï @˝Ã#‹øܲy°
åÙôƒ x«˛yÇ¢ä ç°ÓyÎ˚%
§yÙ%!oܲ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛° Cfb ¢%‹Ò }ï%˛ ˆl•zñ í˛z£÷Ï G ¢#ï˛° @˝Ã#‹øܲy°
D-¢#ï˛° ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ÙÎ˚ xyo≈ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ Df ¢%‹Ò }ï%˛ ˆl•zñ ï˛#Ó  ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°–
xyÓ˚îƒÜ˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚% í˛z˛õˆÏÙÓ˚% ç°ÓyÎ˚% Dw á%Ó ï˛#Ó  G ¢%‹Ò ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°–
ï%˛wy ET ˆÜ˛yˆÏly @˝Ã#‹ø }ï%˛ ˆl•z–
E-¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚%
!ã˛Ó˚ï˛% £ÏyÓ˚ÙÎ˚ EF !ã˛Ó˚ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚yÓ,ï˛ xM˛°–
H-˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒyM˛° ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒyM˛° H ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ ˆâÓ˚y ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒyM˛°–

ˆ◊!î ÈüÈ A ı Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ Ó,!T˛Ó•%° ç°ÓyÎ˚% åTropical Humid
Climatesä ı
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ Ó,!T˛Ó•%° ç°ÓyÎ%̊ ܲÜ≈˛ê˛Ü ˛y!hs˝ ˆÓ˚áy G ÙܲÓ˚Ü ˛y!hs˝ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚
ÙôƒË˛yˆÏà xÓ!fiÌï˛– ~•z xLjϢ §yÓ˚yÓSÈÓ˚ §)Î≈ °¡∫˲yˆÏÓ !ܲÓ˚î
ˆòÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xyhs˝/Ü ˛yhs#Î˚ x!˲§,!ï˛ Ó°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ åITCZä í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° ~áylܲyÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% í˛z£÷Ï G xyo≈– ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ àí˛¸
á% Ó Ü˛Ù ~ÓÇ Óy!£Ï ≈ Ü ˛ Ó, ! T˛˛õyï˛ ˆÓ!¢– Ü  ˛ yhs˝ # Î˚ Ó, ! T˛Ó•% °
ç°ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ !ï˛l!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ÎÌy ÈüÈ åiä Af -
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xyo≈ ç°yÓyÎ˚ó% åiiä Am -Ü ˛yhs#Î˚ ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ç°ÓyÎ˚ó% åiiiä
Aw-Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ï G xyo≈ ç°ÓyÎ˚%–
!ã˛Ó˚•!Ó˚Í xÓ˚îƒ âl§!ߨ!ÓT˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ãÑ˛yˆÏòyÎ˚y §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z
ç°yÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° Óƒy˛õܲ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
åiiä Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ç°ÓyÎ˚% åTropical Monsoon
Climate -Amä ı
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ í˛z˛õÙ•yˆÏò¢ñ ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚
í˛z_Ó˚ÈüÈ˛õ)Óy≈ Ç¢ ~ÓÇ xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚yLjϢ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ°
˲yÓ˚# Ó£Ï≈î •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛Ü˛y° ¢%‹Ò ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z ç°ÓyÎ%̊ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
!Óhfl,Ïï˛ !ÓÓÓ˚î Ú˲yÓ˚ï˛ ı ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢Û Ó•zˆÏï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% G ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
åiiiä Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ï G xyo≈ ç°ÓyÎ˚% åTropical Wet and Dry
Climate - Awä ı
Af ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% í˛z_Ó˚ G ò!«˛î !òˆÏܲ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ï G xyo≈
ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ç°yÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ §#Ùy Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛ÙyLjϢÓ˚
¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% ~ÓÇ Cf G Cw ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈yÇ¢ ˛õÎ≈hs˝
!Óhfl,Ïï˛– Aw ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% Ó y!çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÙyçl ÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚
G ò!«˛ˆÏîñ ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ Ó!°!˲Î˚y G ˛õƒyÓ˚yà%ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §!ߨ!•ï˛
xM˛°ñ §%òyl§• Ùôƒ xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ ò!«˛î xÇ¢ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Óhfl,Ïï˛– ~•z
ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° Af ~ÓÇ Am ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°– Ó£Ï≈yܲyˆÏ°Ó˚ fiÌy!Î˚c Ü˛Ù ~ÓÇ ¢%‹Ò }ï%˛Ó˚
fiÌy!Î˚c ˆÓ!¢ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ï˛#Ó  áÓ˚yÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– §yÓ˚yÓSÈÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey
ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ˜ò!lܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ ¢%‹Ò }ï%˛ˆÏï˛ §Ó≈y!ôܲ
ÌyˆÏܲ– ˛õî≈ˆÏÙyã˛# ÓlË)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ Ó,«˛ xyFSÈy!òï˛ ï,˛îË)˛!Ù ~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚%
xM˛ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
ˆ◊!î ÈB üüüÈ ¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% åDry Climatesä ı
¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •°ñ á%Ó Ü˛Ù Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚
ÎÌyÎÌ Ó,!Âô •Î˚ ly– ~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Óƒy˛õܲ xM˛° ç%ˆÏí˛¸
Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ xÌ≈yÍ !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ 15° - 60° í˛z_Ó˚ G ò!«˛î x«˛yÇ¢
˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– !l¡¨ x«˛yLjϢñ 15° - 30° x«˛yLjϢ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ xÇ¢ ˆÎáyˆÏl ï˛y˛õÙyey •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ˆ§áyˆÏl Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛
•Î˚ ly– Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù §#ÙyˆÏhs˝ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ¢#ï˛° ˆflÀyï˛ !Ù!°ï˛
•Î˚ñ !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓá˚ yÓ˚
!òˆÏܲ xyÓ˚G ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°Ë˛yà ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !ÓhflïÏ, ˛– Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢñ
!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ 35° - 60° í˛z_Ó˚ G ò!«˛Ïî Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ÙôƒË˛yˆÏà
ˆÎáyˆÏl í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xyo≈ ÓyÎ˚% ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly ~ÓÇ §Ù@˝Ã
xM˛° ˛õÓ≈ï˛ myÓ˚y ˆÓ!T˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ˆ§áyˆÏl BÈüȈ◊!îÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚–
¢%‹Ò ç°ÓyÎ˚% ò%•z ˲yˆÏà !Ó˲=˛– ÎÌyÈüÈ ˆfiê˛˛õ Óy ÙÓ˚%≤ÃyÎ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%
åBSä ~ÓÇ ÙÓ˚% ç°ÓyÎ˚% åBWä– ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˲yˆÏà
˲yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ˆfiê˛˛õ åBShä ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚
ÙÓ˚% åBWhä ç°ÓyÎ˚% Îy 15° - 35° x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ 35° - 60° x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ùôƒ x«˛yÇ¢#Î˚ ˆfiê˛˛õ
åBSkä ~ÓÇ Ùôƒ x«˛yÇ¢#Î˚ ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù åBWkä ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ˆfiê˛˛õ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ÙÓ˚% ç°ÓyÎ˚% åSubtropical
Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert (BWh)
Climatesä ı
í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ˆfiê˛˛õ åBShä ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ÙÓ˚% åBWhä ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
§yôyÓ˚î ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •° Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ G í˛z_y˛õ– ¢%‹Ò G xyo≈ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
105
ÙôƒË˛yˆÏà xÓ!fiÌï˛ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ˆfiê˛˛õ ç°ÓyÎ˚ˆ% ïÏ ˛ ÙÓ˚% xM˛° xˆÏ˛õ«˛y
!ܲS%È ˆÓ!¢ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚ Îy fl∫“ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ï,˛îË)˛!Ù çß√yˆÏï˛ §•yÎ˚ܲ–
ò%ÛôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛•z Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°– Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ~•z
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ÙÓ˚% xM˛° xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆfiê˛˛õ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
çlç#ÓˆÏl ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚– ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ≤ÃyÎ˚•z ò%!Ë≈˛«˛ ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚– ÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° fl∫“ܲy°#l ÓL!Óò%ƒÍ§• ≤ÃÓ° Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚ñ Î!òG
ï˛y Ùy!ê˛Ó˚ xyo≈ï˛y §,!T˛ˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÎ≈ܲÓ˚ lÎ˚– ¢#ï˛° ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §#Ùyhs˝Óï≈˛#
í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ ÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° Ü%˛Î˚y¢yÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ âê˛ly– @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ°
ï˛y˛õÙyey á%Ó ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ– 1922 §yˆÏ°Ó˚ 13 ˆ§ˆÏ≤Wz¡∫Ó˚ !°!ÓÎ˚yÓ˚
xy° xy!ç!çÎ˚yˆÏï˛ §Ó≈y!ôܲ ï˛y˛õÙyey 580 ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝Ãí˛ !°!˛õÓÂô
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– Óy!£Ï≈ܲ G ˜ò!lܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚G ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ–
í˛z£÷Ï ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï åÙôƒ x«˛yÇ¢ä ç°ÓyÎ˚% ÈåWarm Temperate
(Mid-Latitude) Climates-Cä ı
í˛z£Ï÷ ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï ç°ÓyÎ˚% ≤Ãôylï˛ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈ G ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù §#ÙyˆÏhs˝˛
30° - 50° x«˛yÇ¢ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Óhfl,Ïï˛– ~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ í˛z£÷Ï
@˝Ã#‹øܲy° ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% ¢#ï˛Ü˛y° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ç°ÓyÎ%̊ˆÏܲ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl
˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ÎÌy ÈüÈ åiä í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xyo≈ ç°ÓyÎ˚%ñ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ
¢%‹Ò ¢#ï˛Ü˛y° ~ÓÇ í˛z£Ï÷ @˝Ã#‹øܲy° åCWaäó åiiä Ë)˛Ùôƒ§yàÓ˚#Î˚ åCsäó
åiiiä xyo≈ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ñ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ¢%‹Ò }ï%˛ ˆl•z ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°
åCfaäó åivä §yÙ%!oܲ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% åCfbä–
xyo≈ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% åHumid Subtropical Climate -
Cwaä ı
xyo≈ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛° ܲÜ≈˛ê˛Ü ˛y!hs˝ G ÙܲÓ˚Ü ˛y!hs˝ ˆÓ˚áy
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲñ ≤Ãôylï˛ í˛z_Ó˚ ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ §ÙË)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î
!ã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚fiÌ §ÙË)˛!ÙÓ˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛– ~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛° Aw
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y•z ï˛ˆÏÓ ¢#ï˛Ü˛y° í˛z£÷Ï–
Ë)˛Ùôƒ§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% åMediterranean Climate - Csä ı
lyÙyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛Ùôƒ§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ%̊ Ë)˛Ùôƒ §yàÓ˚ §!ߨ!•ï˛ xM˛°§•
30° - 40° x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ÙôƒfiÌ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù•yˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚
˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛°ñ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ùôƒ ܲƒy!°ˆÏÊ˛y!l≈Î˚yñ Ùôƒ !ã˛!°ñ ò!«˛î ˛õ)Ó≈
G ò!«˛îÈüÈ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚y ÈüÈ ~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛– í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z_y° @˝Ã#‹ø G ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°#l ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ùy ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ myÓ˚y ~•z xM˛°
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛– ~çlƒ í˛z£÷Ï G ¢%‹Ò @˝Ã#‹øܲy° ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% Ó,!T˛Ó•%° ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°
~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ– @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° àí˛¸ Ùy!§Ü˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey ≤ÃyÎ˚ 25°
ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝Ãí˛ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°#l ï˛y˛õÙyey 10° ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝ÃˆíÏ ˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
Óy!£Ï≈ܲ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ àí˛¸ 35 - 90 ˆ§!Ù–
106
xyo≈ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ÈåHumid Subtropical (Cfa)
Climateä ı
í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ x«˛yLjϢ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈yLjϢ xyo≈ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z xM˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O §yôyÓ˚îï˛ x!fiÌ!ï˛¢#° ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° §yÓ˚y ÓSÈÓ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚– xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy Î%=˛Ó˚yˆÏT˛…Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈yÇ¢ñ
!ã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ò!«˛î G ˛õ)Ó≈yÇ¢ñ çy˛õyˆÏlÓ˚ ò!«˛îyÇ¢ñ xyˆÏç≈!rê˛lyÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚
˛õ)Óy≈ Ç¢ñ ò!«˛î xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°Ë˛yà ~ÓÇ xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈ í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°
~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– Óy!£Ï≈ܲ àí˛¸ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ 75-150 ˆ§!ÙÈüÈÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ÌyˆÏܲ– @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° ÓL!Óò%ƒÍ§• Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ°
â)î≈Óyï˛ç!lï˛ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ ~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ– @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° àí˛¸
Ùy!§Ü˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey ≤ÃyÎ˚ 27° ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝Ãí˛ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ° ~ê˛y 5°-
12° ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝ÃˆÏí˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˜ò!lܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ Ü˛Ù–
§yÙ%!oܲ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ÈåMarine West Coast
Climate -Cfbä ı
§yÙ%!oܲ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% Ë)˛Ùôƒ§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛°
ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ° ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z
ç°ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ ≤Ãôyl xM˛°à%ˆÏ°y •° ÈüÈ í˛z_Ó˚ÈüÈ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛õñ
í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛°ñ í˛z_Ó˚ ܲƒy!°ˆÏÊ˛y!l≈Î˚y !ã˛!°Ó˚
ò!«˛îyÇ¢ñ xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚yÓ˚ ò!«˛îÈüÈ˛õ)Ó≈yÇ¢ ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!ç°ƒyu˛˛– §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚
≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ ~áylܲyÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ%̊ §Ù˲yÓy˛õߨ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ° x«˛yÇ¢àï˛
xÓfiÌy xˆÏ˛õ«˛y í˛z£÷Ï ÌyˆÏܲ– @˝Ã#‹øܲy°#l ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey 15°-
20° ˆ§!rê˛∆ˆÏ@˝ÃˆÏí˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°#l ï˛y˛õÙyey 4°-10°
ˆ§!rê˛ˆÏ@˝Ãí˛– Óy!£Ï≈ܲ G ˜ò!lܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ Ü˛Ù– §yÓ˚yÓSÈÓ˚Óƒy˛õ#
Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚– Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 50-250 ˆ§!ÙÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ÓÓ˚Ê˛yÓ,ï˛ ÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚ ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚% ÈåCold Snow Forest
Climates-Dä ı
í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ 40°-70° í˛z_Ó˚ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛õñ ~!¢Î˚y
~ÓÇ í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÎ˚ ÓÓ˚Ê˛yÓ,ï˛ ÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚ ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚% åDä
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛°ˆÏܲ ò%ˆÏê˛y ˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ÎÌy ÈüÈ
åiä Df - xyo≈ ¢#ï˛Î%=˛ ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ%̊ ~ÓÇ åiiä Dw - ¢%‹Ò ¢#ï˛Î%=˛
¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚%– í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢ ¢#ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏܲy˛õ ˆÓ!¢–
xyo≈ ¢#ï˛Î%=˛ ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚% åCold Climate with Humid
Winters -Df ä ı
§yÙ%!oܲ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ Ùôƒ
x«˛yÇ¢#Î˚ ˆfiê˛˛õ xM˛ˆÏ° xyo≈ ¢#ï˛Î%=˛ ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
¢#ï˛Ü˛y° ¢#ï˛° ~ÓÇ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚yÓ,ï˛– ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚•#l }ï%˛Ó˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ Ü˛Ù– Óy!£Ï≈ܲ
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ àí˛¸ x!ôܲ– xyÓ•yGÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xyܲ!fløܲ ~ÓÇ Ü˛Ù–
ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ¢#ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y ˆÓ!¢–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
¢%‹Ò ¢#ï˛Î%=˛ ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚% åCold Climate with Dry
Winters - Dwä ı
~!¢Î˚yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ÈüÈ˛õ)Óy≈ LjϢ ≤Ãôylï˛ ¢%‹Ò ¢#ï˛Î%=˛ ¢#ï˛° ç°ÓyÎ%̊ åDwä
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ° ≤Ãï˛#˛õ â)î≈Óyï˛Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚– @˝Ã#‹øܲy°#l ˆÙÔ§%!Ù ÓyÎ˚≤% ÃÓyˆÏ• ~!ê˛ ò%Ó°
≈ •ˆÏ°G ≤Ãï˛ƒyÓï≈˛l¢#°
ÓyÎ˚% ~•z xM˛ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ @˝Ã#‹øܲy°#l ï˛y˛õÙyey á%Ó
Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ° !ܲS%È !ܲS%È xM˛ˆÏ° ï˛y˛õÙyey x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛
ܲˆÏÙ !àˆÏÎ˚ !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ã˛ˆÏ° ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ §yï˛Ùy§
~•z xÓfiÌy ÌyˆÏܲ– Óy!£Ï≈ܲ Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 12-15 ˆ§!ÙÓ˚ ܲÙ
ÌyˆÏܲ–
ˆÙÓ˚%ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% åPolar Climates (E)ä ı
ˆÙÓ˚%ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% 70° x«˛yÇ¢ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚ x!˲Ù%ˆÏá
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ˆÙÓ˚% ˆò¢#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ò%ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ı åiä ï%˛wy åETäó åiiä
!ã˛Ó˚ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚yÓ,ï˛ åEFä–
ï%˛wy ç°ÓyÎ˚% ÈåTundra Climate -ETä ı
ï%˛wy ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ lyÙ í˛z!qò ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ lyÙyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl
ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ây§ñ ˜¢Óy°ñ ï,˛î ~ÓÇ Ê%˛°≤ÃòyÎ˚# í˛z!qò ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ lyÙyl%§yˆÏÓ˚
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ê˛y ˆ§•z xM˛° ˆÎáyˆÏl Ùy!ê˛ fiÌyÎ˚#˲yˆÏÓ !ã˛Ó˚ !•Ùy!Î˚ï˛
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– fl∫“ܲy°#l í˛zˆqÏ ò# }ï%˛ ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ¢%ôÙ% ye
ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y í˛z!qò çß√yÎ˚– @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° ï%˛wy ç°ÓyÎ%̊ xM˛ˆÏ° !òˆÏlÓ˚
xyˆÏ°y á%Ó ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ–
!ã˛Ó˚ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚yÓ,ï˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚% åIce Cap Climate - EFä ı
!@˝Ãî°ƒyˆÏu˛Ó˚ ÙôƒË˛yà ~ÓÇ xyrê˛yÜ≈˛!ê˛Ü˛y Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢ !ã˛Ó˚ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚yÓ,ï˛
ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ°G ï˛y˛õÙyey !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~•z xM˛ˆÏ° á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •Î˚– ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ G ÓÓ˚Ê˛ ˛õ%O#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
xyˆÏÓ˚y•# ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚˛õyï˛Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !Ó!FSÈߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆË˛ˆÏ. ÎyÎ˚–
~à%ˆ°Ï y !•Ù˜Ï¢°Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ §%ˆÙÏ Ó%̊ G Ü%˛ˆÏÙÓ%̊ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ ˲y§Ùyl xÓfiÌyÎ˚
ÌyˆÏܲ– xyrê˛yÜ≈˛!ê˛Ü˛yÓ˚ 79° ò!«˛î x«˛yLjϢ Ú≤’ƒyˆÏê˛y ˆfiê˛¢lÛ åPlateau
Station is an inactive American research and South
PoleäÈüÈ~ ~•z ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛FSÈ!Ó ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
í˛zFã˛Ë)˛!Ù Óy ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ÈåHighland Climates - Hä ı
í˛zFã˛Ë)˛!Ù ç°ÓyÎ%̊ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚– ˛í˛zFã˛ ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ xM˛ˆÏ°
fl∫“ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ Óƒy˛õܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– Ó,!T˛˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚
≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ G ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yˆÏ˲ˆÏò !˲ߨ !˲ߨ •Î˚– ˛õyÓ≈ï˛ƒ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ˆÏ¢
í˛zÕ‘¡∫ í˛zFã˛ï˛y xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ hflÏÓ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% G ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lÈ åCLIMATE CHANGEä ı
˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# xôƒyÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y §Ç!«˛Æ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ §Ù§yÙ!Î˚ܲ
ç°ÓyÎ%̊ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆçˆÏl!SÈ– !Óàï˛ 10,000 ÓSȈÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ç°ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚
§yÙylƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚!SÈ– ܲálG Óƒy˛õܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°ï˛y
ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ– §,!T˛ °@¿ ˆÌˆÏܲ•z ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ˛
˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ë)˛ÈüÈï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ˆÓ˚ܲˆÏí≈˛ !•ÙÎ%à G xyhs˝/ !•ÙÎ%ˆÏàÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ë)˛ÈüÈàyë˛!lܲ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒñ !ӈϢ£Ïï˛
í˛zFã˛ Ë)˛!Ù˲yà Óy í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢ !•ÙÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ x@˝ÃàÙl Óy ˛õŸã˛yò
§Ó˚î ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– í˛z£÷Ï G ¢#ï˛° Î%ˆÏà hflψÏÓ˚ hflψÏÓ˚ §!M˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
!•Ù•…òG §,!T˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ó,«˛!fiÌï˛ Ó°Î˚ myÓ˚yG xyo≈ G ¢%‹Ò Î%ˆÏàÓ˚
ôyÓ˚îy ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ !ÓÓÓ˚ˆÏîG xˆÏlܲyLjϢ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ~§Ü˛° ≤ÃÙyˆÏîÓ˚ !l!Ó˚ˆáÏ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ç°ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ~ÓÇ ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y–
˲yÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛G ¢%‹Ò G xyo≈ Î%à ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ܲ  ˆÏÙ ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ– ≤Ãbï˛y!_¥Ü˛àî
á%шÏç ˆÓÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl ˆÎñ !á fiê˛˛õ)Ó≈ 8000 ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ §ÙˆÏÎ˚
Ó˚yçfiÌyl ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% xyo≈ G ¢#ï˛° !SÈ°– !á fiê˛˛õ)Ó≈ 3000-
1700 ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~áyˆÏl x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ •ï˛– !á É˛õ)É ≤ÃyÎ˚ 2000-
1700 ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~•z xM˛° •Ó˚Øy §Ë˛ƒï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w˲yˆÏà !SÈ°– ï˛ál
ˆÌˆÏܲ•z ¢%‹Ò xÓfiÌy ˆçyÓ˚yˆÏ°y •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
Ë)˛ÈüÈï˛y!_¥Ü˛ Î%ˆÏà 500-300 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ܲƒyÙ!Ó Î˚ylñ
xÓ˚ˆÏí˛y!˲!§Î˚yl ~ÓÇ !§°%!Ó˚Î˚yl Î%ˆÏà ˛õ,!ÌÓ# !ܲS%Èê˛y í˛z‹ø !SÈ°–
!≤’ˆÏfiê˛y!àl Î%ˆÏàÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ñ !•ÙÎ%à G xyhs˝/ !•ÙÎ%à ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ≤ÃyÎ˚
18,000 ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ x!hs˝Ù !•ÙÎ%à ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– 10,000 ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈
Óï≈˛Ùyl xyhs˝/ !•ÙÎ%à ¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§y¡±!ï˛Ü˛ xï˛#ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% åClimate in the recent
pastä ı
§Ó§ÙÎ˚ ç°ÓyÎ%̊ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– !Óàï˛ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚ lÓÁ•zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ò¢ˆÏܲ
xyÓ•yGÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛Óƒy˛õܲï˛y ≤Ãï˛ƒ!«˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– 1990 §yˆÏ° ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚
§Ó≈y!ôܲ ï˛y˛õÙyey !°!˛õÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ~ÓÇ !ÓŸªç%ˆÏí˛¸ !ܲS%È
˲Î˚ylܲ ÓlƒyG §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– 1967-1977 §yˆÏ° §y•yÓ˚y
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ò!«˛ˆÏî xÓ!fiÌï˛ §ˆÏ•° xM˛° ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˲Î˚yÓ• áÓ˚yÓ˚
˛≤ÈÏܲyˆÏ˛õ ˛õˆÏí˛¸!SÈ°– 1930 §yˆÏ° xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy Î%=˛Ó˚yˆÏT˛…Ó˚ ò!«˛î
˛õ!Ÿã˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ !ÓhflÏ#î≈ §ÙË)˛!Ù xM˛ˆÏ° áÓ˚yÓ˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛yˆÏܲ Úô)ˆÏ°yÓ˚ V%˛!í˛¸
ådust bowläÛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ~•z Óƒy˛õܲ
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ü,˛!£ÏË)˛!Ù G Ü,˛!£Ïç Ê˛§° ï˛Ìy ÓlƒyÓ˚ ≤ÈÏܲyˆÏ˛õ
çl§yôyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó yçˆÏlÓ˚ âê˛ly ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ ˆÓ˚ܲí≈˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
•zí˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛õ í˛z£÷Ïñ xyo≈ñ ¢#ï˛° G ¢%‹Ò xyÓ•yGÎ˚y Ó•%ÓyÓ˚ ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ–
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~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛zˆÏՑრ•Ï°ñ ò¢Ù G ~ܲyò¢ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y G ¢%‹Òï˛yÓ˚
≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ Óy•z!ܲl§‰ í˛z˛õçy!ï˛Ó˚y Îál !@˝Ãl°ƒyˆÏu˛˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ Ó§Óy§ ¢%Ó˚%
ܲˆÏÓ˚– 1550 §y° ˆÌˆÏܲ 1850 §y° ˛õÎ≈hs˝ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛õ Ú«%˛o ÓÓ˚Ê˛
Î%à åLittle Ice AgeäÛ xl%˲) ï˛ •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°– 1885-1940 §y° ˛õÎ≈hs˝
!ӈϟªÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ˆòáy !àˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– 1940 §yˆÏ°Ó˚
˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ •yÓ˚ !l¡¨Ù%á# ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î åCauses of Climate
Changeä ı
ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î Ó•%!Óô– ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆçƒy!ï˛!Ó≈òƒyçyï˛
~ÓÇ fiÌ°çàï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚î ÈüüüÈ ~•z ò%˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ˆ§ÔÓ˚ܲ°ˆÏAܲ
åsunspotä §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ xy˛õyï˛à!ï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zͲõߨ §)Î≈!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ˆçƒy!ï˛!Ó≈òƒyàï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚î !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ã˛Ü ˛yܲyˆÏÓ˚
xyÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆ§ÔÓ˚ܲ°ˆÏAܲ àyì˛¸ G ¢#ï˛°ï˛yÓ˚ •…y§ G Ó,!Âô âˆÏê˛–
xyÓ•!ÓòˆÏòÓ˚ Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ Îál ˆ§ÔÓ˚ܲ°Aܲ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ï˛ál
xyÓ•yGÎ˚y ¢#ï˛°ï˛Ó˚ G xyo≈ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Óƒy˛õܲ V˛ˆÏí˛¸y xÓfiÌy
§,!T˛ •Î˚ñ x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ܲ°Aܲ •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏ° í˛z£÷Ï G ¢%‹Ò xÓfiÌy
!ÓÓ˚yç ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!òG ~§Ü˛° ï˛Ìƒ ˛õ!Ó˚§Çáƒylàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xÌ≈Ó• lÎ˚–
x˛õÓ˚ ˆçƒy!ï˛!Ó≈òƒyàï˛ ï˛_¥ •Ï° Ú!Ù°yˆÏAܲy!Ë˛ã˛ ˆòy°l
åMillankovitch oscillationsäÛ Îy §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
xyÓï≈˛lܲyˆÏ° !lç xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˆ•ˆÏ° xyÓ!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚
ӈϰ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚– §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyàï˛ §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚
Ê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl•z ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ~Ó˚)˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚–
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !Ü ˛Î˚yܲ°y˛õG ç°ÓyÎ%̊ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ x˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ˚î–
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ x@¿%ƒÍ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ô)!°Ü˛îy åaerosolsä !là≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° !وϢ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ô)!°Ü˛îy§Ù)• ò#â≈ܲy°Óƒy˛õ# ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
!ÓòƒÙyl ÌyܲyÎ˚ §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ΈÏÌT˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– §y¡±!ï˛Ü˛Ü˛yˆÏ° !˛õlyˆÏ ê ˛yÓy ~ÓÇ ~°ˆÏ Ü ˛yˆÏ Î ˚ l
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚Ó˚ x@¿%ƒÍ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ
ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚–
ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ l,ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ≤Ã˲yÓ •Ï° ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
!@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Ùyey Ó,!Âô– ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ë)˛ÈüÈí˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚l •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
Ë)˛ÈüÈí˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚l åGlobal Warmingä ı
!@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
≤Ã˲yÓ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛° ˆÌˆÏÜ xyàï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚!ܲÓ˚î ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,¤˛
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÓyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ x!ôܲyÇ¢•z ò#â≈
ï˛Ó˚Aày!Î˚ï˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎ§Ü˛° àƒy§ ~•z ò#â≈
ï˛Ó˚Aày!Î˚ï˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒy§ ӈϰ–
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ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°ˆÏܲ í˛z_ÆܲyÓ˚# ~§Ü˛° ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ ≤Ã˲yÓ
ågreenhouse effectä ӈϰ x!˲!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
Ú!@˝Ãl•yí˛z§Û ܲÌy!ê˛ ¢#ï˛° xM˛ˆÏ° ï˛y˛õ §ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ
ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õÙy ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ– Ú!@˝Ãl•yí˛z§Û!ê˛ Ü˛yã˛
!òˆÏÎ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ܲyÓ˚î fl∫FSÈ Ü˛yã˛ §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyàï˛
«%˛o ˆ§ÔÓ˚ï˛Ó˚Aà ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv ò#â≈ ï˛Ó˚Aà !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏî
x«˛Ù– ~çlƒ ܲyã˛ˆÏܲ x!ôܲ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ ï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y£ÏˆÏîÓ˚
çlƒ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ò#â≈ ï˛Ó˚Aà ܲyã˛ ˆË˛ò ܲˆÏÓ˚
Óy•zˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly ˛õˆÏ° Úܲyã˛âÓ˚ÛÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆË˛ï˛Ó˚ܲyÓ˚
ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó!•Ë≈˛yà ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Îál
@˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Óy§ Óy ày!í˛¸Ó˚ çyly°y Órô ܲˆÏÓ˚
Ó˚yá ï˛ál Ó!•Ë≈˛yà ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆË˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚ x!ôܲ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y xl%˲Ó
ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ– xl%Ó˚)˛õ˲yˆÏÓ ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ° òÓ˚çy G çyly°y Órô
ÌyܲˆÏ° Ó!•Ë≈˛yà ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆË˛ï˛Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~!ê˛ Ú!@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ ≤Ã˲yÓÛÈüÈ~Ó˚ x˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
!@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒy§§Ù)• åGreenhouse Gases-GHGsä ı
Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl ˆÎ §Ü˛° !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒy§ åGHGä !lˆÏÎ˚ §Ü˛ˆÏ°
!ã˛!hs˝ï˛ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤Ãôyl •° ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ åCO2äñ
ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÊœ%˛ˆÏÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈l åCFCsäñ !ÙˆÏÌl åCH4äñ ly•zê˛∆y§ x:y•zí˛
åN2Oä ~ÓÇ GˆÏçyl àƒy§ åO3ä ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛– xyÓ˚G !ܲS%È àƒy§ñ
ˆÎÙlÈüÈly•z!ê˛∆ܲ x:y•zí˛ åNO ä ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l ÙˆÏlyx:y•zí˛
å CO ä G §•ˆÏ ç !@˝ à l•yí˛z § àƒyˆÏ § ≤Ã!ï˛!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ~ÓÇ
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ~Ó˚ «˛!ï˛Ü˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˆÊ˛ˆÏ°– ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§
åGHGä àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲy!Ó˚ï˛y ï˛yÓ˚ âlc Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ
ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ° fiÌy!Î˚c ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛!°ï˛ ò#â≈ ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˆ¢y£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÊœ%˛ˆÏÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚
åCFCsä ≤Ã˲yÓ á%Ó ˆÓ!¢– fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ GˆÏçyl àƒy§ hflÓÏ ˚
§) Î ≈ ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ xyàï˛ x!ï˛ ˆÓà% ! l Ó˚ ! Ÿ¬ ˆ¢y£Ï î ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ !l¡¨
ˆê˛∆yˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ fiÌyl#Î˚ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õ ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflyÏ Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚
x˛õÓ˚ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ •° !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ åGHGsä xl%àˆ% ° Ï y
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ò#â≈§ÙÎ˚Óƒy˛õ# xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,¤˛ §Ç°@¿
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ~Ó˚ Óƒy˛õܲ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˆÊ˛ˆÏ°– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xï˛ƒhs˝ ˆÓ!¢–
Ù)°ï˛ ç#ÓyŸ¬ çµy°y!l åá!lç ˆï˛°ñ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ àƒy§ ~ÓÇ
ܲÎ˚°yä ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– ÓlË)˛) !Ù ~ÓÇ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ ≤â!Ùï˛ •Î˚–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
ÓlË)˛!ÙG ï˛yÓ˚ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ çlƒ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xï˛~Ó Ë)˛!Ù ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ çlƒ Ó,«˛ˆÏFSÈòˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛ˆÏ° ܲyÓ≈l
í˛y•z x :y•z ˆ Ï í ˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ Ù yî Ó, ! Âô ˛õyÎ˚ – ÓyÎ˚ % Ù [˛ˆÏ ° ܲyÓ≈ l
í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî •…y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚ §Ùï˛y xylyÓ˚ çlƒ 20-50
ÓSÈÓ˚ ˆ°ˆÏà ÎyˆÏÓ– ~•z àƒy§ Óy!£ÏÜ≈ ˛ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 0.5 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ •yˆÏÓ˚ Ó,!Âô
˛õyˆÏFSÈ– ç°ÓyÎ˚Ó#Î˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ° åclimatic modelsä ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xyl%Ùy!lܲ §)ã˛Ü˛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ≤Ãy܉˛ !¢“yM˛° hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
G˛õÓ˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ âlˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !mà%î Ó,!Âô
˛õyGÎ˚yˆÏܲ xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ˛!Ü ˛Î˚yܲ°yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ° ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÊœ%˛ˆÏÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈l
å CFCsä ~Ó˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚ GˆÏçyl hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ x!ï˛ˆÏÓà%!l Ó˚!Ÿ¬ x!:ˆÏçlˆÏܲ GˆÏçyl
àƒyˆÏ§ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚– ~çlƒ x!ï˛ˆÏÓà%!l Ó˚!Ÿ¬ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛
ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~•z ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÊœ%˛ˆÏÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈l ≤ÃÓy• myÓ˚y
fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ GˆÏçyl hflÓÏ ˚ !ÓlT˛ •Î˚– xƒyrê˛yÜ≈˛!ê˛Ü˛y Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢
GˆÏçyl àƒy§ hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ •…y§ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚
GˆÏçyl hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ !l/ˆÏ¢!£Ïï˛ •GÎ˚yˆÏܲ ÚGˆÏçyl à•¥Ó˚ åozone
holeäÛ lyˆÏÙ x!˲!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z à•¥Ó˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ x!ï˛ ˆÓà%!l
Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ˆê˛∆yˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ hflÏÓ˚ ˆË˛ò ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ •…y§ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ
xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ hflψÏÓ˚G ≤ÃÎ˚y§ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏFSÈ– ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ •Ï° 1997 §yˆÏ° Ú!ܲˆÏÎ˚yˆÏê˛y á§í˛¸y ã%˛!=˛ åKyoto
protocoläÛÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆây£Ïîy– ~•z á§í˛¸y ã%˛!=˛ 2005 §yˆÏ° 141!ê˛
ˆòˆÏ¢ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– Ú!ܲˆÏÎ˚yˆÏê˛y á§í˛¸y ã%˛!=˛Û xl%§yˆÏÓ˚
35!ê˛ !¢ˆÏ“yß¨ï˛ ˆòˆÏ¢ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲy!Ó˚ï˛y 1990 §y° ˆÌˆÏܲ
2012 §yˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 5 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ܲ!ÙˆÏÎ˚ xylˆÏï˛ Óyôƒ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ åGHGsä ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü ˛Ùyàï˛
Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyG Ó,!Âô ˛õyˆÏFSÈ– ~ܲÓyÓ˚
Ë)˛ÈüÈí˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚l ¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏ° ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õŸã˛yò˛õ§Ó˚î âê˛yˆÏly ܲT˛Ü˛Ó˚–
Ë)˛ÈüÈí˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ §Ó≈e §Ùyl˲yˆÏÓ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ly– ï˛y §ˆÏ_¥G
Ë)˛ÈüÈí˛z£yÏ÷ Î˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ «˛!ï˛Ü˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ çlç#ÓlˆÏܲ !Ó˛õÎ≈hflÏ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÓÏ – í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y
Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !•ÙÓy• G ÓÓ˚Ê˛ hfl˛Ï) õ àˆÏ° §Ù%o ç°hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y
Ó,!Âô ˛õyˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Óhfl#Ï î≈ xM˛°§• m#˛õ§Ù)ˆ•Ï Óƒy˛õܲ
§yÙy!çܲ ≤Ã!ï˛Órôܲï˛yÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– !ÓŸª §Ç§yˆÏÓ˚ ~•z
§Ù§ƒy xï˛ƒhs˝ í˛z ˆ Ï m àçlܲ– •z ˆ Ï ï ˛yÙˆÏ ô ƒ !@˝ à l•yí˛z § àƒy§
åGHGsäÈ È~Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ !lÎ˚sfˆÏî xyly ~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈí˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚l Ó,!ÂôÓ˚
≤ÃÓ,!_ •…y§ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÃÎ˚y§ ¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆàˆÏSÈ– xy¢y ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
ˆÎñ xò)Ó˚ ˲!ӣσˆÏï˛ !ÓŸª§Ç§yÓ˚ ~•z ã˛ƒyˆÏ°ˆÏOÓ˚ ≤Ãï%˛ƒ_Ó˚ ˆòˆÏÓ
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% G ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
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˲!Ó£ÏƒÍ ≤Ãçß√ !l!Ÿã˛ˆÏhs˝ Ó§Óy§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl Ë)˛ÈüÈí˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚l ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl í˛zˆÏmˆÏàÓ˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚–
~ál xyÙÓ˚y !°!˛õÓÂô ï˛y˛õÙyey xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~•z @˝Ã• ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ í˛z_Æ
•ˆÏFSÈ ˆ§!ê˛ ˆòáÓ–
|!l¢ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙôƒË˛yà ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù •zí˛zˆÓÏ y˚ ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey
§ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ï˛Ìƒ §•ˆÏç í˛z˛õ°kô •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– 1961-90 §yˆÏ° ~•z
§ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ï˛Ìƒ §Çà,•#ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– •z!ï˛˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ï˛y˛õÙyey §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝
§Çà,•#ï˛ ï˛Ìƒ x§Çà!ï˛˛õ)î≈ !SÈ° ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ 1961-90
§yˆÏ°Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ ˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# G ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙÎ˚ܲyÓ˚
ï˛y˛õÙey §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ §Ç°@¿ fiÌyˆÏl
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ≤ÃyÎ˚ 140C– 1961-90 §yˆÏ°
Ë)˛ÈüȈày°ˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ 1856-2000 §yˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
Write an explanatory note on
“global warming”.
109
Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ §Ç°@¿ fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ x§Çà!ï˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#ˆÏï˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y §%flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– !ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#ˆÏï˛ ò%ˆÏê˛y ˛õˆÏÓ≈ ï˛y˛õÙyey
§Ó≈y!ôܲ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°ñ 1901-44 §y° ~ÓÇ 1977-99 §y°– ~•z
ò%ˆÏê˛y ˛õˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ˆÏï˛•z !ӈϟªÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ≤ÃyÎ˚ 0.40C Ó,!Âô
ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– xyÓyÓ˚ ~•z ò%ˆÏê˛y ˛õˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ•z !ܲS%Èê˛y ¢#ï˛°ï˛y
xl%Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° Îy í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ x!ôܲ °«˛î#Î˚–
!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚ ˆ¢£ÏyˆÏô≈ !ÓŸªÓƒy˛õ# àí˛¸ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ï˛y˛õÙyey
|l!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚ ˆ¢£ÏyˆÏôÓ≈ ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 0.60C ˆÓ!¢ !°!˛õÓÂô
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°– 1856-2000 §yˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óàï˛ ò¢ˆÏܲ•z §yï˛!ê˛
í˛z£÷Ïï˛Ù ÓSÈÓ˚ !°!˛õÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ï˛ˆÏÓ ¢%ô%Ùye !ÓÇ¢
¢ï˛y∑#•z lÎ˚ñ §Ù@˝Ã §•flÀy∑Óƒy˛õ# !°!˛õÓÂô ï˛y˛õÙyey xl%ÎyÎ˚#
1998 §y°!ê˛ !SÈ° í˛z£÷Ïï˛Ù §y°–
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xl%¢#°l#

1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ ÓySÈy•z ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı

(i) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÜ,˛ï˛ “A” ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛⁄
(a) §Ó ÙyˆÏ§ x!ôܲ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ –
(b) ¢#ï˛°ï˛Ù ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey !•ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
(c) ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey 18o C ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ–
(d) ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey 10o C ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ–
(ii) ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒyˆÏ§ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛!ê˛ Óƒ=˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ı
(a) ÓƒyÓ•y!Ó˚ܲó (b) !lÎ˚Ùyl%àó (c) §,!T˛ §¡∫rô#Î˚ó (d) àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÙ)°Ü˛–
(iii) ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ í˛z˛õm#ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ x!ôܲyÇ¢ fiÌyl ˆÎ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ%̊Ó˚ xhsà≈ï˛
ˆ§!ê˛ •° ı
(a) “Af” (b) “BSh” (c) “Cfb” (d) “Am”
(iv) !lˆÏ¡¨ ≤Ãò_ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ÓSÈÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏï˛ !ÓŸªÓƒy˛õ# §Ó≈y!ôܲ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y !°!˛õÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°⁄
(a) 1990 (b) 1998 (c) 1885 (d) 1950
(v) !lˆÏ¡¨ Ó!î≈ï˛ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ xyo≈ï˛yˆÏܲ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚⁄
(a) A—B—C—E
(b) A—C—D—E
(c) B—C—D—E
(d) A—C—D—F
2. !lˆÏ¡¨Ó˚ ≤ß¿§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ 30 !ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒyˆÏ§ ÚˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlÛ ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ò%ˆÏê˛y í˛z˛õyòylˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl⁄
(ii) ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ §,!T˛ §¡∫rô#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÙ)°Ü˛ !Ólƒy§ ˛õÂô!ï˛ fl∫ï˛sf ⁄
(iii) ˆÜ˛yl‰ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ á%Ó Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ⁄
(iv) ˆ§ÔÓ˚ܲ°Aܲ Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏ° ܲ# ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ xÓfiÌy ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚⁄
3. !lˆÏ¡¨Ó˚ ≤ß¿§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ 150 !ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG ı
(i) “A” ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ “B” ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(ii) “C” ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ “A” ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ܲ# ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z!qò ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ⁄
(iii) ÚÚ!@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒy§ÛÛ Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄ !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒy§§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y!°Ü˛y ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚y–
≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ Ú!ܲˆÏÎ˚yˆÏê˛y á§í˛¸y ã%˛!=˛ÛÈüÈÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛Ìƒ §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
 ~ܲܲ ı V

Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢
~•z ~ܲˆÏܲ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y •° ı
l í˛zòܲã˛Ü ˛ Óy ç°ã˛Ü ˛

l Ù•y§yàÓ˚§Ù)• ÈüüüÈ §Ù%oàË≈˛fiÌ Ë)˛≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ı Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ °Óîï˛yÓ˚

Ó^˝ê˛ló Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢ ÈüüüÈ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ §M˛Ó˚îñ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ §Ù%oˆÏflÀyï˛–
x ôƒy Î˚
xy ÙÓ˚y !ܲ ç° SÈyí˛¸y ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ x!hflÏc ܲ“ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚⁄
Ó°y •Î˚ ˆÎ ç°•z ç#Ól– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ §Ü˛° ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚
x!hflÏc Ó˚«˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õyòyl •° ç°– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §Ü˛°
ç#Ó á%Ó•z ˆ§Ô˲yàƒ¢y°# ܲyÓ˚î ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã• ˆÎáyˆÏl
ç° Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ åwater planetäñ ly •ˆÏ° xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly x!hflÏc•z
ÌyÜ˛ï˛ ly– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ§ÔÓ˚Ù[˛ˆÏ° åsolar systemä ç° •° ~ܲ!ê˛
!ÓÓ˚° §¡õò– §)Î≈ xÌÓy ˆ§ÔÓ˚çàˆÏï˛Ó˚ xlƒ ˆÜ˛yÌyG ç° ˆl•z–
ˆ§Ô˲yàƒÓ¢ï˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ï˛y•zñ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
@˝Ã•ˆÏܲ Úl#° @˝Ã•ÛG åBlue Planetä Ó°y •Î˚–
í˛zòܲã˛Ü ˛ Óy ç°ã˛Ü ˛ åHYDROLOGICAL CYCLEä ı
ç° ã˛Ü ˛yܲyˆÏÓ˚ xyÓï≈˛l¢#° ~ܲ!ê˛ §¡õò åcyclic resourceä–
ç°ˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ%l/ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ç° Ù•y§yàÓ˚
xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õl âl#˲Ól
≤ÈflÏ ò∫ l
Ù
≤Ã!Ó !, _ܲyÎ ç°≤ÃÓy
•
T˛ ç ˚
° ˆË˛ÔÙ
ç°≤ÃÓy•
!ã˛e 13.1 : ç°ã˛Ü ˛ åHydrological Cycleä
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢
WATER (OCEANS)
ˆÌˆÏܲ Ë)˛Ë˛yˆÏà ~ÓÇ Ë)˛Ë˛yà ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ ã˛Ü ˛yܲyˆÏÓ˚ xyÓ!ï≈˛ï˛
•Î˚– ç°ã˛Ü ˛ åhydrological cycleä Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛
~ÓÇ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° çˆÏ°Ó˚ §M˛y°lˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ç°ã˛Ü ˛ åwater cycleä ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSÈÓ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈Ó˚ï˛ ~ÓÇ
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §Ü˛° ç#Ól•z ~Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ
ç° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ x!hflÏc Ó˚«˛yÓ˚ çlƒ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈
í˛z˛õyòyl– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §Ó≈e çˆÏ°Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l §Ùyl lÎ˚– xˆÏlܲ fiÌyˆÏl
çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ï˛y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ xyÓyÓ˚ xˆÏlܲ fiÌyˆÏl çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî á%Ó•z
§#!Ùï˛– ç°ã˛Ü ˛ •° Óy!Ó˚Ù[˛ˆÏ° !Ó!˲ߨÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ xÌ≈yÍ ï˛Ó˚°ñ ܲ!ë˛l
~ÓÇ àƒy§#Î˚Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §M˛y°l åcirculationä– ~!ê˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ñ
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°ñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ñ Ë)˛àË≈˛ ~ÓÇ ç#Ó G ≤Ãyî#Ü)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ çˆÏ°Ó˚
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~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ܲS%È ~ÙlG ¢,Aà xyˆÏSÈ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y §Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ x!∑
ÙôƒÈ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛– Ùôƒ xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ xÇ¢ xy•z§°ƒyu˛˛ •° ~Ó˚
!ã˛e 13.2 : Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ àë˛l ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛T˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢
§yÙ%!oܲ !ê˛°y åSeamountä ı
~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ã)˛í˛¸y !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õy•yí˛¸ Îy !ܲ ly §Ù%oï˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z!aï˛
•ˆÏ°G §Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ x!∑ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– §yÙ%!oܲ !ê˛°yÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_
xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ– ~!ê˛ 3000 – 4500 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ í˛zÑã%˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
ÌyˆÏܲ– ~ˆÏ¡õÓ˚Ó˚ §yÙ%!oܲ !ê˛°y Îy !ܲ ly ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ •yGÎ˚y•z
m#˛õ˛õ%ˆÏO !Óhfl,Ïï˛ ~•z Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛T˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
xyhs˝/§yàÓ˚#Î˚ !à!Ó˚áyï˛§Ù)• Óy ܲƒy!lÎ˚l§Ù)• åSubmarine
Canyonsä ı
~à%ˆÏ°y à˲#Ó˚ í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yñ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÜ˛yˆÏly!ê˛Ó˚ ï%˛°ly
ܲˆÏ°yÓ˚yˆÏí˛y lò#Ó˚ ˛@˝Ãƒyu˛˛ ܲƒy!lÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly
ÓˆÏí˛¸y lò# ˆÙy•lyÓ˚ xyˆÏà !Óhfl,Ïï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Ù•#ˆÏ§y˛õyl Óy Ù•#ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚
xyí˛¸yxy!í˛¸˛ ܲï≈˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– !ӈϟªÓ˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ !Óáƒyï˛ xyhs˝/
§yàÓ˚#Î˚ !à!Ó˚áyï˛ •° •yí˛§l‰ ܲƒy!lÎ˚l åHudson Canyonä–
àyÎ˚ê˛ åGuyotsä ı
~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛° !Ó!¢T˛ §yÙ%!oܲ !ê˛°y– ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù §Ùï˛°
¢#£Ï≈ !Ó!¢T˛ ç°Ù@¿ !ê˛°y Óy ˛õy•yí˛¸ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛
xÓlÙˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §y«˛ƒ Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚– !•§yÓ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ
¢%ô%Ùye ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚•z 10,000üÈ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ §ÇáƒÜ˛ §yÙ%!oܲ
!ê˛°y ~ÓÇ àyÎ˚ê˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
xƒyê˛° åAtollä ı
~à%ˆÏ°y Ü ˛yhs#Î˚ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ ò,T˛ xl%Fã˛ m#˛õ– ~Ó˚ ÙôƒË˛yà xÓlï˛
~ÓÇ ã˛yÓ˚!òܲ ≤ÃÓy° ≤Ãyã˛#l !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆâÓ˚y– ~!ê˛ §Ù%ˆoÏ Ó˚ 到à%lä ~ܲ!ê˛
˲yà Óy xÇ¢ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ Óy ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ÙÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚ñ ˆlyly ç° Óy
x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç° myÓ˚y ˆâÓ˚yG •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey åTEMPERATURE OF OCEAN
WATERSä ı
~•z xLjϢ !Ó!˲ߨ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ fiÌyl#Î˚ ~ÓÇ
í˛zÕ‘¡∫ Ó^˝ê˛l ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°ï˛y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢G Ë)˛!Ù˲yˆÏàÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆ§ÔÓ˚¢!=˛ myÓ˚y
í˛z_Æ •Î˚– fiÌ°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ~ÓÇ
¢#ï˛°#ܲÓ˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y åheating and cooling processä ô#Ó˚
à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §¡õߨ •Î˚–
ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏl ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ܲyÓ˚# ܲyÓ˚î§Ù)• åFactors
Affecting Temperature Distributionä
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey Órê˛ˆÏl ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ܲyÓ˚#
ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y •° ı
åiä x«˛yÇ¢ åLatitudeä ı !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy ˆÌˆÏܲ Îï˛•z ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚
!òˆÏܲ ˛ÎyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˛õ,¤˛ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •Ï° ˆÙÓ˚% ≤ÈÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚
Ê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ åinsolationä ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîG Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
115
åiiä fiÌ°Ë˛yà G ç°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ x§Ù Ó^˝ê˛l åUnequal
distribution of land and waterä ı ò!«˛î
ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚
Ù•y§yàÓ˚§Ù)• xˆÏlܲ ÓˆÏí˛¸y Ë)˛áˆÏ[˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ ÌyܲyÎ˚
x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ï˛y˛õ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
åiiiä §yÙ!Î˚ܲ ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• åPrevailing windä ı fiÌ°Ë˛yà
ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆÎ ÓyÎ˚% ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ˆ§!ê˛
Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ï ç°Ó˚y!¢ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°Ë˛yà ˆÌˆÏܲ
ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆòÎ˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ¢#ï˛° ç°Ó˚y!¢
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ §M˛y!°ï˛ •Î˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚
oy!âÙyÇ¢àï˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚– xlƒ!òˆÏܲñ §Ù%o
ÓyÎ˚% Óy í˛z˛õÜ)˛° x!˲Ù%á# ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ í˛z£÷Ï ç°
í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!Âô ˛˛õyÎ˚–
åivä §Ù%oˆÏflÀyï˛ åOcean currentsä ı í˛z£÷Ï §Ù%oˆÏflÀyï˛
åwarm ocean currentsä ¢#ï˛° xM˛ˆÏ° ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚
Ó,!Âô âê˛yÎ˚ñ xyÓyÓ˚ ¢#ï˛° ˆflÀyï˛ í˛z£÷Ï Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ •…y§ âê˛yÎ˚– í˛z˛õ§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˆflÀyï˛
åGulf streamä åí˛z£÷Ï ˆflÀyï˛ä í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈
í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ G •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey
Ó,!Âô âê˛yÎ˚ xyÓyÓ˚ °ƒyÓ yí˛Ó˚ ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ å¢#ï˛° ˆflÀyï˛ä
≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ÈüÈ˛õ)Ó≈ í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–
~•z §Ó ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆ° Ï y fiÌyl#Î˚˲yˆÏÓ §Ù%oˆÏflyÀ ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚
≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflyÏ Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !l¡¨ x«˛yLjϢ xÓ!fiÌï˛ í˛zß√%=˛ §yàˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ åopen
seaä ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ!T˛ï˛ §yàÓ˚§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ åenclosed seasä
ï˛y˛õÙyey xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢– xlƒ!òˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢ xÓ!fiÌï˛
˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ!T˛ï˛ §yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey í˛zß√%=˛ §yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ G í˛zÕ‘¡∫ Ó^˝ê˛l åHorizontal and
Vertical Distribution of Temperatureä ı
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õyŸª!≈ ã˛ˆÏe åtemperature-
depth profileä ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
ï˛y˛õÙyey •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ˛õyŸª≈!ã˛ˆÏe åprofileä §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ç° ~ÓÇ
à˲#Ó˚ï˛Ù hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# §#Ùyhs˝ xM˛° åboundary regionä ˆÜ˛
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z §#Ùyhs˝!ê˛ §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ 100-
400 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏÎ˚ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲˆÏ¢y !Ùê˛yÓ˚ l#ã˛ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛
å!ã˛e 13.3ä– ~•z §#Ùyhs˝ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ§áyˆÏl ï˛y˛õÙyey o%ï˛ •…y§
˛õyˆÏFSÈ ï˛yˆÏܲ ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÜœ˛y•zl åthermoclineä ӈϰ– ˆÙyê˛ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚
¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y 90 ˲yà à˲#Ó˚ §Ù%ˆÏo ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÜœ˛y•zˆÏlÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z
xM˛ˆÏ° ï˛y˛õÙyey 00C ˛õÎ≈hs˝ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
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Ùôƒ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨ x«˛yLjϢ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyˆÏܲ
˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ù%o ï˛°ˆÏò¢ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !eÈhflÏÓ˚ !Ó!¢T˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y åthree-
layer systemä myÓ˚y Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
≤ÃÌÙ hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏï˛ í˛z£÷Ï Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢ˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ
~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ 500 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˛õ%Ó˚% ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ 200 ˆÌˆÏܲ 250C
˛õÎ≈hs˝ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ~•z hflÏÓ˚!ê˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ §yÓ˚y ÓSÈÓ˚
°«˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆàˆÏ°G Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢ ¢%ô%Ùye @˝Ã#‹øܲyˆÏ°•z ~•z hflÏÓ˚!ê˛
!Óܲ!¢ï˛ •Î˚–
ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!Âô å0Cä
ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÜœ˛y•zl
à˲#Ó˚ï˛y Ó,!Âô å!Ùê˛yÓ˚ä
!ã˛e 13.3 : ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÜœ˛y•zl (Thermocline)
≤ÃÌÙ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ !fiÌï˛ !mï˛#Î˚ hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏܲ ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÜœ˛y•zl hflÏÓ˚
åthermocline layerä Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z hflÓÏ !˚ ê˛Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •Ï° à˲#Ó˚ï˛y
Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ o%ï˛ ˛ï˛y˛õÙyey •…y§ ˛≤ÃyÆ •Î˚– ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÜœ˛y•zl 500 ˆÌˆÏܲ
1000 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˛õ%Ó˚% •Î˚–
ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ á%Ó•z ¢#ï˛° ~ÓÇ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢ ˛õÎ≈hs˝
≤çy!Ó˚ï˛– §%ˆÏÙÓ˚% ~ÓÇ Ü%˛ˆÏÙÓ˚% Ó,ˆÏ_ ˛õ,¤˛ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey 00C
~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ï˛y•z à˲#Ó˚ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚
á%Ó fl∫“ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛– ~áyˆÏl ¢#ï˛° ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ hflÏÓ˚•z
!ÓòƒÙyl Îy ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ à˲#Ó˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !ÓhflïÏ, ˛–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õ,¤˛ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey 270C ˛õÎ≈hs˝ •ˆÏÎ˚
ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙÓ˚%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛
ÌyˆÏܲ– x«˛yÇ¢ ç!lï˛ Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ Ùyey §yôyÓ˚îï˛
≤Ã!ï˛ x«˛yLjϢ 0.5 !í˛!@˝Ã ˆ§°!§Î˚y§ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– 200 x«˛yÇ¢ àí˛¸
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
ï˛y˛õÙyey 220C, 400 x«˛yLjϢ 140C ~ÓÇ ˆÙÓ˚% ≤ÈÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ
00C •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢– §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛
ï˛y˛õÙyey !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓá˚ yÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ly !ܲv !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓá˚ yÓ˚ §yÙylƒ í˛z_Ó˚
!òˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– í˛z_Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ àí˛¸ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ
ï˛y˛õÙyey •Ï° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 190C ~ÓÇ 160C – ~•z ï˛y˛õÙyeyàï˛
˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •° í˛z_Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ fiÌ°Ë˛yà G
ç°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ x§Ù Ó^˝ê˛l– !ã˛e 13.4ÈüÈ~ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ fiÌy!lܲ lܲ¢y ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ §%˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ï˛Ìƒ ˆÎñ Ù•y§yàÓ˚§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ù
ï˛y˛õÙyey §Ó≈òy ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢•z •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ܲyÓ˚î ï˛yÓ˚y §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ
§Ó˚y§!Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ~•z ï˛y˛õ
Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !l¡¨ hflψÏÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y Óyí˛¸yÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ï˛y˛õÙyey •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ !ܲv ~•z ï˛y˛õÙyey •…yˆÏ§Ó˚
•yÓ˚ §Ó≈e §Ùyl lÎ˚– 200 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ï˛y˛õÙyey á%Ó
o%ï˛ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ •yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÙ
ÎyÎ˚–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚ # Î˚ ç°Ó˚ y !¢ °Óîï˛y å SALINITY OF O CEAN
WATERSä ı
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ˛§Ó ç°Ó˚y!¢ ˆÎÙl Ó,!T˛Ó˚ ç° Óy Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢
§Ó≈e•z á!lç °Óî !Ù!◊ï˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– °Óîï˛y åSalinityä ~Ùl
~ܲ!ê˛ ¢∑ ÎyÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ çˆÏ° !Ù!◊ï˛ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyey
!lô≈yÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ çlƒ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ å§yÓ˚!î 13.4ä– 1000 @˝ÃyÙ å1 !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙä
§Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ çˆÏ° !Ù!◊ï˛ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ å@˝ÃyˆÏÙä ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî myÓ˚y ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛ 1000 ~Ó˚ Ü˛ï˛ Ë˛yà åo/ooä Óy ppt åParts
per thousandä Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Óƒ=˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– °Óîï˛y §Ù%o ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚
~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ– 24.7 o/oo °Óîï˛yˆÏܲ «˛yÓ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §#Ùy
!lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ §#Ùy !•§yˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •Î˚–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ °Óîï˛yˆÏܲ ˆÎ§Ó ܲyÓ˚î ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§
ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y !lˆÏ¡¨ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •° ı
åiä Ù•y§yàÓ˚§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ °Óîï˛y ≤Ãôylï˛
Óy‹õ#˲Ól ~ÓÇ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
åiiä í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ °Óîï˛y lò#Ó˚ myÓ˚y ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
fl∫yò% ç° ~ÓÇ ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ÓÓ˚Ê˛ çÙyê˛ G ÓÓ˚Ê˛ à°yÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ myÓ˚y §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
åiiiä ÓyÎ˚% ≤ÃÓy•G §Ù%o ç°Ó˚y!¢ˆÏܲ ~ܲ fiÌyl ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ
fiÌyˆÏl fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ °Óîï˛yˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚–
åivä §Ù%o ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚G °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°ï˛yÎ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï
xÓòyl Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– çˆÏ° °Óîï˛yñ ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ âlc
˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– ï˛y•zñ ï˛y˛õÙyey Óy âlˆÏc ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
Ó˚ܲˆÏÙÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˆ§•z xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ °Óîï˛yˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢ 117

!ܲ!Ù

!ã˛e 13.4 : Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ å0Cä fiÌy!lܲ ôÓ˚l

ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ åwater bodiesä °Óîï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ 37 o/oo ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÌyˆÏܲ– ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ fiÌ°Ë˛yà myÓ˚y ˆâÓ˚y
ï%˛!Ü≈˛Ó˚ ˆ°•zܲ ˲ƒyl (330 o/oo), ˆ°y!•ï˛ §yàˆÏÓ˚ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 41o/ooñ Î!òG §%ˆÏÙÓ˚% Ù•y§yàÓ˚
Ù,ï˛ §yàÓ˚ (238 /oo),o
G lò# ˆÙy•lyÎ˚ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî È0 - 35 o/ooüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Gë˛y
Ó,•Í °Óî •…ˆÏò (220 o/oo) §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ÙyeyÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– lyÙy ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛z£÷Ï ~ÓÇ ¢%‹Ò xM˛ˆÏ°ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ˛Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyey
ˆÓ!¢ñ ˆ§áyˆÏl °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly 70 o/oo ˛õÎ≈hs˝
§yÓ˚!î 13.4 : §Ù%o ç°Ó˚y!¢ˆÏï˛ !Ù!◊ï˛ °Óî
≤Ã!ï˛ !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ çˆÏ° °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî å@˝ÃyÙä ˆ˛õÑÔˆÏSÈ ÎyÎ˚–
≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ≤Ãôylï˛ ~Ó˚
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l 18.97
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ 10.47 xyܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ó,•_Ó˚ ˆ«˛e#Î˚ !ÓhflyÏ ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ çlƒñ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏôÓ≈ ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù
§y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ 2.65 ˲yˆÏà °Óîï˛y 35 o/oo ˆÌˆÏܲ 31 o/oo •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •Ï°
ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ 1.28 §%ˆÏÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ à°y ç° ˙ xM˛ˆÏ° ~ˆÏ§ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚–
ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ 0.41
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ 15° - 20° ò!«˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ °Óîï˛y 33 o/oo ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ܲˆÏÙ
˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ 0.38
Óy•z ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlê˛ 0.14
ÎyÎ˚–
ˆÓ y!Ùl 0.06 xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ àí˛¸ °Óîï˛y 36 o/oo ~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ
ˆÓyˆÏÓê˚ ˛ 0.02 •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ °Óîï˛y 15° ˆÌˆÏܲ 20° x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ˆfiê˛∆yl‰!ê˛Î˚yÙ 0.01 !°!˛õË%˛=˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– §Ó≈y!ôܲ °Óîï˛y å37 o/ooä 20° í˛z_Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ
30° í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ 20° ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛60° õ!Ÿã˛ˆÏÙ °«˛î#Î˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
°Óîï˛yÓ˚ xyl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ Ó^˝ê˛l åHORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF ~!ê˛ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ í˛z_ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !òˆÏܲ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢ xÓ!fiÌï˛
SALINITYä ı •GÎ˚y §ˆÏ_¥G í˛z_Ó˚ §yàˆÏÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ ≤ÃÓy• myÓ˚y x!ôܲ
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ Ù%=˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ≤çÓ˚ 33 o/oo °Óîy=˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyàÙˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° x!ôܲ °Óîï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
118 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

120º 60º 60º 120º

ܲÜ≈˛ê˛Ü ˛y!hs˝ ˆÓ˚áy

!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓá˚ y

ÙܲÓ˚Ü ˛y!hs˝ ˆÓ˚áy

!ܲ!Ù
120º 60º 60º 120º

!ã˛e 13.5 : ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l

x!ôܲ ÙyeyÎ˚ lò#Ó˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Óy!Œê˛Ü˛ §yàˆÏÓ˚ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛ Óy ÓyˆÏ‹õ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ fl∫yò%
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü˛Ù– Ë)˛Ùôƒ§yàˆÏÓ˚ °Óîï˛y í˛zFã˛ Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ x!ôܲ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÎyàyˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° åÎy lò# myÓ˚y •Î˚ä ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚– à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÎ˚
•Î˚– Ü,˛£÷Ï §yàˆÏÓ˚ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü˛Ù •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •° x!ôܲ °Óîï˛y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ ܲyÓ˚î ˆ§áyˆÏl çˆÏ°Ó˚ Ú•…y§Û Óy
ÙyeyÎ˚ lò# myÓ˚y fl∫yò% çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy•– Ü,˛£÷Ï §yàˆÏÓ˚ !Ù!°ï˛ lò#à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyeyÓ˚ ÚÓ,!ÂôÛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly˲yˆÏÓ•z •Î˚ ly– Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢
Ùyl!ã˛e ˆòˆÏá á%шÏç ˆÓÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ~ÓÇ à˲#Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ á%Ó•z §%flõT˛– ܲÙ
˲yÓ˚ï˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ àí˛¸ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 35 o/ oo – °Óîï˛y !Ó!¢T˛ ç° x!ôܲ °Óîï˛y !Ó!¢T˛ Óy x!ôܲ âlc !Ó!¢T˛
ÓˆÏAày˛õ§yàˆÏÓ˚ lò# ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ çlƒ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y Ü˛Ù ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– çˆÏ°Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– °Óîï˛y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y Óyí˛¸yÓ˚
xlƒ!òˆÏܲñ í˛zFã˛ Óyflõ#˲Ól ~ÓÇ fl∫yò% çˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Óyí˛¸ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~áyˆÏl ˆ•ˆÏ°yÜœ˛y•zl åhaloclineä lyˆÏÙ
xyÓ˚Ó §yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî x!ôܲ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– !ã˛e 13.5ÈüÈ~ ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫ï˛sf ˆ«˛e Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎáyˆÏl °Óîï˛yÓ˚ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ •yÓ˚ á%Ó•z ï˛#Ó –
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ °Óîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆòáyˆÏly •Ï°– Î!ò xlƒylƒ í˛z˛õyòyl !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ˆÏÓ §Ù%o çˆÏ°Ó˚ °Óîï˛y Ó,!Âô
°Óîï˛yÓ˚ í˛zÕ¡‘ ∫ Ó^˝ê˛l åVertical Distribution of Salinityäı çˆÏ°Ó˚ âlcˆÏܲ Óyí˛¸yÎ˚– í˛zFã˛ °Óîï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù%o ç°Ó˚y!¢ §yôyÓ˚îï˛
à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ °Óîï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï˛≈ï˛ •Î˚– !ܲv ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !l¡¨ °Óîï˛yÎ%=˛ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° °Óîï˛yÓ˚
§Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ °Óîï˛y çˆÏ°Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ !Ólƒy§ åstratificationä âˆÏê˛–

xl%¢#°l#
1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
(i) ˆ§•z í˛z˛õyòyl!ê˛ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ˆÎ!ê˛ ç°ã˛Ü ˛ Óy í˛zòܲ ã˛ˆÏÜ ˛Ó˚ å hydrological cycleä xÇ¢ lÎ˚–
(a) ˛˛Óyflõ#˲Ól (c) ˛xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî
(b) ˛•y•zˆÏí»˛¢l Óy ç°ˆÏÎyçl (d) ˛âl#˲Ól
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢ 119

(ii) ˛Ù•#ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ àí˛¸ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y !lˆÏ¡¨ Ó!î≈ï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚⁄˛
(a) 2-20 ˛!Ùê˛yÓ˚ (c) 20-200 !Ùê˛yÓ˚
(b) 200-2,000 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ (d) 2,000-20,000 !Ùê˛yÓ˚
(iii) !lˆÏ¡¨ Ó!î≈ï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ˆàÔî ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ lÎ˚ ⁄
(a) §yÙ%!oܲ ˛õy•yí˛¸ (c) Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ áyï˛
(b) xƒyê˛° (d) àyÎ˚ê˛
(iv) °Óîï˛yˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛ §Ù%o çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ °Óî å@˝ÃyÙä ˆÜ˛yl‰ ÙyeyÎ˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛y ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚ ÈüüüÈ
(a) 10 @˝ÃyÙ (c) 100 @˝ÃyÙ
(b) 1,000 @˝ÃyÙ (d) 10,000 @˝ÃyÙ
(v) !lˆÏ¡¨ Ó!î≈ï˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ «%˛oï˛Ù Ù•y§yàÓ˚ ⁄
(a) ˲yÓ˚ï˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚ (c) xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚
(b) §%ˆÏÙÓ˚% Ù•y§yàÓ˚ (d) ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚
2. l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏܲ Úl#° @˝Ã•Û Ó°y •Î˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
(ii) ÚÙ•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ §#Ùhs˝Û Óy ÚÙ•#§#Ùyhs˝Û ܲ#⁄
(iii) !Ó!˲ߨ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛Ù áyï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛y!°Ü˛y ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iv) ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÜœ˛y•zl åthermoclineä ܲ#⁄
(v) §Ù%o ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yl‰ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ §¡ø%á#l •ˆÏÓ⁄ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛y ˆÜ˛l ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚⁄
(vi) §Ù%o ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ °Óîï˛y ܲyˆÏܲ ӈϰ⁄
3. l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ç°ã˛Ü ˛ Óy í˛zòÜ˛ã˛ˆÏÜ ˛Ó˚ åhydrological cycleä !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛⁄
(ii) Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏl ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y !lÓ˚#«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
(i) ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ §•yÎ˚ï˛yÎ˚ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛à%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏܲ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áy Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏe ˆòáyG–
(ii) Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ §•yÎ˚ï˛yÎ˚ ˲yÓ˚ï˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˜¢°!¢Ó˚y xM˛°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ¢ly=˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
x ôƒy Î˚
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ à!ï˛≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛
MOVEMENTS
§ Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ç° !ã˛Ó˚à!ï˛¢#°– §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y ˆÎÙlÈüÈí˛z£÷Ïï˛yñ °Óîï˛yñ âlc ~ÓÇ Óy!•ƒÜ˛
¢!=˛ ˆÎÙl §)Î≈ñ ãÑ˛yòñ ÓyÎ˚% §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §M˛y°lˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ~ÓÇ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ §M˛y°l ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ
Óƒy˛õyÓ˚– §yÙ%!oܲ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xl%˲) !Ùܲ §M˛y°l §Ù%oˆÏflyÀ ï˛ G ï˛Ó˚AàˆÏܲ
ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– í˛zÕ‘¡∫ §M˛y°l ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ˆÏܲ– !Ó¢y° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ç°Ó˚y!¢ Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ !òˆÏܲ x!ÓÓ˚yÙ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ
ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ §Ù%oˆÏflÀyï˛ åOcean currentsä ӈϰ– ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
çˆÏ°Ó˚ §M˛y°l •Î˚ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ– §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ç°
~ܲfiÌyl ˆÌˆÏܲ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ˛ fiÌyˆÏl x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚ñ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ê˛y
•Î˚ lyñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ §yÙˆÏl ~!àˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚– í˛zÕ‘¡∫
ã˛°ˆÏl §yàÓ˚ G Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ ˛ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ Gë˛ylyÙy §¡õߨ •Î˚– §)Î≈
~ÓÇ ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲ£ÏˆÏî≈ §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ç° !òˆÏl ò%ÓyÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ GˆÏë˛ ~ÓÇ
l#ˆÏã˛ lyˆÏÙ– §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ï˛°ˆÏò¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢#ï˛° çˆÏ°Ó˚ |ôÁ≈àÙl ~ÓÇ
˛õ,¤˛ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ !lÙIlG Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ í˛zÕ¡‘ à∫ !ï˛Ó˚ Ó˚ܲÙ
!ӈϢ£Ï–
ï˛Ó˚Aà åWAVESä ı
≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà •° ~ܲ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ñ ~!ê˛ §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ~ܲ fiÌyl
ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒfiÌyˆÏl ã˛°yã˛°Ü˛yÓ˚# ç°Ó˚y!¢– ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ x!ï˛Ü ˛ÙˆÏîÓ˚
§ÙÎ˚ ç°Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°y ¢%ô%Ùye ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ ˛õÌ â%ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ§–
ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî §Ù%ˆÏo ï˛Ó˚Aà ~!àˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ùôƒ!fiÌï˛
¢!=˛ ï˛Ìy ï˛Ó˚Aà¢!=˛Ó˚ !là≈Ùl âˆÏê˛ ï˛ê˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÎ˚ åshorelineä–
˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢ §Ù%ˆoÏ Ó˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §M˛y°l §Ù%ˆoÏ Ó˚ ~ˆÏܲÓyˆÏÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝Ó˚
!fiÌÓ˚ ç°ˆÏܲG ܲáˆÏlyÈüÈܲáˆÏly ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ Îál ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜§Ü˛ˆÏï˛
xyˆÏ§ ï˛ál ï˛y ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ xySȈíÏ ˛¸ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– ~!ê˛ !ã˛Ó˚à!ï˛¢#° ç°Ó˚y!¢
~ÓÇ §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ §ÇâˆÏ£Ï≈Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî •Î˚– Îál çˆÏ°Ó˚
à˲#Ó˚ï˛y ï˛Ó˚Aà˜ÏòˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ xˆÏô≈ܲ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ï˛Ó˚Aà ˆË˛ˆÏ. ÎyÎ˚– Ó,•_Ù
ï˛Ìy §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ÓˆÏí˛¸y ï˛Ó˚Aàà%ˆÏ°y í˛zß√%=˛ §Ù%ˆÏo åopen oceanä
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ï˛Ó˚Aàà%ˆÏ°y ÓyÎ˚% ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢!=˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ ò#â≈ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
OF OCEAN WATER
çˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ù%á# !òˆÏܲ Óyï˛yˆÏ§Ó˚ §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ x!ôܲyÇ¢
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– 2 lê˛ Óy ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù à!ï˛ˆÏÓàÎ%=˛ Ù,ò% ~ÓÇ
¢yhs˝ ÓyÎ%̊ˆÏï˛ «%˛o «%˛o ˆì˛í˛z xÌÓy ï˛Ó˚Aà åripplesä à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ à!ï˛Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà ~à%ˆÏ°y ò#â≈ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ï˛«˛î
˛õÎ≈hs˝ Îï˛«˛î ly ˆË˛ˆÏ.ÈüÈ˛õí˛¸y ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ fiÌyˆÏl §yòy ˆÊ˛ly ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚– â)î≈Ùyl §Ù%oï˛Ó˚Aà ï˛#ˆÏÓ˚ xySȈÏí˛¸ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ˆÊ˛!l° Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ åSurfä
!Ù!°ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ xyˆÏà •Î˚ˆÏï˛y •yçyÓ˚ •yçyÓ˚ !ܲ!Ù ˛õ!Ó˚Ü ˛Ùî ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l G xyÜ,˛!ï˛ ˆòˆÏá ~Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ
ï˛y ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚– áyí˛¸y ï˛Ó˚Aàà%ˆ° Ï y §ˆÏï˛ç ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ §Ω˛Óï˛ fiÌyl#Î˚
ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– Ü˛Ù à!ï˛§¡õߨ ï˛Ìy ô#Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aàà%ˆÏ°y
xˆÏlܲ ò)Ó˚Óï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl §,!T˛ •Î˚ñ §Ω˛Óï˛ xlƒ xyÓ˚ ~ܲ ˆày°yˆÏô≈–
ÓyÎ˚% Ü˛ï˛«˛î ôˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ !òˆÏܲ ܲï˛ò)Ó˚
˛õÎ≈hs˝ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ÈüüüÈ ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà
ï˛Ìy ¢!=˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ ã˛°yã˛ˆÏ° ç°Ó˚y!¢ˆÏܲ åï˛Ó˚AàˆÏܲä Óyï˛y§ ˆ˛õSÈl ˆÌˆÏܲ
ôyE˛y ˆòÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z§ÙˆÏÎ˚ Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ ¢!=˛ ï˛yÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î «˛Ùï˛yÎ˚
ï˛Ó˚Aà¢#£Ï≈ åcrestsä ˆÜ˛ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆê˛ˆÏl !lˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– l#ˆÏã˛ ˛õˆÏí˛¸
ÎyGÎ˚y ç° ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ xÓl!Ùï˛ xÇ¢ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ôyE˛y ˆòÎ˚ñ
ï˛ál ï˛Ó˚Aà ~ܲ!ê˛ lï%˛l ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛
ï˛Ó˚Aà¢#ˆÏ£Ó≈Ï ˚
í˛yl!òˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ˛õï˛l ï˛Ó˚Aà¢#ˆÏ£Ï≈Ó˚ ˛õï˛l
˛õ!Ó˚ºÙî
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˛áyò ï˛Ó˚Aà ˛áyò
!ã˛e 14.1 : ï˛Ó˚Aà G ç°#Î˚ xî%‡ç°Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ à!ï˛≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ã˛°l •Î˚ Ó,_yܲyˆÏÓ˚– ~ê˛y ~•z ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ˆÎñ
ç°Ó˚y!¢ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ Óy!•ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚AàÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ §yÙˆÏl ~!àˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚
~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ˆlˆÏÙ !˛õ!SȈÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ xÌ≈yÍ xhs˝/ï˛Ó˚AàÓ˚ˆ) Ï˛õ §Ù%ˆÏo
!Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ§–
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§Ù)•
ï˛Ó˚Aà¢#£Ï≈ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà áyò åWave crest and
troughä ı ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ù xÇ¢ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨ï˛Ù
xÇ¢ˆÏܲ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ï˛Ó˚Aà¢#£Ï≈ Óy ã)˛í˛¸y ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà áyò
Óy xÓl!Ùï˛ xÇ¢ ӈϰ–
ï˛Ó˚Aà í˛zFã˛ï˛y åWave heightä ı ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ xÓl!Ùï˛
xÇ¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ã)˛í˛¸y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ ò)Ó˚cˆÏܲ ӈϰ
ï˛Ó˚Aà í˛zFã˛ï˛y–
ï˛Ó˚Aà !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ åWave amplitudeä ı ï˛Ó˚Aà !ÓhflÏyÓ˚
Ó°ˆÏï˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚ xô≈˲yàˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚–
ï˛Ó˚Aà §ÙÎ˚ åWave periodä ı ˛õÓ˚˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà¢#£Ï≈
G ï˛Ó˚Aà áyò ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ !Ó®%Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚
˛õyÓ˚ •ˆÏï˛ ˆÎ §ÙÎ˚ °yˆÏàñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚Aà §ÙÎ˚ ӈϰ–
ï˛Ó˚Aà˜Ïòâ≈ƒ åWavelengthä ı ˛õÓ˚˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà ã)˛í˛¸yÓ˚
ÙôƒÓï≈˛# xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ò)Ó˚cˆÏܲ ӈϰ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ–
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ à!ï˛ åWave speedä ı ˆÎ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚
Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ à!ï˛ ÓˆÏ°–
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ à!ï˛ lê˛ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ åWave frequencyä ı !l!ò≈T˛
~ܲ!ê˛ fiÌyˆÏl ~ܲ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛Ó˚ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ÓƒÓôyˆÏl ˆÎ §ÇáƒÜ˛
ï˛Ó˚Aà x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ ӈϰ–
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y åTIDESä ı
≤Ãôylï˛ §)Î≈ G ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈ˆÏî ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛ˆÏÙ §Ù%oï˛°ÈüÈ~Ó˚ !òˆÏl
~ܲÓyÓ˚ xÌÓy ò%ÓyÓ˚ Gë˛ylyÙyˆÏܲ ӈϰ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y– xyÓ•yGÎ˚yàï˛
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî åÓyÎ˚% G ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlä Îál §Ù%o çˆÏ°Ó˚
ã˛°l âˆÏê˛ xÌ≈yÍ ≤Ãã˛[˛ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ç° Gë˛yÈüÈlyÙy ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ §yˆÏç≈§
åsurgesä ӈϰ– ~!ê˛ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ ˲yê˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y !lÎ˚!Ùï˛ •Î˚ ly–
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y !lˆÏÎ˚ xôƒÎ˚l á%Ó•z ç!ê˛° ˆÜ˛lly xyM˛!°Ü˛ G
§yÙ!Î˚ܲ˲yˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ ܲ¡õyAܲñ ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó¢y°
˜Ó!ã˛eƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛ ˆÓ!¢ ÈüüüÈ
~•z ò%•z xyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y §Çâê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl ò%!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ˚î–
xlƒ ܲyÓ˚î!ê˛ •° ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à Ó°– ~•z Ó° Ù•yܲ£Ï#≈ Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ˆÏï˛
§yÙO§ƒ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá– Ùyôƒyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛ G ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à ¢!=˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛
ò%!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ç!lï˛ fl≥˛#ï˛ xÇ¢ Óy ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ç°fl≥˛#!ï˛Ó˚
åtidal bulgeä çlƒ òyÎ˚#– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆÎ !òܲ ã˛ÑyˆÏòÓ˚ §yÙˆÏl xyˆÏSÈ
ˆ§áyˆÏl ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ç°fl≥˛#!ï˛ âê˛yÎ˚ fl≥˛#ï˛ xÇ¢ §,!T˛
121
•Î˚ñ xyÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ ˆÎáyˆÏl ò)Óˆ˚ cÏ Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲ£Ïî≈
¢!=˛ ܲÙñ ˆ§áyˆÏl ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à ӈϰÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚ fl≥˛#ï˛ xÇ¢
§,!T˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ å!ã˛e 14.2ä–
ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲ£Ïî≈ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à ¢!=˛ åˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y §,!T˛Ü˛yÓ˚#
¢!=˛ä ÈüüüÈ ~•z ò%!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y §,!T˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !lܲê˛fiÌ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à ӈϰÓ˚
ˆÌˆÏܲG ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ê˛yl ï˛Ìy xyܲ£Ï≈î ¢!=˛ ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ– ï˛y•z ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚
xyܲ£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚y ¢!=˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#fiÌ G•z fiÌyl!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ç°fl≥˛#!ï˛ â!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ç!lï˛ fl≥˛#ï˛Ë˛yà §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ xyܲ£Ïî≈
¢!=˛ Ü˛Ù Ü˛yÓ˚î ~!ê˛ ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xˆÏlܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à ӈϰÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ~áyˆÏl ≤ÃÓ° •ˆÏÎ˚ GˆÏ벖 ï˛y•z ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à
ӈϰÓ˚ ˛õ%ˆÓÏ y˚ ê˛y•z ãÑ˛yò ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ÓÓ˚ ï≈˛# ˙ fiÌyl!ê˛ˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÎ≈ܲÓ˚# •ˆÏÎ˚ GˆÏ벖
~ê˛y ãÑ˛yò ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚Óï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ç!lï˛ !mï˛#Î˚ fl≥˛#ï˛ Ë˛yà!ê˛
§,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ë)˛˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚ fl≥˛#ï˛ Ë˛yà §,!T˛Ü˛yÓ˚# í˛zÕ‘¡∫ Ó° ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y §,!T˛Ü˛yÓ˚# xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ Ó° x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈–
≤âhflÏ Ù•#ˆÏ§y˛õyl xM˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ç!lï˛ fl≥˛#ï˛ xÇ¢à%ˆÏ°y
ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚
fl≥˛#ï
˛õ,!ÌÓ# ãÑ˛yò §)Î≈
ÙyôƒÜ˛£Ï≈î ¢!=˛
ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚ fl≥˛#ï˛ xÇ¢
˛õ,!ÌÓ# ãÑ˛yò §)Î≈
ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à Ó°
ò%!ê˛ ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚ fl≥˛#!ï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îyÙ
˛õ,!ÌÓ# ãÑ˛yò §)Î≈
Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à Ó°
!ã˛e 14.2 : Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ Ó° G ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛
x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ •Î˚– Ùôƒ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ m#˛õ˛õ%Oà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏï˛ §,T˛ ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚
fl≥˛#ï˛ Ë˛yàà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y Ü˛Ù •Î˚– í˛z˛õÜ)˛°ˆÏÓ˚áy ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ í˛z˛õ§yàÓ˚
G ˆÙy•lyÎ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛yˆÏܲ xyÓ˚G Óy!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˚ ˆòÎ˚ Ê˛yˆÏl°
xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ§yàÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÙy•lyˆÏï˛ ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ç°fl≥˛#!ï˛ ˆÓ!¢
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~áyˆÏl ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y å10-16 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ä §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢
•Î˚– m#˛õ˛õ%Oà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ§yàÓ˚ G ˆÙy•lyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ≤Ãîy°#Ó˚ Ùôƒ
!òˆÏÎ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ç° ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ï˛ál ~ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ˆÏܲ ӈϰ
ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚ ˆflÀyï˛ åtidal currentä–
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ܲylyí˛yÓ˚ Ê˛y!u˛ í˛z˛õ§yàˆÏÓ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ù ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ ܲylyí˛yˆÏï˛
xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆly˲y ˆflÒy!ê˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛y!u˛ í˛z˛õ§yàˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚
ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ fl≥˛#ï˛ xÇ¢ 15-16 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ •Î˚– ܲyÓ˚î ˆ§áyˆÏl
≤Ã!ï˛!òl å≤ÃyÎ˚ 24 â^˝ê˛y §ÙÎ˚ä ò%ÓyÓ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ G ò%ÓyÓ˚
˲yê˛y •Î˚– ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y ≤Ã!ï˛ SÈÎ˚ ârê˛y §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ xy§ˆÏÓ•z– §yôyÓ˚î xl%ÙyˆÏl Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ñ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛
ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚ ç° ≤Ã!ï˛ ~ܲ â^˝ê˛yÎ˚ 240 ˆ§!ÙÓ˚ å1440
ˆ§!ÙˆÏܲ 6 â^˝ê˛y !òˆÏÎ˚ ˲yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ä í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ GˆÏ벖 Î!ò
ï%˛!Ù ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˜§Ü˛ˆÏï˛ åbeachä áyí˛¸y Ë,˛à% ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ åˆÎê˛y
~áyˆÏl §yôyÓ˚î âê˛lyä ˆ•ÑˆêÏ ˛ Ìyܲñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° !l!Ÿã˛ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
ï%˛!Ù ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ˆÏܲ ˆòˆÏáSÈ– Î!ò ï%˛!Ù ~ܲ â^˝ê˛y ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆ•ÑˆÏê˛
Ìyܲñ °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÓÏ ˆÎñ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ xy§ˆÏSÈ ï%˛!Ù ˆÎáyl ˆÌˆÏܲ
•Ñyê˛y ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰ !˛õ!SȈÏÎ˚ G•z fiÌyˆÏl !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚
xyˆÏà•z ç° ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ ÙyÌyÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ã˛ˆÏ° xy§ˆÏÓ–
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò åTypes of Tidesä ı
fiÌylˆÏ˲ˆÏò ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ åÙyˆÏV˛ ÙyˆÏV˛ä ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ !òܲ
~ÓÇ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ •Î˚– ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ÈüüüÈ ~•z ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà 1 !òl xÌÓy 24 â^˝ê˛yÎ˚ ܲï˛ÓyÓ˚
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏFSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xÌÓy ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ •Î˚–
˛õ!Ó˚§Çáƒyl!˲!_ܲ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y åTides based on
Frequencyä
xô≈ÈüȘò!lܲ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y åSemi-diurnal tideä ı ~ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ÈüüüÈ ~ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!òl ò%ÓyÓ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ G
ò%ÓyÓ˚ ˲yê˛y •Î˚– ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xy§y ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ G ˲yê˛yà%ˆÏ°y ≤ÃyÎ˚
~ܲ•z í˛zFã˛ï˛y!Ó!¢T˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
˜ò!lܲ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ åDiurnal tideä ı ~ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ !òˆÏl ¢%ô%Ùye
~ܲÓyÓ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ G ~ܲÓyÓ˚ ˲yê˛y •Î˚– ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ xy§y
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y xyl%Ùy!lܲ˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÃyÎ˚ ~ܲ•z •Î˚–
!Ù◊ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ åMixed tideä ı Îál ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ !Ù◊ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y ӈϰ– ~•z ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤âyhs˝
Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xˆÏlܲ m#˛õ˛õ%ˆÏO ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
§)Î≈ñ ãÑ˛yò ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl!˲!_ܲ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y åTides
based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positionsä ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §)Î≈ G ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ Gë˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˲Ó˚yˆÏܲyê˛y°
åSpring tideä ~ÓÇ ÙÓ˚yˆÏܲyê˛y° åNeap tideä •° ~•z ˆ◊!îÓ˚
xhs˝Ë)≈˛=˛ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
˲Ó˚yˆÏܲyê˛y° åSpring tideä ı ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §ˆÏAà í˛z˲Î˚ ï˛Ìy §)Î≈ G
ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xÓfiÌylàï˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y !lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ òy!Î˚c
Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚– Îál §)Î≈ñ ãÑ˛yò G ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ó˚°ˆÏÓ˚áyÎ˚ xÓfiÌyl
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛y ï˛ál í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ– ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˲Ó˚yˆÏܲyê˛y°
ӈϰ– ~à%ˆÏ°y ÙyˆÏ§ ò%ÓyÓ˚ •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ •Î˚ ˛õ)!î≈ÙyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
•Î˚ xÙyÓ§ƒyÎ˚–
ÙÓ˚ y ˆÏ Ü ˛yê˛y° å Neap tide ä ı §yôyÓ˚ î ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ y ˆÏ Ü ˛yê˛y° G
ÙÓ˚yˆÏܲyê˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙyV˛áyˆÏl §yï˛!òˆÏlÓ˚ ÓƒÓôyl •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚
§)Î≈ G ãÑ˛yò ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ §ÙˆÏܲyˆÏî xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ §)Î≈ G
ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚!ÓˆÏÓ˚yô# xyܲ£Ï≈î ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î
§)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ !mà%î •GÎ˚yÎ˚ §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ xyܲ£Ï≈îç!lï˛ ê˛yl ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚–
ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲÓyÓ˚ Îál ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ܲ«˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ á%Ó Ü˛yˆÏSÈ
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ å˛õƒy!Ó˚!à xÓfiÌylä ï˛ál §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y
§Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ– ò%•z §Æy• ˛õÓ˚ ãÑ˛yò Îál ˛õ,!ÌÓ# ˆÌˆÏܲ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ò)Ó˚Óï≈˛#
xÓfiÌyˆÏl åxƒyˆÏ˛õy!à xÓfiÌylä ÌyˆÏܲñ ãÑ˛yˆÏò Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ ¢!=˛ «˛#î
•ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ~ÓÇ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚–
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ÓSÈÓ˚ 3 çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ# Îál §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ !lܲê˛ï˛Ù
xÓfiÌyˆÏl åxl%§)Ó˚#Î˚ xÓfiÌylä ï˛ál ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy
xfl∫y˲y!Óܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚– Îál 4 ç%°y•z ˛õ,!ÌÓ# §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ò)ÓÓ˚ ï≈˛# xÓfiÌyˆÏl åx˛õ§)Ó#˚ Î˚ xÓfiÌylä ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy
fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ–
í˛zFã˛ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨ ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ Îál ç°ï˛°
lyÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ӈϰ ˲yê˛y åebbä– !l¡¨ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ G í˛zFã˛
ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ Îál ç°ï˛° í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zë˛ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛yˆÏܲ
ӈϰ ≤ÃÓy• Óy ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ åflow or floodä–
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c åImportance of Tidesä ı
§)ÎÈ≈üÈã˛Ñ yòÈüÈ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ åˆÎê˛y xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
çyly xyˆÏSÈä í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y §,!T˛ •Î˚– ï˛y•z ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
xyàyÙ ˛õ)Óy≈ ˲y§ ˲yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~ê˛y ly!Óܲ G ˆçˆÏ°ˆÏòÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛
˛õ!Ó˚ܲ“ly Ùy!Ê˛Ü˛ ܲyç ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˆlÔÈüÈã˛y°lyÎ˚ ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
≤ÃÓyˆÏ • Ó˚ á% Ó à% Ó ˚ % c Ó˚ ˆ Ï Î ˚ ˆ Ï S È – ˆÙy•ly ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ lò#ï˛#Ó˚ fi Ì
ˆ˛õyï˛y◊Î˚à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏӈϢÓ˚ Ù%ˆÏá lò#Óy!•ï˛ ˛õ!° çˆÏÙ lò#àË≈˛
˲Ó˚yê˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏï˛ lò# xà˲#Ó˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ñ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° çy•yç
G ˆlÔܲy ˆ˛õyï˛y◊ˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ Óyôy §,!T˛ •Î˚– ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ç°
lò#Ó˚ ï˛°ˆÏòˆÏ¢ §!M˛ï˛ ˛õ!°hflÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ lò# ˆÙy•ly ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)!£Ïï˛ ç°
§Ó˚yˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛ í˛zͲõyòˆÏl
ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚ åܲylyí˛yÎ˚ñ Ê ˛yˆÏ™ñ Ó˚y!¢Î˚yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !ã˛ˆÏlä– ˛õ!Ÿã˛ÙÓˆÏAàÓ˚
§%®Ó˚ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ò%à≈yòyG!lˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ 3 ˆÙàyGÎ˚yê˛ «˛Ùï˛y§¡õߨ
ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛yç!lï˛ !Óò%ƒÍ¢!=˛ ≤ÃܲˆÏ“Ó˚ ܲyç ã˛°ˆÏSÈ–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ à!ï˛≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛
§Ù%oˆÏflÀyï˛ åOCEAN CURRENTSä ı
lò# ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y §Ù%oˆÏflÀyï˛ •° Ù•y§yàÓ˚!fiÌï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy•–
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õˆÏÌ ~ÓÇ !l!ò≈T˛ !òˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç°Ó˚y!¢
Îál !lÎ˚!Ùï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ §Ù%oˆÏflyÀ ï˛ ÓˆÏ°– §Ù%oˆÏflyÀ ï˛
ò%ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ¢!=˛ myÓ˚y ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ı åiä ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ¢!=˛à%ˆ°Ï y ç°Ó˚y!¢ˆÏܲ
§M˛y°ˆÏl í˛zˆòÏ ƒyà# ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆï˛yˆÏ° åiiä ˆàÔî ¢!=˛à%ˆ°
Ï y ˆflÀyï˛ˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
•ˆÏï˛ ˛≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚–
§Ù%oˆÏflyÀ ˆÏï˛ ≤Ã˲yÓܲyÓ˚# ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ¢!=˛à%ˆ°
Ï y •° ÈüüüÈ åiä ˆ§ÔÓ˚¢!=˛
ˆÌˆÏܲ §,T˛ ï˛y˛õ åiiä ÓyÎ%̊≤ÃÓy• åiiiä Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ Ó° åivä ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à
Ó°– §)Î≈ ï˛yˆÏ˛õ í˛z_Æ •ˆÏ° ç°Ë˛yà ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ~çlƒ•z Ùôƒ
x«˛yÇ¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ !lܲê˛Óï≈˛# xM˛ˆÏ° §Ù%o ç°ï˛° 8
ˆ§!Ù ˆÓ!¢ í˛zÑã%˛ •Î˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî x!ï˛ Ù,ò% l!ï˛ì˛y° ågradientä
§,!T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ ˙ ì˛y° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚– §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚fiÌ ÓyÎ˚% ç°ˆÏܲ §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚
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à!ï˛˛õˆÏÌ ã˛°yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ Ó° ç°Ó˚y!¢ˆÏܲ
l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆê˛ˆÏl !lˆÏÎ˚ l!ï˛ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó!˲ߨï˛y §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚
ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à ӈϰÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ åintervenesä í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ ç°Ó˚y!¢
í˛yl!òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏô≈ ÓÑy!òˆÏܲ ˆÓшÏܲ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z !Ó¢y°
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç°yÓ˚y!¢Ó˚ ~ܲe#ܲÓ˚î ~ÓÇ !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ xyÓï≈˛lˆÏܲ
ӈϰ çyÎ˚y§≈ åGyresä– ~ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ â)î≈l §Ù)• §Ü˛° åocean
basinä Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ˆÓ!§ˆÏl !Ó¢y°Ü˛yÎ˚ ã˛Ü ˛yܲyÓ˚ ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §,!T˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
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ˆflÀyï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ú≤ÃÓy•Û ådriftä myÓ˚y ˆÓyV˛y
ÎyÎ˚– §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ 5 lˆÏê˛Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ à!ï˛ˆÏÓàÎ%=˛ ˆflÀyï˛à%ˆÏ°y
á%Ó ¢!=˛¢y°# •Î˚– §Ù%ˆoÏ Ó˚ à˲#ˆÏÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆflÀyï˛à%ˆ° Ï y
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ á%Ó•z ô#Ó˚ •Î˚ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà 0.5 lê˛ÈüÈ~Ó˚
ˆÌˆÏܲG Ü˛Ù– xyÙÓ˚y ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓàˆÏܲ Ú≤ÃÓy•Û ӈϰ
Ìy!ܲ– ≤ÃÓy• lê˛ ~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛
ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ï˛yÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓàˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛
o%ï˛àyÙ# ˆflÀyï˛ ¢!=˛¢y°# •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
ˆflÀyï˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ¢!=˛¢y°# •Î˚ ~ÓÇ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ï˛Ìy ¢!=˛ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà
ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà 5 lˆÏê˛Ó˚ §Ùyl xÌÓy ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ
Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
§yÙ%!oܲ çˆÏ°Ó˚ âlˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫
à!ï˛¢#°ï˛yˆÏܲ åvertical mobilityä ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˆÓ!¢
°Óîï˛yÎ%=˛ ç°ñ Ü˛Ù °Óîï˛yÎ%=˛ ç° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˲yÓ˚# •Î˚– ˆ§Ó˚ܲÙ˲yˆÏÓ
¢#ï˛° ç°ñ í˛z£÷Ï ç° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˲yÓ˚# •Î˚– ˲yÓ˚# çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ
123
í%˛ˆÏÓ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ñ xyÓ˚ •y°Ü˛y çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˆË˛ˆÏ§
ÌyܲyÓ˚– ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ¢#ï˛° çˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ù%oˆÏflÀyï˛ Ë˛yÓ˚# •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ~!ê˛
Ù@¿ åsinkä ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
í˛z£÷Ï çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆflÀyï˛à%ˆÏ°y !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áy ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚
ˆË˛ˆÏ§ ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~•z ˆflÀyï˛à%ˆ° Ï y ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
•Î˚ ¢#ï˛° ç°ˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛–
§Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà åTypes of Ocean Currentsäı
§Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà çˆÏ°Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ •Î˚–
ˆÎÙlÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢#Î˚ ˆflÀyï˛ ~ÓÇ à˲#Ó˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆflÀyï – åiä ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢#Î˚
ˆflÀyï˛ åsurface currentä Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ 10 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ç%ˆÏí˛¸
xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~•z ç°Ó˚y!¢ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ |ôÁ≈yLjϢÓ˚ 400 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ÈüÈ~Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ•z ÌyˆÏܲ– åiiä à˲#Ó˚ ˆflÀyï˛ ÈüüüÈ ~•z ˆflÀyï˛ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚
90 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– âlc G Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚ ӈϰÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚ çlƒ
~•z ç° §Ù%o xÓÓy!•Ü˛yÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ â%Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢ
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ΈÏÌT Ü˛Ù •GÎ˚yÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ âlc ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî
~•z ˆflÀyï˛ §Ù%ˆÏo ã˛ˆÏ° ÎyÎ˚–
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛G §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÎÙlÈüÈ
¢#ï˛° ˆflÀyï˛ G í˛z£÷Ï ˆflÀyï˛– åiä ¢#ï˛° ˆflÀyï˛ åcold currentä
ÈüüüÈ ¢#ï˛° ˆflÀyï˛ í˛z£÷Ï ç°Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ¢#ï˛° ç° ÓˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏl– ~•z
ˆflÀyï˛à%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !l¡¨ G Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ åí˛z˲Î˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ä
Ù•yˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xLjϢ ~ÓÇ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈Ó˚ í˛zFã˛
x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– åiiä í˛z£ˆÏ÷ flÏ yÀ ï˛ åwarm
currentä ÈüüüÈ ¢#ï˛° ç°Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ° í˛z£÷Ï ç° ÓˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§
~ÓÇ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !l¡¨ G Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ åí˛z˲Î˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ä
Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xLjϢ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈
í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢ ~•z í˛z£÷Ï ˆflÀyï˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚
xLjϢ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
≤Ãôyl ≤Ãôyl ˆflÀyï˛§Ù)• åMajor Ocean Currentsä ı
§yÙ!Î˚ܲ ÓyÎ˚% åprevailing windä ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à Ó° ≤ÈÏÎ˚yˆÏàÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ í˛zqï( ˛ ã˛y˛õ myÓ˚y x!ôܲyÇ¢ §Ù%oˆÏflyÀ ï˛ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚– §yÙ%!oܲ
§M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ôÓ˚l ~ÓÇ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ §M˛°ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ˆÙyê˛yÙ%!ê˛ !Ù° xyˆÏSÈ– Ùôƒ x«˛yLjϢ §Ù%o í˛z˛õ!Ó˚fiÌ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ §M˛y°l
≤Ãôylï˛ ≤Ãï˛#˛õ â)î≈Óyï˛ç!lï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆÏî åí˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yô≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò!«˛î
ˆày°yˆÏô≈ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ä •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– §yÙ%!oܲ §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ §ˆÏAàG
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â)î≈Óyï˛ç!lï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆÏî •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ §yÙ%!oܲ §M˛y°l ~•z ôÓ˚lˆÏܲ
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§Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ã˛°lˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˆÜ˛wy!ï˛à˛ ӈϰÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ
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ˆày°yˆÏô≈ ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲ ˆÓшÏܲ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
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!ã˛e 14.3 : ≤âyhs˝ñ xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl ≤Ãôyl ˆflÀyï˛§Ù)•
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ˆÎÙl ÓyÎ˚% §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î •Î˚ ¢#ï˛° çˆÏ°Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˙ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyey ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
!ë˛Ü˛ ˆ§•z˲yˆÏÓ §yÙ%!oܲ §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ï˛y˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ x«˛yÇ¢àï˛ Ü˛Ù È•Î˚ üüüÈ ~áylܲyÓ˚ ˜ò!lܲ ~ÓÇ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ
Ó°Î˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó°ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛ •Î˚– §%ˆÏÙÓ˚% G Ü%˛ˆÏÙÓ˚% Ó,_ §yÙylƒ•z– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ~•z xM˛° ¢%‹Ò !ܲv ~áyˆÏl Ü%˛Î˚y¢y ˆòáy
ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢#ï˛° ç° Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ G !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ï çˆÏ°Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ÎyÎ˚– Ùôƒ G í˛zFã˛ x«˛yLjϢ xÓ!fiÌï˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù
ôy!Óï˛ •Î˚ñ xyÓyÓ˚ !l¡¨ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ï ç° ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°à%ˆÏ°y í˛z£÷Ï çˆÏ°Ó˚ myÓ˚y xyÓ,ï˛ Îy ~áylܲyÓ˚ §yÙ%!oܲ
≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– !Ó!˲ߨ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl ≤Ãôyl ˆflÀyï˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !ã˛e ç°ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ fl∫ï˛sf ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï%˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ– ~•z xM˛°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •°
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≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~ xM˛ˆÏ° í˛z£÷Ï G Ó,!T˛Ó•%° ç°ÓyÎ˚% ˆòáy
§yÙ!Î˚ܲ ÓyÎ%̊ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ §Ù%oˆÏflyÀ ˆÏï˛Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ⁄˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z xM˛°%àˆÏ°y í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ≤Ãï˛#˛õ â)î≈Óyï˛Î%=˛ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
!ã˛e 14.3 ˆÌˆÏܲ !ܲS%È í˛zòy•Ó˚î ˆÏòáyG– ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ xÓ!fiÌï˛– í˛z£Ï÷ G ¢#ï˛° ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ !Ù°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° çˆÏ°
§Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ åEffects of Ocean Currentsä ı x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛ xyÓ˚G Óy!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˆòÎ˚ Îy ÙyˆÏSÈÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl áyòƒñ
ÙylÓ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛ G ˛õˆÏÓ˚y«˛ ≤’yAÜ˛ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ çlƒ òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ÓˆÏí˛¸y
≤Ã˲yÓ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õÜ ˛yhs˝#Î˚ x«˛yÇ¢à%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏï˛ å!lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓá˚ yÓ˚ ÙͧƒˆÏ«˛eà%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãôylï˛ ~•z !Ù°lfiÌ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ åí˛z£÷Ï G ¢#ï˛°
!lܲê˛Óï≈˛# SÈyí˛¸yä xÓ!fiÌï˛ Ù•yˆÏò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù í˛z˛õÜ)˛°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ !Ù°lfiÌ°ä xÓ!fiÌï˛–
Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ à!ï˛≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ 125

xl%¢#°l#

1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚ !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı

(i) §Ù%oçˆÏ°Ó˚ |ôÁ≈Ù%á# G !l¡¨Ù%á# à!ï˛ ~•z lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ı
(a) ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y (c) ï˛Ó˚Aà
(b) ˆflÀyï˛ (d) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly!ê˛•z lÎ˚
(ii) ˲Ó˚yˆÏܲyê˛y° ˆÎ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî •Î˚ ı
(a) ãÑ˛yò G §)Î≈ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏܲ ~ܲ•z !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(b) ãÑ˛yò G §)Î≈ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏܲ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(c) áÑy!í˛¸Î%=˛ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°ˆÏÓ˚áy–
(d) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly!ê˛•z lÎ˚–
(iii) ˛õ,!ÌÓ# G ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò)Ó˚c Îál l)ƒlï˛Ù •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ãÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xÓfiÌylˆÏܲ ӈϰ ÈüüüÈ
(a) x˛õ§)Ó˚#Î˚ xÓfiÌyl (c) xl%§)Ó˚#Î˚ xÓfiÌyl
(b) ˛õƒy!Ó˚!à (d) xƒyˆÏ˛õy!à
(iv) ˛õ,!ÌÓ# xl%§)Ó˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏl ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ˆÎ ÙyˆÏ§ ÈüüüÈ
(a) xˆÏQyÓÓ˚ (c) ç%°y•z
(b) ˆ§ˆÏ≤Wz¡∫Ó˚ (d) çyl%Î˚y!Ó˚
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ï˛Ó˚Aà ܲ#⁄
(ii) §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aàà%ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛yÌy ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢!=˛ ˛õyÎ˚⁄
(iii) ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y ܲ#⁄
(iv) ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚˲yê˛y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ •Î˚⁄
(v) ˆflÀyï˛ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ˆlÔã˛y°lyÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛⁄
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ˆflÀyï˛ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ï˛y˛õÙyeyˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ⁄
˚ ~ê˛y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ í˛z_Ó˚ÈüÈ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù •zí˛zˆÓÏ y˚ ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
ï˛y˛õÙyeyˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚⁄
(ii) §Ù%oˆÏflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y ˆ°ˆÏáy–
≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
(i) ~ܲ!ê˛ •…ò xÌÓy ˛õ%Ü%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏï˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ à!ï˛ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚y– G•z ˛õ%Ü%˛ˆÏÓ˚ Óy •…ˆÏò
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyÌÓ˚ !lˆÏ«˛˛õ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ~ÓÇ °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ⁄
(ii) ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ Ë)˛ˆÏày°Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùyl!ã˛e lyGñ ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙ%!oܲ ˆflÀyï˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ §yÙ%!oܲ ˆflÀyï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ܲS%È ˆÜ˛l í˛z£÷Ï ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È ¢#ï˛° ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛l
ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆflÀyï˛ !l!ò≈T˛ çyÎ˚àyÎ˚ !ò܉˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚#«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
 ~ܲܲ ı VI

˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#Ól
~•z ~ܲˆÏܲ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y •° ı
l ç#ÓÙ[˛° ÈüÈ í˛z!qòÜ%˛° G xlƒylƒ ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛#Ó˚ à%Ó˚%có Óy›ï˛sfñ ˜çÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ã˛Ü ˛ ~ÓÇ
Óy›§ÇfiÌy!lܲ §Ùï˛yó ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ~ÓÇ §ÇÓ˚«˛î–

˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#Ól
LIFE ON THE EARTH
~ •z ˛õ%hflψÏܲÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xôƒyÎ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ál ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
˛õ!Ó˚!ӈϢÓ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ù[˛° ÎÌy Èü !¢°yÙ[˛°ñ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°
~ÓÇ ç°Ù[˛°ÈüÈ~Ó˚ !ӣψÏÎ˚ çylˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õˆÏÓ˚ÏSÈ– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y çyl ˆÎñ
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §Ü˛° ç#Óhs˝ ç#Ó§Ù)• ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ç#ÓÙ[˛° à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚
ï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ xlƒylƒ Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §Ü˛° ç#!Óï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl ç#ÓÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛– ç#ÓÙ[˛°
˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ Ó§Óy§Ü˛yÓ˚# §Ü˛° í˛z!qòñ ≤Ãyî#ñ xî%ç#Ó ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ
˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ §¡õÜ≈˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛–
˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#Ól ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ó≈e ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ç#!Óï˛ ç#Ó
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÙÓ˚% ˆÌˆÏܲ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛°ñ §Ù%o ï˛°ˆÏò¢
ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲˆÏ¢y !ܲ!ÙÉ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ñ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ çÙy ç°
ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%‹Ò í˛z˛õï˛ƒÜ˛yñ §Ù%ˆoÏ Ó˚ à˲#Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛Ó˚
l#ˆÏã˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆË˛ÔÙç° ˛õÎ≈hs˝–
x!ôܲyÇ¢ ç#Ó !¢°yÙ[˛ˆÏ°•z ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ !ܲv !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ç#Ó
ç°Ù[˛° G ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°G Óy§ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~Ùl Ó•% ç#ÓG xyˆÏSÈ Îy
~ܲ Ù[˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ Ù[˛ˆÏ° xÓyô˲yˆÏÓ !Óã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ç#ÓÙ[˛° G ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ á%Ó•z x˛õ!Ó˚•yÎ≈ xÇ¢–
~•z í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• xlƒylƒ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛È üÈò,¢ƒ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ë)˛!Ùñ ç°
~ÓÇ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
!Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyl ÎÌy ÈüÈ ï˛y˛õÙyeyñ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ñ xyo≈ï˛y ~ÓÇ §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬
myÓ˚yG ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚– fiÌ°ñ ÓyÎ˚% ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ç#ÓÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ !Ü ˛Î˚y ç#Ó§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ó,!Âôñ !Óܲy¢ ~ÓÇ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
á%Ó•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Óy›!Óòƒy åECOLOGYä ı
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Óyhfl%ϧÇfiÌyl §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢àï˛ lyly §Ù§ƒy §¡∫ˆÏrô
!Ó!˲ߨ §ÇÓyò˛õe ~ÓÇ Ùƒyày!çˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓòˆÏl !lŸã˛Î˚•z ˛õˆÏí˛¸ Ìyܲ–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ܲálG ˆË˛ˆÏÓSÈ Óy›!Óòƒy ܲ#⁄ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y çyl ˆÎñ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ¢
xç#Óçyï˛ G ç#Óçyï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– ~!ê˛ çyly xï˛ƒhs˝
x ôƒy Î˚
˛≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎñ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ ˲yÓ˚§yÙƒ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáyÓ˚ çlƒ !Ó!˲ߨ
ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛#Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ Ó˚«˛y ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z §Ùï˛y ÓçyÎ˚
Ó˚yáyÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãyî# Óy ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛# Ìyܲy
≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl ÎyˆÏï˛ ˜çÓ ~ÓÇ x˜ÏçÓ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §%fiÌ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ
!Ü ˛Î˚y ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Óy›§ÇfiÌyl ï˛sf åecological systemsä
Ó°ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÓy§fïϰ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ xç#Óçyï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl ÎÌy ÈüÈ fiÌ°ñ ç° ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ~Ùl
˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ §¡õÜ≈˛ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ¢!=˛≤ÃÓy•
~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ ˆË˛Ôï˛ã˛Ü ˛ flõT˛ Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ Óy›§ÇfiÌyl
ï˛sf ӈϰ–
•zˆÏܲy°!ç åecologyä ¢∑!ê˛ ò%!ê˛ !@˝Ãܲ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚
§Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚ §,!T˛– ÎÌy ÈüÈ ÚoikosÛ ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ •° house Óy
xyÓy§ ~ÓÇ ÚlogyÛ ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ •° Ú!ÓK˛ylÛ Óy ÚxôƒÎ˚lÛ–
xy«˛!Ó˚ܲ xˆÏÌ≈ Óy›!Óòƒy •° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ í˛z!qòñ ÙylÓñ
˛õ¢% ~ÓÇ xî%ç#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ Óy§fiÌylÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ xôƒÎ˚l– ~Ó˚y
§Ü˛ˆÏ°•z xyhs˝/!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° í˛z˛õyòyl !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ
Ó§Óy§ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~ܲçl çyÙ≈yl ≤Ãyî#!Óò xyˆÏlfi≈ ê˛˛ ˆ•ˆÏܲ°
åErnst Haeckelä 1869 §yˆÏ° §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ Óy›!Óòƒy
åecologyä ¢∑!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l ÚoekologieÛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ–
ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛# åç#Óçyï˛ä ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢
åxç#Óçyï˛ä ~Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛Ó˚ xôƒÎ˚l •°
Óy›!ÓòƒyÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl åscience of ecologyä– xï˛~Ó
ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛#Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §ˆÏAà ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ˆÏ¢Ó˚
§ˆÏAà ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ §¡õˆÏܲ≈ Ó˚ !ÓK˛yl§¡øï˛ xôƒÎ˚l•z •°
Óy›!Óòƒy–
Óy›ï˛y!sfܲ åecologicalä xÌ≈ xl%ÎyÎ˚# xyÓy§ åHabitatä
•° ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ G Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ §Ù!T˛– ç#Óçyï˛
G xç#Óçyï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ï˛sf Óy Ó˚#!ï˛ˆÏܲ Óy›ï˛sf Óy
128
Óy›Ó˚#!ï˛ åecosystemä ӈϰ– Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ ~•z §Ü˛° í˛z˛õyòyl
˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ G ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ˆÏ¢
!Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ Óy›ï˛sf ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z!qò
G ≤Ãyî# !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ x!˲ˆÏÎy!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z !Ó£ÏÎ˚ˆÏܲ
Óy› x!˲ˆÏÎyçl åecological adaptationä ӈϰ–
Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà åTypes of Ecosystemsä
Óy›ï˛sf ≤Ãôylï˛ ò%≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ÎÌy ÈüÈ fiÌ°ç återrestrialä Óy›ï˛sf
~ÓÇ ç°ç åaquaticä Óy›ï˛sf– fiÌ°ç Óy›ï˛sfˆÏܲ xyÓyÓ˚
ÚÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙÛ åbiomesäÈüÈ~ !Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ •°
~ܲ Ó,•Í ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ xM˛ˆÏ° !Óhfl,Ïï˛ í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî# §¡±òyÎ˚–
fiÌ°Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ÚÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙÛÈüÈ~Ó˚ §#Ùyly ≤Ãôylï˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y !lô≈yÓ˚î
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– xï˛~Ó ÚÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙÛ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ í˛z!qò
G ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛Ó˚ ~ܲe#ܲÓ˚î– Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ñ ï˛y˛õÙyeyñ
xyo≈ï˛y ~ÓÇ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ xÓfiÌy ~Ó˚ xhs˝Ë)≈˛=˛– !ӈϟªÓ˚ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y
à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ •° ÓlË)˛!Ùñ ï,˛îË))˛!Ùñ ÙÓ%̊Ë)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ ï%˛wy ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ–
ç°ç Óy›ï˛sfˆÜÏ ˛ °Óîy=˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy›ï˛sf ~ÓÇ fl∫yò%çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf
˲yà ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– °Óîy=˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf Ù•y§yàÓ˚ñ ˆÙy•ly
~ÓÇ ≤ÃÓy° ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛– fl∫yò%çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf •…òñ ˛õ%Ü%˛Ó˚ñ lò#
~ÓÇ ç°yË)˛!ÙÓ˚ Óy›ï˛Ïsf xhs˝Ë)≈˛=˛–
Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ àë˛l G ܲyÎ≈yÓ!° åStructure and Functions
of Ecosystemä ı
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf G•z fiÌyˆÏl í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî#ˆÏày¤˛#Ó˚
§)Î≈
ˆ§ÔÓ˚¢!=˛
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ áyòܲ
í˛zͲõyòܲ §Ó%ç í˛z!qò
ï,˛îˆÏ˲yç# ≤Ãyî#
Ù,ï˛ ˆò•yӈϢ£Ï
Ù,!_ܲy ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ˛õy£Ïܲ
˛õòyÌ≈
!ã˛e 15.1 : Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ àë˛l ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÎ≈yÓ!°
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
Óî≈ly xhs˝Ë)≈˛=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– àë˛làï˛ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ü˛° ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ Óy›ï˛sf
xç#Óçyï˛ G ç#Óçyï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– çí˛¸ Óy xç#Óçyï˛
í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y •° Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ñ ï˛y˛õÙyeyñ §)Î≈yˆÏ°yܲñ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚
xyo≈ï˛yñ Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ xÓfiÌyñ x˜ÏçÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ åܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ñ ç°ñ
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçlñ ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙñ Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ñ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ •zï˛ƒy!òä– §ç#Ó
Óy ç#Óçyï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl •° í˛zͲõyòܲñ áyòܲ å≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲñ ˆàÔî Óy
!mï˛#Î˚ ˆ◊!îñ ≤ÈÏàÔî Óy ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ˆ◊!îä ~ÓÇ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçܲ– í˛zͲõyòܲÓ˚y
•° §Ü˛° ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ §Ó%ç í˛z!qò ÎyÓ˚y §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
!lˆÏçÓ˚ áyòƒ !lˆÏçÓ˚y•z ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ áyòܲÓ˚y •° ï,˛îˆÏ˲yç#
≤Ãyî#§Ù)• ÎÌy •!Ó˚îñ SÈyà°ñ •zÑò%Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xÈlƒylƒ ï,˛îˆÏ˲yç# ≤Ãyî#–
Ùyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî#Ó˚y xlƒylƒ ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ Ùyǧ ˆáˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ÎÌy ÈüÈ
§y˛õñ Óyâ ~ÓÇ !§Ç•– ~Ùl xˆÏlܲ Ùyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî# xyˆÏSÈ ÎyÓ˚y
xlƒylƒ Ùyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî#ˆÏòÓ˚ ˲«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ Ùyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî#
ӈϰ– ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Óyç˛õy!áñ !ã˛° ~ÓÇ ˆlí˛z° •zï˛ƒy!ò– ÎyÓ˚y Ù,ï˛ ç#ÓˆÏòÓ˚
˲«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚ åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ ¢Ü%˛l ~ÓÇ Ü˛yܲä ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ
!ÓˆÏÎ˚yçܲܲyÓ˚# ÎÌy ÈüÈ ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚y G !Ó!˲ߨ xî%ç#Ó§Ù)• myÓ˚y
Ù,ï˛ˆÏò•à%ˆÏ°y xyÓ˚G !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •Î˚–
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ áyòܲÓ˚y áyˆÏòƒÓ˚ çlƒ í˛zͲõyòˆÏܲÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
xyÓyÓ˚ ˆàÔî áyòܲÓ˚y ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ áyòܲˆÏòÓ˚ áyòƒ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ˆàÔî áyòܲˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÈÏàÔî áyòܲÓ˚y ˲«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçܲÓ˚y
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ù,ï˛ ˆò•yӈϢ£Ï !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçܲÓ˚y ~ˆÏòÓ˚
åÙ,ï˛ ˆò•yӈϢ£Ïä !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈˛ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ˛õ%!T˛Ü˛Ó˚ ˛õòyÌ≈ñ ˜çÓ G
x˜ÏçÓ °ÓˆÏî ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ í˛zÓ≈Ó˚ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ xï˛ƒhs˝
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– ~ܲ!ê˛ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ ç#Ó§Ù)• áyòƒ¢,CˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ~ˆÏܲ
ˆàÔî áyòܲ ≤ÈÏàÔî áyòܲ
Ùyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî# §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ áyòܲ
!ÓˆÏÎ˚yçܲ
˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#Ól
x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ç!í˛¸ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ å!ã˛e 15.1ä– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ ôyˆÏlÓ˚
G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õï˛AàˆÏܲ åˆàyÓˆÏÓ˚ ˆ˛õyܲyä Óƒy. ~ÓÇ
Óƒy.ˆÏܲ §y˛õ áyòƒ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z §y˛õˆÏܲ xyÓyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
Óyç˛õy!á ˲«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ áyòƒ@˝Ã•î G ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ãyî#Ó˚
áyòƒ •GÎ˚y ~ÓÇ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ~ܲ hflÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ hflψÏÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ˆÏܲ áyòƒ¢,C° åfood chainä ӈϰ– ~ܲ!ê˛ áyòƒ¢,CˆÏ°
~ܲ hflÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ hflψÏÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy•
åflow of energyä ӈϰ– ï˛ˆÏÓñ áyòƒ¢,C°§Ù)• ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!FSÈߨ •Î˚ ly– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zÑò%Ó˚ áyˆÏòƒÓ˚ çlƒ
áyòƒ¢ˆÏ§ƒÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆ§•z •zÑò%Ó˚ˆÏܲ xyÓyÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ˆàÔî áyòܲÓ˚y åÙyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî#ä áyòƒ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z
Ùyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî#ˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÈÏàÔî áyòܲÓ˚y ˲«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚ 姈ÏÓ≈yFã˛
Ùyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî#ä– ~Ùï˛yÓfiÌyÎ˚ñ §Ü˛° Ùyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî#Ó˚y ~ܲy!ôܲ
!¢Ü˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° áyòƒ¢,C°à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!ê˛
x˛õÓ˚!ê˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ xyhs˝/§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚˛ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– ç#Ó§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ~•z xyhs˝/
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ çy°ˆÏܲ áyòƒçy° Óy áyòƒçy!°Ü˛y åfood webä ӈϰ–
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ ò%Û≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ áyòƒ¢,C° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ÎÌyÈüÈã˛yÓ˚îË)˛!ÙÓ˚
áyòƒ¢,C° ~ÓÇ ç°yË)˛!ÙÓ˚ áyòƒ¢,C°– ã˛yÓ˚îË)˛!ÙÓ˚ áyòƒ¢,C° í˛z!qò
åí˛zͲõyòܲä !òˆÏÎ˚ ¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏÎ˚ Ùyǧy¢# å≤ÈÏàÔî áyòܲä ≤Ãyî#ˆÏï˛ ˆ¢£Ï
•Î˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ï,˛îˆÏ˲yç# Óy ¢yܲy•yÓ˚# ≤Ãyî#Ó˚y ÙôƒÙ hflψÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
Ÿª§lñ ˆÓ˚ã˛l ~ÓÇ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ hflψÏÓ˚ ¢!=˛
•…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– áyòƒ¢,CˆÏ° !ï˛l ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ hflÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛
hflψÏÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ˆí˛!ê˛∆ê˛y§ áyòƒ¢,C° ådetritus food-
chainä ã˛yÓ˚îË)˛!ÙÓ˚ áyòƒ¢,C° ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ Ù,ï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏï˛ ˜çÓ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçlG âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ÓyˆÏÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà åTypes of Biomesä ı
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ xl%ˆÏFSȈÏò ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ÚÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙÛ åbiomeäÈüÈ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ çylˆÏï˛
ˆ˛õˆÏÓ˚ÏSÈ– ~ÓyÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y !ӈϟªÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ§Ù)• §¡õˆÏܲ≈ çylyÓ˚
ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚Ó– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ ≤Ãôyl ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
~à%ˆÏ°y •° ÈüÈ ÓlË)˛!Ùñ ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ùñ ï,˛îË)˛!Ùñ ç°ç ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ fiÌyl#Î˚
ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ§Ù)•– ~•z ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§Ù)• §yÓ˚!î lÇ 15.1ÈüȈï˛
ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
˜çÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ã˛Ü ˛ åBiogeochemical Cycleä ı
§)Î≈ •° ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ù)° í˛zͧ ÎyÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ §Ü˛° ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ç#Ól !lË≈˛Ó˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ¢!=˛ myÓ˚y ç#ÓÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z!qò§Ù)• §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ áyòƒ §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ù)° í˛zͧ–
§yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ ˜çÓ ˆÎÔà ~ÓÇ
x!:ˆÏçˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï˛≈ï˛ •Î˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ xyàï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚¢!=˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚
129
Ê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ á%Ó•z x“ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî å0.1 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ä §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ xˆÏô≈ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢ xÇ¢ í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ Ÿª§l
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xÓ!¢T˛yÇ¢ xfiÌyÎ˚#˲yˆÏÓ §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚ xÌÓy àyˆÏSÈÓ˚
xlƒylƒ xLjϢ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
!Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ç#!Óï˛ ≤Ãyî# myÓ˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#Ól à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
~•z ç#!Óï˛ ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛#§Ù)• ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~•z ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyܲyÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ≤Ãîy°#ÓÂô ≤ÃÓy•§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ¢!=˛≤ÃÓy•ñ ç°≤ÃÓy• ~ÓÇ
˛õ%!T˛Ü˛Ó˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy•– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xM˛ˆÏ° ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ
}ï%˛ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ fiÌyl#Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ ~•z ≤ÃÓy•§Ù)ˆÏ• ˜Ó!ã˛eƒï˛y
°«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !Ó!˲ߨ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏl ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ !Óàï˛ ~ܲ !Ó!°Î˚l
ÓSÈÓ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛° ~ÓÇ ç°Ù[˛° àë˛lܲyÓ˚# Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚
§Ùï˛y ≤ÃyÎ˚ ~ܲ•z xyˆÏSÈ xÌ≈yÍ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚!l– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z §Ùï˛y í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ ˆÜ˛y¢#Î˚ àë˛l myÓ˚y ã˛Ü ˛yܲyˆÏÓ˚
ÓçyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z ã˛Ü ˛ ç#Ó myÓ˚y Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ¢y£Ïî ˆÌˆÏܲ
xyÓ˚Ω˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ÓyÎ˚%ñ ç° ~ÓÇ Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚
˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ã˛Ü ˛à%ˆÏ°y Ù%áƒï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚¢!=˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚Ê˛°
ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢!=˛ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ç#ÓÙ[˛ˆÏ° ç#Ó G ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z ã˛Ü ˛yܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy•ˆÏܲ ˜çÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
åbiogeochemical cycleä ã˛Ü ˛ ӈϰ– ÚÓyˆÏÎ˚yÛ åBioä ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚
xÌ≈ ç#!Óï˛ ç#Ó ~ÓÇ Ú!çˆÏÎ˚yÛ ågeoä ܲÌyÓ˚ xÌ≈ •° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛
í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ !¢°yñ Ù,!_ܲyñ ÓyÎ˚% ~ÓÇ ç°–
˜çÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ã˛Ü ˛ ò%Û≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ •Î˚– ÎÌy ÈüÈ àƒy§#Î˚ ~ÓÇ
˛õy°!°Ü˛ ã˛Ü ˛– àƒy§#Î˚ ã˛ˆÏÜ ˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl ˲y[˛yÓ˚ •° ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°
~ÓÇ Ù•y§yàÓ˚– !¢°yã˛ˆÏÜ ˛ Ù%áƒ Ë˛y[˛yÓ˚ •ˆÏFSÈ Ù,!_ܲy ~ÓÇ Ë)˛cˆÏܲÓ˚
˛õy°!°Ü˛ !¢°y G xlƒylƒ !¢°y§Ù)•–
ç°ã˛Ü ˛ åThe Water Cycleä ı
§ÙhflÏ ç#!Óï˛ ç#ÓÜ)˛°ñ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° ~ÓÇ !¢°yÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ çˆÏ°Ó˚
~ܲ!ê˛ ã˛Ü ˛ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá Îy ܲ!ë˛lñ ï˛Ó˚° xÌÓy àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚
Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲñ ~ˆÏܲ ç°ã˛Ü ˛ åhydrologic cycleä ӈϰ– åç°ã˛Ïܲ 
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !Ó¢ò çylˆÏï˛ ~•z˛ ˛õ%hflψÏܲÓ˚ 13 lÇ xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ ˆòˆÏáyä–
ܲyÓ≈l ã˛Ü ˛ åThe Carbon Cycleä ı
ܲyÓ≈l •° §Ü˛° ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛#Ó˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòyl– ~!ê˛ §Ü˛° ˜çÓ
í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ Ù)° §Çàë˛Ü˛– ç#ÓÙ[˛ˆÏ° ~ܲ !Ù!°Î˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xˆÏô≈ܲyLjϢ
ܲyÓ≈l í˛z˛õyòyl Óï≈˛Ùyl– ܲyÓ≈l ã˛Ü ˛ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆíÏ ˛Ó˚•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛
Ó˚˛) õ– ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆíÏ ˛Ó˚
xy_#ܲÓ˚î !òˆÏÎ˚ ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢Ü≈˛Ó˚yñ @’%ˆÏܲyç ˜ï˛!Ó˚
•Î˚ Îy xlƒylƒ ˜çÓ ˆÎÔˆÏà ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ §%ˆÏÜ ˛yç åsucroseäñ ˆŸªï˛§yÓ˚
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§yÓ˚!î 15.1 : !ӈϟªÓ˚ ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ§Ù)•

ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ í˛z˛õÈüÈ!Ó˲yà xM˛° ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§Ù)• Ù,!_ܲy í˛z!qòÜ%˛° G ≤Ãyî#Ü%˛°
ÓlË)˛!Ù A. Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ A1. 10° í˛zÉÈüÈòÉ A1. í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y 20°-25°C, A1. xy!¡‘ܲñ A1. Ó•%hflÏÓ˚#Î˚ xyFSÈyòlñ °¡∫y
1. !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ A2. 10° - 25° í˛zÉÈüÈòÉ §Ù˲yˆÏÓ Ó!^˝ê˛ï˛ ˛õ%!T˛Ü˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó¢y° àySÈ–
2. ˛õî≈ˆÏÙyã˛# B. ˛õ)Ó≈ í˛z_Ó˚ A2. í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y 25°-30°C, ˛õòyÌ≈ Ü˛Ù– A2. fl∫“ âlñ ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚
B. ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyñ í˛z_Ó˚ Óy!£Ï≈ܲ àí˛¸ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ A2. ˛õ%!T˛Ü˛Ó˚ Ó,«˛§Ù)•ó ~ܲy!ôܲ
C. ˆÓy!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚° ˛õ)Ó≈ ~!¢Î˚yñ 1,000 !Ù!Ù }ï%˛Ü˛y°#l– ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÓ!¢– ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ
˛õ!Ÿã˛Ù G Ùôƒ B. í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y 20-30° C, B. í˛zÓ≈Ó˚ñ «˛!Î˚ï˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ܲ#ê˛˛õï˛Aàñ
•zí˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛õ– Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ §Ù˲yˆÏÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ myÓ˚ y Óyò%í˛¸ñ ˛õy!á ~ÓÇ
C. •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚!¢Î˚y ~ÓÇ Ó!^˝ê˛ï˛ 750-1,500 §Ù,Âô– hflÏlƒ˛õyÎ˚# ≤Ãyî# ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛
í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ !Ù!ÙÉñ §%!l!ò≈T˛ }ï%˛ C. xy!¡‘ܲ ~ÓÇ ò%ˆÏê˛yˆÏï˛•z ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
!ÓhflÏ#î≈ xM˛° ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó  ¢#ï˛– ˛õ%! T˛Ü˛Ó˚ B. ÙyV˛y!Ó˚ âl Ó,•Í
å§y•zˆÏÓ!Ó˚Î˚yñ C. §Ç!«˛Æ xyo≈ ˛õ!Ó˚!Ù!ï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl Ü˛Ù– ˛õe!Ó!¢T˛ Ó,«˛– í˛z!qò
xy°yflÒyñ ܲylyí˛y í˛z£÷Ï @˝Ã#‹øܲy° ~ÓÇ ò#â≈ Ù, !_ܲyÓ˚ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ü˛Ù ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ
~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°#l ¢%‹Ò ¢#ï˛ ˛õyï˛°y ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛
flÒƒy!u˛!l!˲Î˚y ~Ó˚ }ï%˛– ï˛y˛õÙyey á%Ó Ü˛Ù xyÓÓ˚î– §yôyÓ˚î ≤Ãçy!ï˛ •ˆÏFSÈ
xÇ¢!ӈϢ£Ï– xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õîñ Ù%áƒï˛ Gܲñ !Óã˛ñ Ùƒy˛õ° •zï˛ƒy!ò–
ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚˛õyï˛ 400 -1,000 ܲyë˛ˆÏÓí˛¸y!°ñ áÓ˚ˆÏày¢ñ
!Ù!ÙÉ flÒyÇܲñ ˛õy!áñ ܲyˆÏ°y
˲yÕ‘%ܲñ ˛õy•y!í˛¸ !§Ç•
•zï˛ƒy!ò–
C. !ã˛Ó˚•!Ó˚Í §Ó˚°Óà≈#Î˚
ÓlË)˛!Ù ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ˛õy•zlñ
Ê˛yÓ˚ñ fl±%§ •zï˛ƒy!ò–
ܲyë˛ˆÏë˛yܲÓ˚yñ Óyç˛õy!áñ
˲yÕ‘%ܲñ ˆlܲˆÏí˛¸ñ •!Ó˚îñ
áÓ˚ˆÏày¢ ~ÓÇ Óyò%í˛¸ •°
ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y Ù%რ≤Ãyî#–
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù A. í˛z£÷Ï G ¢%‹Ò A. §y•yÓ˚yñ ܲy°y•y!Ó˚ñ A. í˛z£÷Ïï˛y 20° - 45°C.
˛õ%!T˛Ü˛Ó˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ ≈ A-C. x“ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù ÙÓ˚%fiÌ°#ñÓ˚yÓÈüÈ~°ÈüÈáy!° B. 21° - 38°C. §Ù,Âô ~ÓÇ ˜çÓ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ñ !ܲS%È ÓˆÏí˛¸y
B. ≤ÃyÎ˚ ¢%‹Ò B. í˛z£÷Ï ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ C. 15° - 35°C. ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ x“ hflÏlƒ˛õyÎ˚# ≤Ãyî#ñ
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù ≤Ãyhs˝ˆÏò¢#Î˚ D. 2 °- 25°C ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ܲ#ê˛˛õï˛Aàñ §Ó˚#§,˛õ ~ÓÇ
C. í˛z˛õÜ)˛°#Î˚ ~°yܲy§Ù)•– A-D 50 !Ù!ÙÉÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ü˛Ù í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ Óy ˛õy!á–
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù C. xyê˛yܲyÙy Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛– xl%˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛– D. áÓ˚ˆÏày¢ñ •zÑò%Ó˚ñ •!Ó˚î
D. ¢#ï˛° ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!Ù D. ï%˛wy ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛° ~ÓÇ fiÌ° ܲyë˛ˆÏÓí˛¸y!°–
ï,˛îË)˛!Ù A. Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ A. xy!Ê ˛Ü˛yÓ˚ !Ó¢y° A. àÓ˚Ù í˛z£÷Ï ç°ÓyÎ˚%ñ A. §!FSÈ o A. ây§ ı àySÈ G !Ó¢y° à%Õ√
§y˲yly xÇ¢ñ xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚yñ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ 500- õy¢y˛õy!¢ xl%˛õ!fiÌï˛ó !çÓ˚yÊ˛ñ
B. ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï òÉ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy ~ÓÇ 1,250 !Ù!ÙÉ !•í˛zÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆçÓ yñ Ù!•£Ïñ !ã˛ï˛yÓyâñ
ˆfiê˛˛õ ˲yÓ˚ï˛ B. í˛z£÷Ï @˝Ã#‹øܲy° ~ÓÇ ˛õyï˛°y xyÓÓ˚ î – •yÎ˚lyñ •y!ï˛ñ •zÑò%Ó˚ñ
B. •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚!¢Î˚y ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛° ¢#ï˛Ü˛y°– B. ˛õyï˛°y àrôÙ%!£Ïܲñ §y˛õ ~ÓÇ Ü˛#ê˛
í˛z_Ó˚ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲy– Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ 500 - ˆÊœ˛yÜ%˛ˆÏ°ê˛ Ù,!_ܲy •zï˛ƒy!ò– ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y
900 !Ù!ÙÉ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ §Ù,Âô– §yôyÓ˚î ≤Ãyî#–
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B. ây§ó §yÙ!Î˚ܲ àySȧÙ)•

ÎÌy ÈüÈ Ü˛y˛õ≈y§ ÓlË)˛!Ùñ
Gܲ ~ÓÇ í˛z•zˆÏ°yñ
Ü,˛£÷ϧyÓ˚ñ ˆçÓ yñ àu˛yÓ˚ñ
ÓlƒˆÏâyí˛¸yñ !§Ç•ñ !Ó!˲ߨ
≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˛õy!áñ ܲ#ê˛˛õï˛Aàñ
§y˛õ •zï˛ƒy!ò •°
ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚î ≤Ãyî#–
ç°ç A. fl∫yò%ç° A. •…òñ «%˛o lò#ñ lò# A-B ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛yÓ˚ A. ç°çñ ç°y G ˜Ï¢Óy° G xlƒylƒ ç°ç ~ÓÇ
B. §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ç° ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%Î%=˛– ç°yË)˛!Ù Óy §yÙ%!oܲ í˛z!qòÜ)˛° ï˛Ìy ç°ç
ç°yË)˛!Ù– ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ í˛z F ã˛ !Ó°– ≤Ãyî#§Ù)•
B. Ù•y§yàÓ˚ñ ≤ÃÓy° xyo≈ï˛yÎ%=˛– B. ˛ç°çñ
≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ñ í˛z˛õ•…ò ˆçyÎ˚ y Ó˚ ç !lï˛
~ÓÇ §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ç°y G ç°yË)˛!Ù
áÑy!í˛¸– Óy !Ó°–
¢#£Ï≈ ——— í˛zFã˛ ˛õÓï≈˛ˆÏ◊!î ì˛y°ñ ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌï˛ í˛zFã˛ï˛y xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õî≈ˆÏÙyã˛#
ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ !•Ùy°Î˚ñ x«˛yLjϢÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÓ˚ˆÏày!°Ì ˆÌˆÏܲ ï%˛wy çyï˛#Î˚ ÓlË)˛!Ù–
ˆÏò¢#Î˚
xy!®ç G Ó˚!ܲ
˛õÓ≈ï˛Ùy°y–

åstarchäñ ˆ§°%ˆÏ°yç åcelluloseä ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– !ܲS%È
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢Ü≈˛Ó˚y í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
ã˛°yܲy°#l í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õyï˛y xÌÓy Ù)° myÓ˚y !òˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓ°yÎ˚ x!ôܲ
˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ù%=˛ •Î˚– í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚
myÓ˚y xÓƒÓ•,ï˛ xÓ!¢T˛ ¢Ü≈˛Ó˚y àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢ §!M˛ï˛ •Î˚– àyˆÏS
˛~•z ˆÜ˛y¢§Ù)• •Î˚ˆÏï˛y ï,˛îˆÏ˲yç# ≤Ãyî#Ó˚y ˲«˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ lï%˛Óy xî%
ç#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •Î˚– ï,˛îˆÏ˲yç#Ó˚y à,•#ï˛ ¢Ü≈˛Ó˚yˆÏܲ ܲyÓ≈l
í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y xy_#ܲÓ˚î
í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ àƒy§ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ÿª§l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ï˛y
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ï˛ƒyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ – xî%ç#ÓÓ˚y ≤Ãyî#ˆÏòÓ˚ Ù,ï%˛ƒÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ xÓ!¢T˛
¢Ü≈˛Ó˚y !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ܲˆÏÓ˚– xî%ç#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ ¢Ü≈˛Ó˚y ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚
x!:ˆÏçl ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚ å!ã˛e 15.2ä–
x!:ˆÏçl ã˛Ü ˛ åThe Oxygen Cycleä ı
x!:ˆÏçl •° §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl í˛z˛õçyï˛ oÓƒ åBy-

ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° CO2
productä– ~!ê˛ Ü˛yˆÏÓ≈y•y•zˆÏí»˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ x!:ˆÏí˛¢l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ñ
í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ Ÿª§l!Ü ˛Î˚y

≤Ãyî#Ó˚ Ÿª§l!Ü ˛Î˚y

ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y ¢!=˛ñ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ ç° !ÓÙ%=˛ •Î˚– x!:ˆÏçl

Ù,!_ܲy Ÿª§l!Ü ˛Î˚y

ã˛Ü ˛ á%Ó•z ç!ê˛° ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y– xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ àë˛l G §Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚

ÙˆÏôƒ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~!ê˛ ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !وϰ ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆ê˛
˛õ¢% Óy ≤Ãyî#
í˛z!qò àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ á!lç G !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !وϰ
Ù,ï˛ xӈϢ£Ï
!Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ x:y•zí˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ˆ°Ô• x:y•zí˛ åIron
!ÓˆÏÎy˚ çl Oxideäñ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ x:y•zí˛ åAluminium Oxideä ~ÓÇ
xlƒylƒ– §)Î≈yˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ myÓ˚y §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚
Ù)° Ÿª§l!Ü ˛Î˚y
xî%à%ˆÏ°y ˆË˛ˆÏ. x!:ˆÏçl í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õeÓ˚ˆÏrô Ó˚
!ã˛e 15.2 : ܲyÓ≈l ã˛Ü ˛ myÓ˚y Óy‹õˆÏÙyã˛l G Ÿª§l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y myÓ˚y ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° !là≈ï˛ •Î˚–
132
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ã˛Ü ˛ åThe Nitrogen Cycleä ı
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛° àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù%რ§Çàë˛Ü˛ •° ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl–
ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛°#Î˚ àƒy§à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 78 ¢ï˛yÇ¢– ~!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ
≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˜çÓ ˆÎÔà ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ xƒy!ÙˆÏly xƒy!§í˛ åAmino Acidäñ
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ åNucleic Acidäñ ˆ≤Ãy!ê˛lñ !˲ê˛y!Ùl ~ÓÇ Ó˚Oܲ
˛õòyÌ≈ åPigmentäÈüÈ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õyòyl– ¢%ô%Ùye ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛
!Ó!¢T˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ç#Óñ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ù,!_ܲy ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Îy˚ åSoil Bacteriaä
~ÓÇ l#°y˲ §Ó%ç ˜¢Óy°•z åBlue Green Algaeä ~ˆÏܲ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚
˛àƒy§#Î˚ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛§«˛Ù– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçlˆÏܲ
!fiÌ!ï˛Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚•z ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚
90 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ˜ç!Óܲ xÌ≈yÍ ¢%ô%Ùye ≤Ãyî#Ó˚y•z @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl í˛zͧ •° Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ
ç#Ó§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈y!ò Îy àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ !¢Ü˛í˛¸ Óy Ó˚rô Î%=˛ Ù,!_ܲy ˆÌˆÏܲ
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ÓL˛õyï˛ ~ÓÇ
Ù•yçyà!ï˛Ü˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚yG !fiÌÓ˚#Ü,˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚
!ܲS%È §yÙ%!oܲ ≤Ãyî# ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçlˆÏܲ xyÓÂô ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛°#Î˚
ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ xyÓÂô#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ ï˛y ï˛ál•z ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ˆÎÏ yàƒ
•Î˚ Îál §Ó%ç í˛z!qò§Ù)• ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ï,˛îˆÏ˲yç#
≤Ãyî#ˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y ~•z í˛z!qòà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ ˲«˛î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ~Ó˚ åly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçlä
!ܲS%È xÇ¢ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒG ã˛ˆÏ° ÎyÎ˚– Ù,!_ܲyÎ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚y
myÓ˚y Ù,ï˛ í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî#– !l/§,ï˛ ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ Óç≈ƒ˛õòyÌ≈ ly•zê˛∆y•zˆêÏ ˛
˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– !ܲS%È ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚y ly•zê˛∆y•zê˛ˆÏܲ ly•zˆÏê˛∆ˆÏê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ!ê˛ §Ó%ç í˛z!qòÓ˚y ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
!ܲS%È xlƒ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚yG xyˆÏSÈ ÎyÓ˚y ly•zˆÏê˛∆ê˛ˆÏܲ xyÓyÓ˚
Ù%=˛ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ
!í˛ly•z!ê˛∆!Ê˛ˆÏܲ¢l åDenifrificationä ӈϰ å!ã˛e 15.3ä–
ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛°#Î˚
ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl
ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛°#Î˚ ˜çÓ !¢“çyï˛
xyÓÂô#ܲÓ˚î xyÓÂô#ܲÓ˚î xyÓÂô#ܲÓ˚î
ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆ê˛ ˆÎÔà
!í˛Èly•z!ê˛∆!Ê˛ˆÏܲ¢l
!ã˛e 15.3 : ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ã˛Ü ˛
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
xlƒylƒ á!lç ã˛Ü ˛ åOther Mineral Cyclesä ı
ç#ÓÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl Ë)˛ÈüÈÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ í˛z˛õyòyl ÎÌy ÈüÈ Ü˛yÓ≈lñ x!:ˆÏçlñ
ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl SÈyí˛¸yG í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ ç#ÓlôyÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚
çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ xyÓ˚G !ܲS%È à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ á!lç Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Îy ˛õ%!T˛Ü˛Ó˚
í˛z˛õyòyl !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛#Ó˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ~•z
á!lç í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)• ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ x˜ÏçÓ í˛zͧ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ
ÎÌy ÈüÈ Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ñ §y°Ê˛yÓ˚ñ ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ– ~à%ˆÏ°y
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ Ù,!_ܲyñ •…òñ lò# ~ÓÇ §yàˆÏÓ˚ °ÓîÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚
ÌyˆÏܲ– Îál oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ °Óî ç°ã˛ˆÏÜ ˛ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ï˛y
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y Ë)˛cˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ xӈϢˆÏ£Ï §yàˆÏÓ˚ !àˆÏÎ˚
ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚– xlƒylƒ °Óî§Ù)• ˛õ°° ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y Ë)˛˛õ,ˆ¤Ï ˛ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ§
~ÓÇ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ï˛y ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ã˛ˆÏÜ ˛ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– §Ü˛°
ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛# ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !lçfl∫ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ìyܲy á!lç
°Óî ˆÌˆÏܲ !lçfl∫ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ã˛y!•òy ˆÙê˛yÎ˚– !ܲS%È ≤Ãyî# í˛z!qò G
≤Ãyî#ˆÏܲ ˲«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ á!lç ã˛y!•òy ˛õ)î≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚ Ù,ï%˛ƒÓ˚
˛õÓ˚ á!lç §Ù)• !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl G ≤ÃÓy• ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y Ù,!_ܲy G çˆÏ°
!وϢ ÎyÎ˚–
Óy›§ÇfiÌy!lܲ §Ùï˛y åEcological Balanceä ı
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf Óy xyÓyˆÏ§ ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛#Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ à!ï˛¢#°
§Ùï˛yÓ˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ Óy›§ÇfiÌy!lܲ §Ùï˛y ӈϰ– ~!ê˛ ï˛ál•z §Ω˛Ó
Îál ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛# xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° •Î˚– Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
¢%ô%Ùye ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ xl%Ü ˛Ù Óy ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ï˛yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §y!ôï˛ •Î˚–
~ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê
fiÌyÎ˚# §Ùï˛y Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õG Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~•z §Ùï˛y ˆÎáyˆÏl
≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° ÌyˆÏܲ ˆ§áyˆÏl !Ó!˲ߨ ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛#Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛m!®µï˛y G §•ˆÏÎy!àï˛yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
!ܲS%È ≤Ãçy!ï˛ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !lçfl∫ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
≤Ã!ï˛m!®µï˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ~•z §Ùï˛y !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§– ~•z §Ùï˛y !ܲS%È ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚
áyòƒ G ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyܲyÓ˚ çlƒ xlƒ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚G ˆÎ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° ï˛yÓ˚
G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î !Ó¢y° ï,˛îË)˛!Ù xM˛ˆÏ° ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl ï,˛îˆÏ˲yç# ≤Ãyî#Ó˚y å•!Ó˚îñ ˆçÓ yñ Ù!•£Ï •zï˛ƒy!òä ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚
§ÇáƒyÎ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ– x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ Ùyǧy¢# ≤Ãyî#ˆÏòÓ˚ åÓyâñ !§Ç•
•zï˛ƒy!òä §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !Ó¢y° §ÇáƒyÎ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ lyñ ï˛yÓ˚y ¢yܲy•yÓ˚#
≤Ãyî#ˆÏòÓ˚ !¢Ü˛yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ G áyòƒ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
§Çáƒy !lÎ˚!sfï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– fiÌyl#Î˚ ÓlË)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly Óyôy ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ
fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ Ü,˛!£ÏÓ˚ çlƒ ÓlË)˛!Ù ˆÜ˛ˆÏê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° àyˆÏSÈÓ˚
≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§– ~•z≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Ù)°ï˛
≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÎy!àï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî •Î˚ó ˆÎáyˆÏl ˆàÔî Ólƒ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ ï,˛î
Óy ây§ñ ÓÑy¢ xÌÓy ˛õy•zl çyï˛#Î˚ í˛z!qò ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ fiÌyl
˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#Ól 133

òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚ Ù)° ÓlË)˛!ÙÓ˚ àë˛ˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§– ~ˆÏܲ xî%Ü ˛Ù
åsuccessionä ӈϰ–
lï%˛l ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ í˛zqÓñ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ò%ˆÎÏ y≈ à xÌÓy Ùl%£ƒÏ Ó!î≈ï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆîÏ
Óy›§ÇfiÌylàï˛ §Ùï˛y !Ó!â¯ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ •hflψϫ˛˛õ í˛z!qò
≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §Ùï˛yÎ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflyÏ Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ Èñ Ê˛ˆÏ° Óy›ï˛sf !Ó!â¯ï˛ •ˆÏFSÈ–
~•z Óyôy§Ù)• Óy x§Ùï˛y Ó•% ˆàÔî xî%Ü ˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ çß√ ˆòÎ˚– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
§¡õˆÏòÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ xï˛ƒ!ôܲ ã˛y˛õ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf ≤Ã˲yÓ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ï˛yˆÏܲ lT˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ
fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ ≤Ã!ï˛Ü)˛° ≤Ã˲yÓ ˆÊ˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ– Óy› §ÇfiÌylàï˛
x§Ùï˛y !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ò%ˆÏÎ≈yà ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ólƒyñ Ë)˛!Ùô§ñ !Ó!˲ߨ
ˆÓ˚yà ~ÓÇ Ó•% ç°ÓyÎ˚% §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§–
!ӈϢ£Ï xyÓy§fïϰ í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî#ˆÏày¤˛#Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ á%Ó•z â!lT˛
§¡õÜ≈˛ !ÓòƒÙyl– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ˆ§•z fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ
•° ˆ§•z xyÓy§fïϰÓ˚ ˛õy!Ó˚ˆÏÓ!¢Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ §)ã˛Ü˛ Óy !lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛–
~ §Ü˛° í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ÎÌyÎÌ K˛yl G ˆÓyôàÙƒï˛y Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚
Ó˚«˛îyˆÏÓ«˛î ~ÓÇ §ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏî ò,ì˛¸ !˲!_ ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–

xl%¢#°l#
1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚ !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
(i) !lˆÏ¡¨Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ç#ÓÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛⁄
(a) ¢%ô%Ùye í˛z!qò (c) ¢%ô%Ùye ≤Ãyî#
(b) §Ü˛° ˜çÓ G x˜ÏçÓ ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛# (d) §Ü˛° ç#ÓˆÏày¤˛#
(ii) Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ï,˛îË)˛!ÙˆÏܲ ~ lyˆÏÙG çyly ÎyÎ˚ ı
(a) ˆ≤Õz!Ó˚ (c) ˆfiê˛˛õ
(b) §y˲yly (d) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly!ê˛•z lÎ˚
(iii) !¢°yÎ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆ°y•y x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §ÇÎ%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ı
(a) xyÎ˚Ó˚l ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlê˛ (c) xyÎ˚Ó˚l x:y•zí˛
(b) xyÎ˚Ó˚l ly•zê˛∆y•zê˛ (d) xyÎ˚Ó˚l §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛
(iv) §)Î≈yˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ àë˛l
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ı
(a) ˆ≤Ãy!ê˛l (c) ܲyÓ≈•y•zˆÏí»˛ê˛ Óy ¢Ü≈˛Ó˚y
(b) xƒy!ÙˆÏly xƒy!§í˛ (d) !˲ê˛y!Ùl
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ÚEcologyÛ Óy ÚÓy›!ÓòƒyÛ Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄
(ii) Óy›§ÇfiÌy!lܲ ï˛sf åEcological systemä ܲ#⁄ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl ≤Ãôyl Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà§Ù)•
¢ly=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
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(iii) áyòƒ¢,C° ܲ#⁄ ˛õ¢%ã˛yÓ˚î áyòƒ¢,CˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î òyG ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ hflÏÓ˚§Ù)• §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
(iv) áyòƒçy° åfood webä Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛˛⁄ í˛zòy•Ó˚î òyG–
(v) ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ åBiomeä Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛˛⁄
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ˜çÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ã˛Ü ˛ Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ xyÓÂô •Î˚ ï˛y xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(ii) Óy›§ÇfiÌylàï˛ §Ùï˛y ܲ#⁄ Óy›§ÇfiÌylàï˛ x§Ùï˛y ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓ˚yô ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˛õòˆÏ«˛˛õ §¡∫ˆÏrô
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–

≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
(i) !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏe !Ó!˲ߨ ÓyˆÏÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ !Óï˛Ó˚î ˆòáyG ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ÓyˆÏÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
ˆ°ˆÏáy–
(ii) ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ !Óòƒy°Î˚ ≤ÃyAàˆÏl í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ àySÈñ à%Õ√ ~ÓÇ !ã˛Ó˚ç#Ó# åperennialä í˛z!qò§Ù)• §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
~ܲ!ê˛ ê˛#ܲy ˆ°ˆÏáy– ≤ÃyÎ˚ xˆÏô≈ܲ !òl ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòˆÏáy !Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓyàyˆÏl ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
˛õy!á xyˆÏ§⁄ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ ~•z ˛õy!áà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒï˛y Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄

ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ~ÓÇ §ÇÓ˚«˛î
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
ˆï˛y ÙÓ˚y xyˆÏà•z Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚)˛õàï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y !ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚
xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ ç°ÓyÎ˚ % xM˛ˆÏ °
xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆçˆÏlSÈ– ˛õ%l/fløÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y £Ï¤˛ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ 6.2 lÇ !ã˛e!ê˛ ˆòˆÏáy– ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ çyly
í˛z!ã˛ï˛ ˆÎñ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚•z •° !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z!qò ~ÓÇ
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ !˲!_– ˆ§ÔÓ˚¢!=˛ G çˆÏ°Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
!Ó!˲ߨï˛y ~ÓÇ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ Ù)° !˲!_ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~áyˆÏl
xÓyܲ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲyÓ˚î ˆl•z ˆÎñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ~•z ¢!=˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ x!ôܲ ÌyܲˆÏÓ ˆ§áyˆÏl ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒG x!ôܲ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y
ÎyˆÏÓ–
xyç xyÙÓ˚y ˆÎ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z ï˛y 2.5
ˆÌˆÏܲ 3.5 !Ó!°Î˚l ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛°– å~ܲ
!Ó!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ = ~ܲˆÏ¢y ˆÜ˛y!ê˛ ÓSÈÓ˚ä ÙylÓ ç#Ól
§,!T˛Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ•z ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly
xlƒ ܲy° ˆÌˆÏܲ x!ôܲ !SÈ°– ÙylÓ ç#Ól ¢%Ó˚%
•GÎ˚ y Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ ç#Ó˜Ï Ó !ã˛ˆÏ e ƒÓ˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ o% ï ˛
!l¡¨àyÙ#ï˛y °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏFSÈ– ܲyÓ˚î ~ܲ Óy xlƒ
≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ï˛yÎ˚ x!ôܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
≤Ãyî#à%ˆÏ°y °%Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyˆÏFSÈ– !ÓŸªÓƒy˛õ# §Ó≈ˆÏÙyê˛
≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy xyl%Ùy!lܲ 2 !Ù!°Î˚l ˆÌˆÏܲ 100
!Ù!°Î˚l– !ܲv 10 !Ù!°Î˚l •Ï° ~Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ xl%Ùyl–
lï%˛l ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ˆáÑyç ≤Ã!ï˛!lÎ˚ï˛ ã˛°ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~álG
xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚y Óy!ܲ xyˆÏSÈ–
~ܲ!ê˛ !•§yˆÏÓ ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ ò!«˛î xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ fl∫yò%
çˆÏ ° Ó˚ 40 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ÙyˆÏ S ÈÓ˚ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ~álG
ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚!l– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xÓ˚îƒ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒ
á%Ó•z §Ù,Âô–
!Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚ ò,!T˛Ë˛!Aà xl%ÎyÎ˚#
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü ˛Ù !ÓÓï≈˛l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y– ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
x ôƒy Î˚
≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ àí˛¸ xyÎ˚% 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ 4 !Ù!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ xl%Ùyl ܲˆÏÓ˚
!•§yÓ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ 99 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ ÎyÓ˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛
Ó§Óy§ ܲÓ˚ Ï ï ˛ ï˛yÓ˚ y xyç !Ó°% Æ •ˆÏ Î ˚ ˆàˆÏ S È – ˛õ, ! ÌÓ#ˆÏ ï ˛
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ~ܲÓ˚Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ly– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛° ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒ ˆÓ!¢
§Ù,Âô– Î!ò ˆÜ˛í˛z ¢#ï˛° ˆÙÓ˚%≤ÈÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ~!àˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ï˛ál
≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ !ܲv çl§Çáƒy Óyí˛¸ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ò%!ê˛ ¢∑ !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ ÈüüüÈ ç#Ól åLifeä ~ÓÇ
˜Ó!ã˛eƒ åVarietyä– §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ •°
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆË˛ÔˆÏày!°Ü˛ xM˛ˆÏ° ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚
!Ó!Óôï˛y– ~!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z!qòñ ≤Ãyî# ~ÓÇ xyî%Ó#«˛!îܲ
ç#Ó !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛– ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ~à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ !çl åGenesä Îy ˆÌˆÏܲ
~ˆÏòÓ˚ §,!T˛ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §,T˛ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~!ê˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ Ó§Óy§Ü˛yÓ˚# !Ó!˲ߨ ç#Óñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°ï˛yñ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ï˛y ~ÓÇ
Óy›ï˛sf §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚– ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ •° xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
§ç#Ó §¡õò– ~!ê˛ °«˛ °«˛ ÓSȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ !ÓÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îyÙ–
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ !ï˛l!ê˛ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ÈüüüÈ åiä
ˆçˆÏl!ê˛Ü˛ Óy !çlàï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ åiiä ≤Ãçy!ï˛àï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ åiiiä
Óy›ï˛sfàï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ–
ˆçˆÏl!ê˛Ü˛ Óy !çlàï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ åGenetic Diversityä ı
!çl •ˆÏFSÈ ÓÇ¢à!ï˛Ó˚ ôyÓ˚ܲ G Óy•Ü˛– ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !˲!_fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ
!çl ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õyòyl– ˆçˆÏl!ê˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ Ó°ˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ
ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ !çlàï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚–
~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù ¢yÓ˚#!Ó˚ܲ àë˛lÎ%=˛ ç#Ó§Ù)•ˆÏܲ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ åspeciesä
ÓˆÏ ° – Ùyl% £ Ï !çlàï˛Ë˛yˆÏ Ó ˆ•yˆÏ Ù y §ƒy!˛õˆÏ Î ˚ ™ å homo
sapiensä ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛ – ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yñ Ó˚Çñ ¢yÓ˚#!Ó˚ܲ
xlƒylƒ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒyÓ!° !˲ߨ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚– ~Ó˚ ˆ˛õSȈÏl !çl•z òyÎ˚#–
ˆçˆÏl!ê˛Ü˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §%fiÌ ≤ÃçlˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
xï˛ƒyÓ¢ƒÜ˛–
136
≤Ãçy!ï˛àï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ åSpecies Diversityä ı
~!ê˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚lˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
xM˛ˆÏ° Ó§Óy§Ü˛yÓ˚# ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ï˛yÓ˚ §Ù,Âôï˛yñ ≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ï˛y ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚
≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆËÏ ˛ˆÏòÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ùy˛õy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ !ܲSÈ% !ܲS%È xM˛° xlƒ
xM˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ §Ù,Âô •Î˚– ˆ§•z§Ó xM˛ˆÏ° ≤Ãçy!ï˛àï˛
˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ˆÓ!¢ÙyeyÎ˚ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒàï˛ •ê˛flõê˛§‰
åhotspotsä Ó°y •Î˚ å!ã˛e 16.5ä–
Óy›ï˛sfàï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ åEcosystem Diversityä ı
xyˆÏàÓ˚ xôƒyÎ˚àˆ% °
Ï yˆÏï˛ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Óy›ï˛sf §¡õˆÏܲ≈ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓSÏ˚ È–
Óy›ï˛sfàï˛ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲òñ Ó§Óy§àï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛
Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yàï˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ÎyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
Óy›ï˛sfàï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ Ú§#ÙylyÛ
åboundariesä ~ÓÇ Óy›ï˛sf !l!ò≈T˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚
ly–
!ã˛e 16.1 : ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ùâyê˛ ˛õÓ≈ï˛Ùy°yÓ˚ xyߨy Ùy°y•z!fiÌï˛ •z!®Ó˚y
ày!rô çyï˛#Î˚ í˛zòƒyˆÏlÓ˚ ï,˛îË)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ ˆ¢y°y ÈüÈ Óy›ï˛sfàï˛
˜Ó!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c åImportance of Biodiversityä ı
Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ §yÇfl,Ò!ï˛Ü˛ í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏl !Ó!˲ߨ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚
xÓòyl Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ùl%£Ïƒ çy!ï˛ G ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ !çlàï˛ñ ≤Ãçy!ï˛àï˛
~ÓÇ Óy›ï˛y!sfܲ hflψÏÓ˚ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒàï˛ Ó˚)˛õ ≤Ãòyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒ Óy›ï˛y!sfܲñ
xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ G !ÓK˛yl!˲!_ܲ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ Ë)˛!Ùܲy á%Ó•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈–
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ Óy›ï˛y!sfܲ Ë)˛!Ùܲy åEcological Role of
Biodiversityä ı
!Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ly ˆÜ˛yˆÏly à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚– Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ !Óly ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî
í˛zqÓ âˆÏê˛ ly Óy ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ly– xÌ≈yÍñ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ç#Ó !lˆÏçÓ˚
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚˛õ)î≈ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ xlƒ ç#Ó §,!T˛ˆÏï˛G
§y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !ܲ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚y Óy›ï˛sf ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáyÓ˚
çlƒ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ܲ# xÓòyl xyˆÏSÈ⁄ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ ¢!=˛ @˝Ã•î
ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y !lˆÏ ç Ó˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ Ùç% ï ˛ Ó˚ y ˆÏ á ñ ˜çÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆ Ï Ü ˛
!ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚– ç°ã˛Ü ˛ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ §¡õ)î≈
Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf ˛õ%!T˛ §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲˆÏÓñ˚ ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛°#Î˚ àƒy§ !fiÌÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
ç°ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ !lÎ˚sfî ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z !Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y
Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ܲyçܲÙ≈ ~ÓÇ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyܲyÓ˚ çlƒ
xï˛ƒhs˝ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf Îï˛ ˆÓ!¢ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ ÌyܲˆÏÓ !Ó!˲ߨ
≤Ãçy!ï˛ ï˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢ ≤Ã!ï˛Ü)˛° ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ ˆÓшÏã˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚
í˛zͲõyòl¢#°ï˛yG x!ôܲ •ˆÏÓ– ≤Ãçy!ï˛ «˛!ï˛@˝ÃhflÏ •ˆÏ° Óy›ï˛ˆÏsÓf ˚
˲yÓ˚§yÙƒ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáyG §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– x!ôܲ ˆçˆÏl!ê˛Ü˛Î%=˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚
ÙˆÏï˛y x!ôܲ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ §¡õߨ Óy›ï˛sf ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ x!ôܲ
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ x!˲ˆÏÎyçl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §«˛Ù– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°y
ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÎ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf Îï˛ ˆÓ!¢ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓñ ˆ§
Óy›ï˛sf ï˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢ fiÌyÎ˚# •ˆÏÓ–
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛!Ùܲy åEconomic Role of
Biodiversityä ı
˛≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ çlƒ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˜òl!®l ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚
à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ §¡õò– ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ xÇ¢ •° Ü,˛!£Ïç
Ê˛§ˆÏ ° Ó˚ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒó ÎyˆÏ Ü ˛ Ü, ˛ !£Ï ç ç#Ó˜Ï Ó !ã˛eƒG å agro-
biodiversityä Ó°y •Î˚– ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õܲÓ˚îà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ
§¡õˆÏòÓ˚ ˲y[˛yÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •Î˚ Îy áyòƒñ Å£Ïô ~ÓÇ ≤çyôl#
§yÙ@˝Ã# í˛zͲõyòˆÏl ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ç#Ó!ÓK˛yl §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ôyÓ˚îy
~ÓÇ §¡õˆÏòÓ˚ x!ï˛ÙyeyÎ˚ ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓ˚ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ «˛!ï˛@˝ÃhflÏ •ˆÏFSÈ–
~ܲ•z §ˆÏAà ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó˲yçl ~ÓÇ Ó^˝ê˛l !lˆÏÎ˚ lï%˛l
!ÓÓyˆÏòÓ˚ §,!T˛ •ˆÏFSÈ– ÙylÓ §Ë˛ƒï˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ !ܲS%È
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛!Ùܲy •° ı áyòƒ¢§ƒñ ˛õ¢%§¡õòñ xÓ˚îƒ
§¡õòñ Ùͧƒ ~ÓÇ Å£Ï!ô §¡õò •zï˛ƒy!ò–
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl !˲!_ܲ Ë)˛!Ùܲy åScientific Role of
Biodiversityä ı
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ñ ܲyÓ˚î ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ x!hflÏcñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
Ü ˛Ù !ÓÓï≈˛l ~ÓÇ Ë˛!ӣσˆÏï˛ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚y !Óܲ!¢ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚
ôyÓ˚îy xyÙÓ˚y ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õy•z– ç#Ólã˛Ü ˛ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ã˛°ˆÏï˛
ÌyˆÏܲñ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈yÓ!° ~ÓÇ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsf ˆÓшãÏ ˛
ÌyܲyÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÎ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ~à%ˆÏ°y Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ~ÓÇ §ÇÓ˚«˛î 137

§Óy•zˆÜÏ ˛ ~•z ï˛Ìƒ!ê˛ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎñ xyÙÓ˚y !lˆÏçÓ˚y ÓÑyã˛ÏÓ ~ÓÇ §Çܲê˛y˛õߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ åEndangered Speciesä ı
xlƒ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ˆÏܲG ÓÑyã˛ˆÏï˛ ˆòÏÓ–
~áyˆÏl G•z§Ó ≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆÏ°y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
~ê˛y xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˜l!ï˛Ü˛ ܲï≈˛Óƒ ˆÎ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà
≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚•z ˆÓшãÏ ˛ ÌyܲyÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÎà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ °%Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly xyˆÏSÈ– IUCN !ӈϟªÓ˚ §Ó
≤Ãçy!ï˛ˆÏܲ ôÁǧ ܲÓ˚y ˜l!ï˛Ü˛ï˛y !ÓˆÏÓ˚yô# ܲyç– ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ §Çܲê˛y˛õߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y!°Ü˛y åRed Listä ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛
!Ó!˲ߨ hflÏÓ˚ xlƒylƒ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ !l!Óí˛¸ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Ùy˛õܲy!벖 ï˛y•z ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ ÙylÓ §Ë˛ƒï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
x!ÓˆÏFSÈòƒ xAà–

ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ •…y§ åLOSS OF BIODIVERSITYä ı

!Óàï˛ !ܲS%È ÓSȈÏÓ˚ çl§Çáƒy Ó,!Âô ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛
§¡õˆÏòÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ
xLjϢ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ xyÓy§fiÌ° •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚
xM˛° Îy ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚ ˲yˆÏàÓ˚ ~ܲ ˲yà òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏSÈ
ˆ§áyˆÏl ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚ ˲yˆÏàÓ˚ !ï˛l ˲yà ˆ°yܲ Ó§Óy§ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~•z !Ó¢y° çl§ÇáƒyÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ï˛y ˆÙê˛yˆÏï˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ §¡õˆÏòÓ˚
x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ •ˆÏFSÈ ~ÓÇ ÓlôÁǧ •ˆÏFSÈ– Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ~•z
Ó,!T˛§Ù,Âô xM˛ˆÏ° ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ 50 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ
ÎyÓ˚ xyÓy§fiÌ° ôÁǧ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ §Ù@˝Ã ˛ç#ÓÙ[˛° ôÁLjϧÓ˚
Ù%ˆÏá– !ã˛e 16.2 : ˛°y° ˛õyu˛y ÈüÈ ~ܲ!ê˛ °%Æ≤ÃyÎ˚ ≤Ãyî#–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ò%ˆÏÎ≈yà ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õñ Ólƒyñ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ñ
òyÓyl°ñ áÓ˚y ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ≤Ãyî# ~ÓÇ í˛z!qò çà͈Ïܲ
«˛!ï˛@˝ÃhflÏ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏSÈ– ï˛ySÈyí˛¸y ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒG xyÙ)° ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !lˆÏÎ˚
xy§ˆÏSÈ– ܲ#ê˛ly¢Ü˛ ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ ò)£ÏîܲyÓ˚# oÓƒ ˆÎÙl ÈüÈ
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yܲyÓ≈l ~ÓÇ !Ó£Ï˛õ)î≈ åtoxicä ˲yÓ˚# ôyï˛Ó ˛õòyÌ≈àˆ% ° Ï y ò)Ó°≈
G §ÇˆÏÓòl¢#° ≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ôÁǧ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !òˆÏFSÈ– ˆÎ§Ó
≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆÏ°y fiÌyl#Î˚ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ lÎ˚ xÌã˛ ˙ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ xÇ¢
~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ÚÓ!•Ó˚yàï˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Û åexotic speciesä Ó°y •Î˚–
~•zÓ˚Ü˛Ù xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y í˛zòy•Ó˚î xyˆÏSÈ ˆÎáyˆÏl Ó!•Ó˚yàï˛
≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆ° Ï y ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsÓf ˚ Ù)° ≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏܲ «˛!ï˛@˝ÃfiÌ
ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– xˆÏlܲ ò¢Ü˛ ôˆÏÓ˚ !ܲS%È ˛õ¢% ˆÎÙlÈüÈÓyâñ !ã˛ï˛yñ •y!ï˛ñ
àu˛yÓ˚ñ Ü%˛!ÙÓ˚ñ !ÙÇܲ åˆÓ!çÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆòáˆÏï˛ä ~ÓÇ ˛õy!áÓ˚ !ã˛e 16.3 : ˛ˆçlˆÏܲ!Ó˚Î˚y ˆ§Ó§!ê˛l# ÈüÈ ~ܲ!ê˛ xï˛ƒhs˝ §Çܲê˛y˛õߨ
x˜ÏÓô˲yˆÏÓ !¢Ü˛yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏFSÈ– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !ܲSÈ% ≤Ãçy!ï˛ °%Æ ï,˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ñ xyà!fiÌÎ˚yÙy°Î˚ ¢,Aà å˲yÓ˚ï˛ä–
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÌ–
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õò ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ §ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏîÓ˚ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ §%Ó˚!«˛ï˛ lÎ˚ ~Ùl ≤Ãçy!ï˛ åVulnerable Speciesä ı
§ÇfiÌy •° ÚÚ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ G ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õò §ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏîÓ˚ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛
§Çàë˛lÛÛ Óy International Union of Conservation of ~áyˆÏl G•z §ÙhflÏ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ܲÌy Ó°y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ §ÇÓ˚«˛î
Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)– §ÇfiÌy!ê˛ Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl ܲÓ˚y ly •ˆÏ° ˲!ӣσˆÏï˛ !Ó°%Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly
≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛zˆÏjˆÏ¢ í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî# ≤Ãçy!ï˛ˆÏܲ !ï˛l!ê˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Çáƒy xï˛ƒhs˝ Ü˛Ù •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~•z §ÙhflÏ
˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ç#Ól §%Ó˚!«˛ï˛ lÎ˚–
138
ò%°≈˲ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ åRare Speciesä ı
˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ ~•z ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy xï˛ƒhs˝ Ü˛Ù– ~•z ≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆÏ°y
!ܲS%È !l!ò≈T˛ fiÌyˆÏl §#!Ùï˛ ÌyܲyÎ˚ Ó,•Í xM˛ˆÏ° xï˛ƒhs˝ !Ó!«˛Æ
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È–
!ã˛e 16.4 : •yÙˆÏÓy!¢Î˚y ˆí˛Ü%˛ˆÏÓ˚™ ˆÓí˛È Èò!«˛î ˛õ!Ÿã˛Ùâyê˛
å˲yÓ˚ï˛ä ˛õÓ≈ï˛Ùy°yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ò%°≈˲ í˛z!qò ≤Ãçy!ï˛
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ §ÇÓ˚«˛î åCONSERVATION OF
BIODIVERSITYä ı
ÙylÓ x!hflÏc ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáyÓ˚ çlƒ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ §ÇÓ˚«˛î xï˛ƒhs˝
à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î–≈ §ÙhflÏ ç#Ó ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §ˆÏAà ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛
ˆÎ ~ܲ!ê˛Ó˚ ˲yÓ˚§yÙƒ lT˛ •ˆÏ° xlƒ ç#ÓÓ˚y «˛!ï˛@˝ÃhflÏ •Î˚– Î!ò
í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî# ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚y §Çܲê˛y˛õߨ •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚
˲yÓ˚§yÙƒ «˛!ï˛@˝ÃhflÏ •Î˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° ÙylÓ §Ë˛ƒï˛y !Ó˛õˆÏòÓ˚ §¡ø%á#l
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
~ál Ùyl%£ˆÏ ÜÏ ˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ¢ ÓyrôÓ ˛õÂô!ï˛à%ˆ° Ï y §¡õˆÏܲ≈ §ˆÏã˛ï˛l
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ÎyˆÏï˛ xlƒylƒ ≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆÏ°y «˛!ï˛@˝ÃhflÏ ly •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ï˛y ÓçyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà
§ÇÓ˚«˛î ï˛ál•z §Ω˛Ó˛õÓ˚ •ˆÏÓ Îál fiÌyl#Î˚ çlàî ~•z ܲyˆÏç
xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÓÏ – ~•z í˛zˆj Ï ˆÏ¢ƒ fiÌyl#Î˚ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ lyly §ÇfiÌy !lÙ≈yî
xï˛ƒhs˝ çÓ˚%Ó˚#– ˆÜ˛Ó° ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ §ÇÓ˚«˛î•z lÎ˚ §ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏîÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ôyÓ˚yG ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáy çÓ˚%!Ó˚–
1992 §yˆÏ° Ó y!çˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó˚GÈüÈ!í˛ÈüȈçˆÏl!Ó˚GˆÏï˛ ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚
§ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏîÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §ˆÏ¡ø°l åEarth Summitä •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°–
~•z §ˆÏ¡ø°ˆÏl ˲yÓ˚ï˛ §Ó˚ܲyÓ˚§• xlƒylƒ 155!ê˛ ˆò¢ xÇ¢@˝Ã•î
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥
ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SÈ° ~ÓÇ fl∫y«˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SÈ°– ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ §ÇÓ˚«˛î !lˆÏÎ˚ !ÓŸª
hflψÏÓ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ÃhflÏyÓ @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ı
åiä §Çܲê˛y˛õߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ §ÇÓ˚«˛î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ
ÓƒÓfiÌy @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
åiiä ≤Ãçy!ï˛ˆÏܲ °%Æ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ •yï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓÑyã˛yˆÏlyÓ˚ çlƒ
§!ë˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ“ly @˝Ã•î ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ ÓyhflÏÓyÎ˚l–
åiiiä !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ áyòƒ¢§ƒñ ây§ çyï˛#Î˚ í˛z!qòñ ܲy¤˛ñ
˛õ¢% §¡õòñ ç#Óçv ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏ ò Ó˚ xlƒylƒ Ólƒ
≤Ãçy!ï˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ §ÇÓ˚!«˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛–
åivä ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ólƒ ç#Ó G ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyÓy§fiÌ°ˆÏܲ
!ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §%Ó˚«˛y §%!l!Ÿã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y–
åvä !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛˛õy°l G !Óܲ!¢ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚
fiÌyl!ê˛ˆÏܲ §%Ó˚!«˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y Óy §ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ӈϮyÓhflÏ
ܲÓ˚y–
åviä Ólƒç#Ó xÌÓy í˛z!qˆÏòÓ˚ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ ÓƒÓ§yÓ˚ !lÎ˚Ù
xl%ÎyÎ˚# ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛ ܲÓ˚y–
˲yÓ˚ï˛ §Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §#ÙylyÓ˚ ˆË˛ï˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
≤Ãçy!ï˛ˆÏܲ˛ §ÇÓ˚«˛î ~ÓÇ §¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ ÈÚÓlƒç#Ó §%Ó˚«˛y
xy•zlÈüÈ1972Û [Wild Life Protection Act, 1972] ˛õy¢
ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈñ ˆÎáyˆÏl çyï˛#Î˚ í˛zòƒyl ~ÓÇ x˲Î˚yÓ˚îƒ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏ Î ˚ ˆ Ï S È xÌ≈ y Í ç#ÓÙ[˛° §ÇÓ˚ ! «˛ï˛ xM˛° å Biosphere
reservesä ˆây£Ïîy ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z §ÇÓ˚!«˛ï˛ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
!ÓhflyÏ !Ó˚ï˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ÈüÈ Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛ ı ˛≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÓÏ ¢ åNCERT,
2006ä ˛õ%hflψÏܲ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° xÓ!fiÌï˛ !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ˆòˆÏ¢ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ Ó°y
•Î˚ ÚÙ•y ˜Ó!ã˛eƒÙÎ˚ ˆÜ˛wÛ åMega diversity centresä–
~•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ §Çáƒy 12 ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ lyÙ •° ÈüüüÈ ˆÙ!:ˆÏܲyñ
ܲ°!¡∫ Î ˚ y ñ •z ˆ Ï Ü ˛yÎ˚ y í˛Ó˚ ñ ˆ˛õÓ˚ % ñ Ó  y !ç°ñ ܲˆÏ A ày àîï˛y!sf Ü ˛ñ
ÙyòyàyflÒyÓ˚ñ !ã˛lñ ˲yÓ˚ï˛ñ Ùy°ˆÏÎ˚!¢Î˚yñ •zˆÏ®yˆÏl!¢Î˚y ~ÓÇ
xˆÏfiê˛∆!°Î˚y– ~•z ˆò¢à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ Ù•y ˜Ó!ã˛eƒÙÎ˚ ˆÜ˛wà%ˆÏ°y
xÓ!fiÌï˛– ~•z ˆ«˛eà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎà%ˆ° Ï y x!ôܲ §ÇܲˆÏê˛ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È
ˆ§áyˆÏl §¡õò §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ xyhs˝çy≈ !ï˛Ü˛ §ÇfiÌy IUCN
(International Union for the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources) !ܲS% È !ܲS% È xM˛°ˆÏ Ü ˛ ˜çÓ
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ~ÓÇ §ÇÓ˚«˛î 139

˛õ)Ó≈
˛õ!Ÿã˛Ùâyê˛ !•Ùy°Î˚
å˲yÓ˚ï˛ä
Ùôƒ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ í˛z˛õm#!˛õÎ˚
!l¡¨Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ xÓ˚îƒ ˛õ)Ó≈#Î˚ Ó,_ ã˛y˛õ#Î˚
Ùôƒ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ˛õÓ≈ï˛Ùy°y Ùy°ˆÏÎ˚!¢Î˚y
í˛zFã˛Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ xÓ˚îƒ åï˛yˆÏO!lÎ˚yä !Ê˛!°˛õy•zl§
í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ó!l≈G
˛õ!Ÿã˛!Ù •zˆÏܲyÎ˚yí˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚ !à!l xÓ˚îƒ !§Ç•Ó˚yçy xÓ˚îƒ
~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ°y!¡∫Î˚yl ˆÜ˛yˆÏܲy å◊#°Aܲyä •zˆÏ®yˆÏl!¢Î˚y
Ü%˛•z™°ƒyu˛˛
Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xƒy!u˛ç ˛õ)Ó≈ ÙyòyàyflÒyÓ˚
xyê˛°y!rê˛Ü˛
xÓ˚îƒñ Ó y!ç° ˆÙ°yˆÏl!¢Î˚y
å!lí˛z ܲƒyˆÏ°ˆÏí˛y!lÎ˚yä

!ã˛e 16.5 : ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !ܲS%È Óy›ï˛y!sfܲ Ú•ê˛flõê˛§‰Û

˜Ó!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ •ê‰˛flõê˛ å Hotspotsä å!ã˛e 16.5ä xM˛° !•§yˆÏÓ
!ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– •ê˛flõê˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xÓ˚ˆÏîƒÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò xl%ÎyÎ˚#
§ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– í˛z!qò á%Ó à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ܲyÓ˚î í˛z!qòˆÏܲ
Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ í˛zͲõyòܲ !•§yˆÏÓ àîƒ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– !ܲS%È
•ê‰˛flõê˛ SÈyí˛¸y Óy!ܲ §Ó •ê‰˛flõê˛à%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ ˆË˛yçlñ
çµy°y!l ܲyë˛ñ Ü,˛!£ÏË)˛!Ù ~ÓÇ Ü˛yë˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyÎ˚ •zï˛ƒy!ò §%!Óôy
§Ó˚ Ó Ó˚ y • ܲÓ˚ ˆ Ï S È ~ÓÇ Óy›ï˛sf ˆ Ï Ü ˛ xï˛ƒhs˝ §Ù,  ô ܲÓ˚ ˆ Ï S È –
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ñ ÙyòyàyflÒyˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ §ÙhflÏ í˛z!qò G
≤Ãyî# ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 85 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ x!hflÏc ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
xlƒ •ê‰˛flõê˛ ˆÎà%ˆ° Ï y §Ù,Âô ˆò¢à%ˆ°Ï yˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ñ ˆ§à%ˆ°Ï yˆÏï˛
!Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚Ü˛Ù §Ù§ƒy °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– •yGÎ˚y•z xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ m#˛õ§Ù)ˆ•Ï
!ܲS%È !ӈϢ£Ï ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ x!hflÏc Óï≈˛Ùylñ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y
Ó!•Ó˚yàï˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ xyàÙl ~ÓÇ Ë)˛!Ù í˛zßΨ ˆ˚ lÏ Ó˚ çlƒ x§%Ó!˚ «˛ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸–

xl%¢#°l#

1. §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı

(i) ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ §ÇÓ˚«˛î ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ı
(a) ≤Ãyî# (c) í˛z!qò
(b) ≤Ãyî# ~ÓÇ í˛z!qò (d) §ÙhflÏ ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚–
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(ii) x§%Ó˚!«˛ï˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛ •° G•zà%ˆÏ°y ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y ı

(a) xlƒˆÏòÓ˚ x§%Ó˚«˛y ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚
(b) !§Ç• G Óyâ
(c) §ÇáƒyÎ˚ x!ôܲ
(d) °%Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly xyˆÏSÈ
(iii) çyï˛#Î˚ í˛zòƒyl G x˲Î˚yÓ˚îƒ Ü˛# í˛zˆÏjˆÏ¢ƒ ÓylyˆÏly •Î˚ ı
(a) ÙˆÏlyÓ˚Ol (c) ˛õ¢%˛õy°l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ
(b) !¢Ü˛yÓ˚ (d) §ÇÓ˚«˛î
(iv) ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ §Ù,Âô xM˛° •ˆÏFSÈ ı
(a) Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ xM˛° (c) ly!ï˛¢#ˆÏï˛y£÷Ï xM˛°
(b) ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛° (d) Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ xM˛°
(v) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆò¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ˆÏï˛ !ÓŸª §ˆÏ¡ø°l åEarth Summitä xl%!¤˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°⁄
(a) Î%=˛Ó˚yT˛… åUKä (c) Ó y!ç°
(b) ˆÙ!:ˆÏܲy (d) !ã˛l
2. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 30!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ ܲ#⁄
(ii) ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ܲ#⁄
(iii) •ê‰˛flõê˛ Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄
(iv) ÙylÓ çy!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ xlƒylƒ ç#ÓçvÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c §ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(v) Ó!•Ó˚yàï˛ åExoticä ≤Ãçy!ï˛ Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄
3. !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ 150!ê˛ ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ òyG ı
(i) ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ àë˛ˆÏl ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲy Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(ii) ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ ôÁLjϧÓ˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚# !Ó!˲ߨ ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ܲ#⁄ ~•z ôÁLjϧÓ˚ •yï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó˚«˛yÓ˚ çlƒ ܲ#
ܲ# ˛õòˆÏ«˛˛õ ˆlGÎ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl⁄
≤Ãܲ“Ù)°Ü˛ ܲyç ı
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Ó˚yˆÏçƒÓ˚ §ÙhflÏ çyï˛#Î˚ í˛zòƒylñ x˲Î˚yÓ˚îƒ ~ÓÇ ç#Ó §ÇÓ˚!«˛ï˛ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ lyÙà%ˆÏ°y §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚y ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
xÓfiÌyl ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ùyl!ã˛ˆÏe ˆòáyG–
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xç#Óçyï˛ åAbioticä ı çí˛¸ Ó›– ~!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ G Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
í˛z˛õyòyl§Ù)•ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚–
fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ï˛y˛õ •…y§ •yÓ˚ åAdiabatic Lapse Rateä ı í˛zôÁ≈àyÙ# xÌÓy xˆÏôyàyÙ# ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O myÓ˚y ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚– Î!ò ly xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xfl∫y˲y!Óܲ ï˛y˛õ •…y§ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y åˆÎÙl ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ Óy ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÎyçl
Óy !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly!ê˛•z •Î˚ lyä âˆÏê˛ åˆÎÙl âl#˲Ólñ Óy‹õ#˲Ól ~ÓÇ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îä ï˛y•ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ §¡±§yÓ˚î ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ
~ܲ !fiÌÓ˚ •yˆÏÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ 100 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ 0.980 •yˆÏÓ˚ ¢#ï˛° ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚– ~Ó˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ xÓfiÌy ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ Îál
ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ xÇ¢!ӈϢ£Ï ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° !l¡¨àyÙ# •Î˚– !l¡¨ x!˲Ù%á# ÓyÎ˚% §AÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– §ˆÏAܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî G•z
xLjϢÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˛ï˛y˛õÙyey ≤Ã!ï˛ 100 !Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚ 0.980 •yˆÏÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O åAir Massä ı ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ §Ù!T˛ Îy ï˛yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey G xyo≈ï˛yÙ)°Ü˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ í˛zͲõ!_fiÌ°
ˆÌˆÏܲ xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÎ˚ܲˆÏ¢y ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ •yçyÓ˚ !ܲˆÏ°y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ò)Ó˚c ˛õÎ≈hs˝ xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#°
ÌyˆÏܲ– ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ç°ÓyÎ˚%àï˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ Ó!ô≈ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_fïϰ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ !òˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ !lŸã˛° ÌyˆÏܲ– ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%OˆÏܲ
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ xyo≈ï˛yç!lï˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
x˛õ§)Ó˚ åAphelionä ı ~!ê˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ ˆ§•z !Ó®% Îál ˛õ,!ÌÓ# §)Î≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚
å152.5 !Ù!°Î˚l !ܲ!ÙÉä– x˛õ§)Ó˚ âˆÏê˛ ç%°y•z ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ 3 xÌÓy 4 ï˛y!Ó˚ˆÏá–
xƒy§ˆÏ̈Ïly!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ åAsthenosphereä ı ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ§•z xM˛° ˆÎáyˆÏl ≤’y!fiê˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚– !¢°yÙ[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !lˆÏ¡¨ 100 – 200 !ܲ!ÙÉ ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl–
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛y˛õ åAtmospheric Pressureä ı ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Gçl Óy ˲yÓ˚– §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ àí˛¸
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛y˛õ •ˆÏFSÈ 1013.25 !Ù!°ÓyÓ˚ åmbä– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛y˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ÎˆÏsfÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ÎyÓ˚ lyÙ
•ˆÏ°y ÓƒyˆÏÓ˚y!Ùê˛yÓ˚–
ˆÙÓ˚%≤Ã˲y åAuroraä ı Ó•% Óî≈!Ó!¢T˛ xyˆÏ°y Óy ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛zôÁ≈hflψÏÓ˚ åxyˆÏÎ˚yˆÏly!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ä ˆÙÓ˚% xM˛ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚
~ÓÇ Ùôƒ G í˛zFã˛ x«˛yÇ¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò,¢ƒÙyl •Î˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ˆ§ÔÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ §ˆÏAà x!:ˆÏçl G ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ •Î˚– ˆÙÓ˚%≤Ã˲y í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ Ú§%ˆÏÙÓ˚% ≤Ã˲yÛ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏô≈ ÚÜ%˛ˆÏÙÓ˚% ≤Ã˲yÛ lyˆÏÙ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
ÓƒyˆÏÌy!°Ì åBatholithä ı Ë)˛ÈüÈx˲ƒhs˝ˆÏÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ x!ï˛ !Ó¢y° í˛zò‰ˆÏÓô# xyˆÏ@¿Î˚ !¢°y Óy à%Ó%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙƒyàÙy ˆÌˆÏܲ
í˛zͲõ!_ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!Óà‰ ÓƒyÇ åBig Bangä ı !ÓŸª Ó ·yˆÏ[˛Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ܲ ï˛_¥– ~•z ï˛_¥!ê˛ ôyÓ˚îy ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ 15 !Ó!°Î˚l ÓSÈÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈
Ó ·yˆÏ[˛Ó˚ §Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚G ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛w#Ë)˛ï˛ !SÈ°– G•z Ù)•%ˆÏï≈˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ñ ¢!=˛ñ
fiÌyl ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ !SÈ° ly– ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ •ë˛yÍ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó ·y[˛ x!ÓŸªy§ƒ •yˆÏÓ˚ §¡±§y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚Ï° ~ÓÇ
˛õòyÌ≈ñ ¢!=˛ñ fiÌyl ~ÓÇ Ü˛y° §,!T˛ •°– Ó ·yˆÏ[˛Ó˚ §¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)• ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ÇâˆÏ£Ï≈
àƒy§#Î˚ ˆÙˆÏâ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ l«˛e G @˝ÃˆÏ•Ó˚ çß√ •Î˚– !ܲS%È !ÓK˛yl# !ÓŸªy§ ܲˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎñ ~•z
§¡±§yÓ˚î •° §#ÙyÓÂô ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!òl ï˛y ˆ¢£Ï •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyˆÏÓ– ~•z Ù)•%ˆÏï≈˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ Ó ·y[˛ ˆË˛ˆÏ. ˆÎˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ Îï˛«˛î
ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~ܲ ÚÓ,•Í xyˆÏ°yí˛¸lÛ åBig Crunchä âê˛ˆÏÓ–
ç#Ó˜ÏÓ!ã˛eƒ åBiodiversityä ı !Ó!˲ߨ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒï˛y å≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒï˛yä ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ≤Ãçy!ï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚ !çlàï˛
!Ó!˲ߨï˛y å!çlàï˛ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒï˛yä ~ÓÇ Óy›ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨï˛y åÓy›ï˛y!sfܲ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒï˛yä–
142 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

˜çÓ ˛õã˛l¢#° Ó›˛õ%O åBiomassä ı ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓƒÓôyˆÏl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ ç#!Óï˛ ˜çÓ Ü˛°y§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
Gçl ≤Ã!ï˛ Óà≈ ~ܲˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ï˛yÓ˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ xÇ¢§Ù)• •° Ù,ï˛ ç#ˆÏÓÓ˚ xÇ¢ñ ˆÎÙl SÈy° Óy ã˛Ù≈ñ ã%˛°ñ
lá ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛–
ÓyˆÏÎ˚yÙ åBiomeä ı ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ í˛z!qò G ≤Ãyî#Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ xyhs˝/!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §Ó≈çlfl∫#Ü,˛ï˛ Ó,•_Ù §ÙyˆÏÓ¢–
ÓyˆÏÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l ≤Ãôylï˛ ç°ÓyÎ˚% myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛–
≤ÃhflÏÓ˚#˲Ól åCalcificationä ı ¢%‹Ò ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ Ù,!_ܲyàë˛l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Îy Ù,!_ܲyÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚hflψÏÓ˚ ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlê˛
§ÇˆÏŸ’£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,!T˛ •Î˚–
ܲƒyˆÏ°ˆÏí˛Ó˚y xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ åCaldera Volcanoä ı ~ܲ!ê˛ !ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚ܲ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ Îy Óƒy˛õܲ Ó,!_Î˚ !l¡¨ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §,!T˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ !ܲS%È !ܲS%È !l¡¨ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Óƒy§ xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ñ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 40 !ܲ!Ù ˛õÎ≈hs˝ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ xyo≈ @˝Ãyly•zê˛ çyï˛#Î˚ ÙƒyàÙy
Îál o%ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏà Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ í˛z!aï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ~•z çyï˛#Î˚ xyˆÏ@¿Î˚!à!Ó˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚–
ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÊœ%˛ˆÏÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈Èl åChlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)ä ı Ü,˛!eÙ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ §,T˛ àƒy§ Îy ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
ˆÜ˛w#Ë)˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z ¢!=˛¢y°# !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒy§ xƒyˆÏÓ˚y§° ˆfl±ñ ˆÓ˚!Ê ˛çyˆÏÓ˚rê˛§ ~ÓÇ ˆôÑyÎ˚y í˛zͲõyòl ˆÌˆÏܲ !là≈ï˛
•Î˚–
!§ˆÏÓ˚y!ܲí˛zÙ%°y§ ˆÙâ åCirrocumulus Cloudsä ı í˛zFã˛ xyܲyˆÏ¢ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ fl≥˛!ê˛Ü˛ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ §yòy x°Ü˛ ˆÙâ–
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ 5,000 - 18,000 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
!§ˆÏÓ˚yfiê˛∆ƒyê˛y§ ˆÙâ åCirrostratus Cloudsä ı í˛zFã˛ xyܲyˆÏ¢ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ fl≥˛!ê˛Ü˛ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ã˛yòˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆÙâ– ~•z
•y°Ü˛y ˆÙâ §Ù@˝Ã xyܲy¢ ˆì˛ˆÏܲ Ó˚yˆÏá– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ 5,000 - 18,000 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ åCold Frontä ı ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ Ù[˛° ˆÎáyˆÏl ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏ° í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%ˆÏO
fiÌylã%˛ƒï˛ •Î˚–
Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ Ë)˛cܲ åContinental Crustä ı ˛õ,!ÌÓ#˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ܲ!ë˛l ˆ@˝Ãly•z!ê˛Ü˛ xÇ¢ Îy Ù•yˆÏò¢ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚
Ë)˛cˆÏܲÓ˚ à˲#Ó˚ï˛y 20 - 75 !ܲ!ÙÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÌyˆÏܲ– !§Î˚y° åsialä hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ ˆòˆÏáy–
ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ Ó° åCoriolis Forceä ı ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyÓï≈˛l à!ï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛§,T˛ xy˛õyï˛ Ó°– ܲyÓ˚î ã˛°Ùyl Ó›§Ù)•
í˛z_Ó˚ ˆày°yˆÏô≈ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ò!«˛î ˆày°yˆÏô≈ ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚– !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ ӈϰÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚
ly– ~•z Ó° xyÓ•yGÎ˚yàï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ âê˛lyñ ˆÎÙl Ùôƒ x«˛yÇ¢#Î˚ â)î≈Óyï˛ñ •ƒy!Ó˚ˆÏܲlñ ≤Ãï˛#˛õ â)î≈Óyï˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚
!òܲ !lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚#–
!ܲí˛zÙ%°y§ ˆÙâ åCumulus Cloudä ı xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ §Ùï˛° ˛õ,¤˛!Ó!¢T˛ Ó,•òyÜ,˛!ï˛ ˆÙâ– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ 300 - 2,000
!Ùê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ ~•z ˆÙâ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
!ܲí˛zÙ%ˆÏ°y!l¡∫y§ ˆÙâ åCumulonimbus Cloudä ı ~•z ˆÙâ í˛zÕ‘¡∫˲yˆÏÓ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ à¡∫%ç xyܲyÓ˚ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˲yà ܲyÙyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ°y•y ˆ˛õê˛yˆÏlyÓ˚ ˆl•y•zÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y– ~•z ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲˆÏ¢y
!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ 12,000 !Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ÙÓ˚%Ë)˛!ÙˆÏï˛ §,T˛ ˛õÌ!ӈϢ£Ï åDesert Pavementä ı Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ «˛Î˚ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §,T˛ §)- òylyòyÓ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
xÓ!¢T˛yÇ¢ myÓ˚y §,T˛ ˛õÌ–
Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ åEarthquakeä ı ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xyܲ!fløܲ ܲ¡õl Óy à!ï˛¢#° xÓfiÌy– ~•z à!ï˛¢#°ï˛y ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ%!OË)˛ï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚
Ë)˛Ü˛¡õ#Î˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ o%ï˛ !là≈ÙˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §Çà!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w åEarthquake Focusä ı Ë)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆÜ˛w ˆÌˆÏܲ !là≈ï˛ ã˛y˛õ åË)˛!ÙܲˆÏ¡õÓ˚
í˛zͧ lyˆÏÙG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ä–
˲yê˛y åEbb Tideä ı ˆçyÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ Îál §Ù%ˆÏoÓ˚ ç°hflÏÓ˚ ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚–
Óy›ï˛sf åEcosystemä ı ˜çÓ G x˜ÏçÓ í˛z˛õyòyl myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– í˛z˲Î˚ ˆày¤˛#•z ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ ~ÓÇ !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#°–
¢∑ˆÏܲy¢ 143

~° !lˆÏly åEl Ninoä ı •zÜ%˛ˆÏÎ˚í˛Ó˚ G ˆ˛õÓ˚% í˛z˛õÜ)˛ˆÏ° í˛z£÷Ï §Ù%o˛õ,¤˛ xyܲ!fløܲ˲yˆÏÓ í˛zͲõ!_ •Î˚ ӈϰ ~Ó˚)˛õ lyÙyܲÓ˚î
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– §y¡±!ï˛Ü˛Ü˛yˆÏ° !ӈϟªÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ fiÌyˆÏl ç°ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈y˲y§ ≤ÃòyˆÏl ~•z âê˛ly ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z ~° !lˆÏly
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ !á fiê˛ÙyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛ˆÏÎ˚ܲ §Æy• ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ Ùy§ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ fiÌyÎ˚# •Î˚–
í˛z˛õˆÏܲw åEpicentreä ı Ë)˛!Ùܲ¡õ ˆÜ˛ˆÏwÓ˚ !lܲê˛fiÌ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ fiÌylñ ˆÎ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ Ë)˛Ü˛¡õ ¢!=˛ åseismic
energyä !là≈ï˛ •Î˚–
!ÓŸª í˛z£÷ÏyÎ˚l åGlobal Warmingä ı !@˝Ãl•yí˛z§ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ âlc Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !ÓŸªÓƒy˛õ# ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ àí˛¸ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚
í˛z£yÏ÷ Î˚l–
Ë)˛ÈüÈã˛% ¡∫ܲc åGeomagnetismä ı !¢°y àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲˆÏ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ˆ◊!îÓÂô •GÎ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚˲yˆÏÓ
§!Ü ˛Î˚ á!lçà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ôÙ≈ Óy à%î–
Ë)˛ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ÓyÎ%̊ åGeostrophic Windä ı í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ° xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ÓyÎ%̊ Îy §ÙˆÏ≤Ã£Ï ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚yˆÏ° ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
•Î˚– ~!ê˛ •° ÓyÎ˚%ã˛y˛õ ì˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ Ó° ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛y!Ó˚G!°§ ӈϰÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˲yÓ˚§yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛°–
!@˝Ãl •yí˛z§ ≤Ã˲yÓ åGreenhouse Effectä ı !@˝Ãl •yí˛z§ ≤Ã˲yÓ §)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ˆ¢y£Ïî ~ÓÇ Ó,•Í ï˛Ó˚Aà˜ÏòˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ
˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ x!ôܲ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ xyÓÂô ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!@˝Ãl •yí˛z§ àƒy§ åGreenhouse Gasesä ı !@˝Ãl •yí˛z§ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓÓ˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚# •° àƒy§– ~•z àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ÈüÈ Ü˛yÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ åCO2äó !ÙˆÏÌl åCH4äó ly•zê˛∆y§ x:y•zí˛ åN2Oäó ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yˆÏÊœ˛yˆÏÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈l åCFCä
~ÓÇ ê˛∆ˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚y!Ó˚ܲ GˆÏçyl åO3ä–
xyÓy§fiÌ° åHabitatä ı xyÓy§fiÌ° •° ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ fiÌyl ˆÎáyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z!qò Óy ≤Ãyî# Ó§Óy§ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!¢°yyÓ,!T˛ åHailä ı !¢°yÓ,!T˛ •° ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ ê%˛Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚y Óy !¢° ˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚– !¢°
˛õÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ 5 ˆÌˆÏܲ 190 !Ù!ÙÉ Óƒy§yô≈ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ˆ•ˆÏ°yÜœ˛y•zl åHaloclineä ı Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫ï˛sf xM˛° ˆÎáyˆÏl °Óîï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ •yÓ˚ á%Ó•z ï˛#Ó  •Î˚–
•y•zˆÏí»˛¢yl åHydrationä ı •y•zˆÏí»˛¢yl •° Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚)˛õ Îy •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚l
åH+ä ~ÓÇ •y•zí»˛!:° åOH-ä xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xlÙl#Î˚ §ÇˆÏÎyçlˆÏܲ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî%ˆÏï˛ Î%=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
•y•zí»˛!°!§§ åHydrolysisä ı ~!ê˛ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÓ•!ÓܲyÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Îy á!lç xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
åOH- ~ÓÇ H+ä ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ Î%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– lï%˛l ˆÎÔà àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !¢°y˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ fiÌ°l ådecompositionä
•° ~Ó˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛°–
xl%≤ÈÏÓ¢ åInfiltrationä ı ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏòˆÏ¢ ˆ˛õÑÔˆÏSÈ ÎyGÎ˚y xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xÇ¢ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ƒ hflψÏÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ã%Ñ˛•zˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ xl%≤ÈÏÓ¢ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
§)Î≈Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ Ê˛° åInsolationä ı ~!ê˛ •° «%˛o ï˛Ó˚Aà˜ÏòˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ xyàï˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î–
xyhs˝/Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ §!¡ø°l xM˛° åInter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)ä ı !l¡¨ã˛y˛õÎ%=˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚
xM˛° ~ÓÇ í˛zÂô≈àyÙ# ÓyÎ˚% !lÓ˚«˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ Óy ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ xÓ!fiÌï˛– !ÓŸªÓƒy˛õ# ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ x!˲§Ó˚î G ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ í˛z_yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÓyÎ˚% ˆflÀyï˛ í˛z!aï˛ •Î˚–
ܲƒy!ê˛Î˚yˆÏÓ!ê˛Ü˛ Óy !lܲy¢# ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• åKatabatic Windä ı ˆÎ ÓyÎ˚% ˛õÓ≈ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õyòˆÏòˆÏ¢ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ
ܲƒy!ê˛Î˚yˆÏÓ!ê˛Ü˛ Óy !lܲy¢# ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• Ó°y •Î˚–
fiÌ°ÓyÎ˚% åLand Breezeä ı fiÌyl#Î˚ ï˛y˛õ §M˛y°ˆÏlÓ˚ ôÓ˚l!ê˛ fiÌ°Ë˛yà ~ÓÇ ç°Ë˛yˆÏàÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÎyàfïϰ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
~•z §M˛y°l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ñ fiÌ°ÓyÎ˚% Ó˚y!eˆÏÓ°y Ë)˛!Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ ç°yÓ˚y!¢Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
°yÈüÈ!lly åLa Ninaä ı °yÈüÈ!lly •° ~°ÈüÈ!lˆÏlyÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ xÓfiÌy– °yÈüÈ!llyˆÏï˛ñ Ü ˛yhs˝#Î˚ ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ xyÎ˚l
ÓyÎ˚%≤ÃÓy• á%Ó ¢!=˛¢y°# •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ùôƒ G ˛õ)Ó≈ ≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ ¢#ï˛° çˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ x!lÎ˚!Ùï˛ §M˛Î˚ âê˛yÎ˚–
144 ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ Ë)˛ˆÏàyˆÏ°Ó˚ Ù)°ï˛_¥

°#l ï˛y˛õ åLatent Heatä ı ~!ê˛ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈ åܲ!ë˛l > ï˛Ó˚° > àƒy§ä ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛– Îál ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ hflÏÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ •Î˚ åàƒy§ > ï˛Ó˚° > ܲ!ë˛läñ ï˛ál ~•z ~ܲ•z ¢!=˛
˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù%=˛ •Î˚–
ÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yê˛y° åNeap Tideä ı ˆÎ ˆçyÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ 14 - 15 !òl ~ÓÇ ã˛ÑyˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ G ˆ¢£Ï ã˛ï%˛Ì≈yLjϢÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ
!Ù!°ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ âˆÏê˛ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yê˛y° ӈϰ– ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫“ ˆçyÎ˚y!Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§Ó˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Ü˛yÓ˚î ãÑ˛yò ~ÓÇ §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚
Ó° ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ í˛zÕ‘¡∫˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yÎ≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!lˆÏ¡∫yfiê˛∆ƒyê˛y§ ˆÙâ åNimbostratus Cloudsä ı ~!ê˛ Ü,˛£÷Ïy˲ñ ô)§Ó˚ !l¡¨ x«˛yÇ¢#Î˚ ˆÙâ Îy Ó,!T˛ Óy ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
x!ÓÓ˚yÙ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî âê˛yÎ˚– ~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˆÙâ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 3000 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
xhs˝ô,≈ï˛ ÓyÎ˚%È≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ åOccluded Frontä ı ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° í˛z£÷Ï G ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚ !Ù°l fïϰ ò%!ê˛ ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%ˆÏOÓ˚
ÙôƒÓï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ¢#ï˛° ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%O í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%˛õ%OˆÏܲ ˆë˛ˆÏ° í˛zÂô≈ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°
í˛z!ë˛ˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ §,T˛ lï%˛l ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ˆÏܲ xhs˝ô,≈ï˛ ÓyÎ˚%≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ӈϰ–
GˆÏçyl åOzoneä ı !eÈüÈ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% !Ó!¢T˛ x!:ˆÏçl Îy ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ àƒy§ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Ë)˛˛õ,¤˛
ˆÏ̈Ïܲ 10 - 15 !ܲ!Ù í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚ GˆÏçyˆÏlÓ˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ ˆÜ˛w#˲Ól ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl ~!ê˛ §)ˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚ x!ï˛ˆÏÓà%!l
Ó˚!Ÿ¬ˆÏܲ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚– fiê˛∆ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ GˆÏçyl àƒy§ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ˲yˆÏÓ•z í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ç#ÓÜ)˛°ˆÏܲ §)ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ «˛!ï˛Ü˛yÓ˚ܲ
x!ï˛ ˆÓà%!l Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó˚«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚–
GˆÏçyl àï≈˛ åOzone Holeä ı ~!ê˛ fiê˛ƒyˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ GˆÏçyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ }ï%˛Ü˛y°#l ï˛#Ó  •…y§ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ñ
ˆÎ!ê˛ Ó§hs˝Ü˛yˆÏ° xƒyrê˛yÜ≈˛!ê˛Ü˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ âˆÏê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– 1970 §yˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ¢ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ GˆÏçyl àï≈˛ §¡õˆÏܲ≈ §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ çyly
ÎyÎ˚– ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ç!ê˛° Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!ï˛!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚– [ˆÎáyˆÏl ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÊœ%˛ˆÏÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈l åCFCsäG òyÎ˚#] Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ
˛~!ê˛ ÓyÓ˚ ÓyÓ˚ ≤Ãyò%Ë)≈˛ï˛ •Î˚–
˛õÓ˚yã%˛¡∫ܲc åPalaeomagnetismä ı !¢°y àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ܲy° ˆÌˆÏܲ !¢°yÎ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚˲yˆÏÓ
x!ç≈ï˛ §yÙÌ≈ƒñ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ñ ≤ÃÓ,!_ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ §ÇÓ˚«˛î–
§yˆÏ°yܲ§ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï åPhotosynthesisä ı ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÎáyˆÏl í˛z!qò ï˛Ìy !ܲS%È ÓƒyܲˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚y §)Î≈
ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ !fiÌÓ˚˲yˆÏÓ §Çà!ë˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
˛õyï˛ Ë)˛àyë˛!lܲ åPlate Tectonicsä ı ~•z ï˛_¥yl%ÎyÎ˚# Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y Ù•y§yàÓ˚#Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ù•yˆÏò¢#Î˚ ˛õyï˛ myÓ˚y
à!ë˛ï˛– à%Ó˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛°l ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ xƒyˆÏfiÌlˆÏly!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ á%Ó ô#Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §M˛y!Ó˚ï˛
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ §yÙÌ≈ƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õî åPrecipitationä ı ˆÙ⠈̈Ïܲ Ó,!T˛Ó˚ ˆÊÑ˛yê˛yñ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚ Óy !¢°yÓ,!T Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ˛õ!ï˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yˆÏܲ xô/
ˆÏ«˛˛õî ӈϰ– Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ñ ï%˛£ÏyÓ˚˛õyï˛ñ ˆÙâ !ÓˆÏfl≥˛yÓ˚î ~ÓÇ !¢°yÓ,!T˛ •° xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï–
ç°≤ÃÓy• åRunoffä ı !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ãîy°# ˆÌˆÏܲ çˆÏ°Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙfiÌ ≤ÃÓy•ˆÏܲ ç°≤ÃÓy• ӈϰ–
ˆ§ÔÓ˚ ÓyÎ˚% åSolar Windä ı §)Î≈ myÓ˚y Ù•yܲyˆÏ¢ !là≈ï˛ xyÎ˚l Î%=˛ àƒy§#Î˚˛õ%O Îy ˆÙÓ˚%≤Ã˲y àë˛ˆÏl !ӈϢ£Ï Ë)˛!Ùܲy
˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Ë)˛àË≈˛fiÌ ≤ÃÓy• åSubsurface flowä ı ~!ê˛ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ç°≤ÃÓy•– Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,¤˛fiÌ ç° xl%≤ÈÏӈϢÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ç°≤ÃÓy• ˆÌˆÏܲ ãÑ%˛•zˆÏÎ˚ Ë)˛àË≈˛fiÌ çˆÏ° ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚ Óy xӈϢˆÏ£Ï §Ù%ˆÏo ˛õ!ï˛ï˛ •Î˚– Ë)˛àË≈˛fiÌ ç°≤ÃÓy•
Ë)˛!ÙÓ˚ ì˛y°ñ Ó,!T˛˛õyï˛ñ ˆË˛ÔÙç° !l‹Òy¢ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚–
ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÜœ˛y•zl åThermoclineä ı ç°Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ Ùôƒ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ §#Ùyhs˝ ˆÎáyˆÏl ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ !òˆÏܲ Ó,•Í ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z §#Ùyhs˝!ê˛ ≤Ãôylï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó,!_ xM˛° Óy !Ù°lfiÌ° ˆÎáyˆÏl ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏò¢#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ï ç°hflÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
¢#ï˛° à˲#Ó˚ ç° hflÏÓ˚ !Ù!◊ï˛ •Î˚–