Applied Mathematical Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15

www.elsevier.com/locate/apm

CFD simulation of precession in sudden pipe expansion ¯ows

with low inlet swirl
Baoyu Guo, Tim A.G. Langrish, David F. Fletcher *

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia

Received 24 May 2000; received in revised form 20 March 2001; accepted 4 May 2001

Abstract

In this paper, three-dimensional, time-dependent calculations are carried out using the ®nite volume
CFD code CFX4 and the VLES approach with standard k±e model to simulate the turbulent swirl ¯ow in
an axisymmetric sudden expansion with an expansion ratio of 5.0 for a Reynolds number of 105 . This ¯ow
is unstable over the entire swirl number range considered between 0 and 0.48, and a large-scale coherent
structure is found to precess about the centerline. Compared with the unswirled case, inclusion of a slight
inlet swirl (swirl number below 0.23) can reduce the precession speed, cause the precession to be against the
mean swirl and suppress the ¯apping motion. Several modes of precession are predicted as the swirl in-
tensity increases, in which the precession, as well as the spiral structure, reverses direction. Accompanying
the transition between di€erent modes, abrupt changes in precession frequency are also experienced. Grid
sensitivity and comparison with smaller expansion ratio data are also discussed. Ó 2002 Elsevier Science
Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: CFD modelling; Swirl ¯ow; Sudden expansion; Unsteady simulation

1. Introduction

Swirl ¯ows in sudden expansions are fundamental to many engineering applications, such as
burners and spray dryers. The introduction of swirl is usually associated with a high mixing rate in
the former case and a prolonged residence time in the latter. However, coherent large-scale
structures and precessing vortex cores (PVC) have been frequently observed [1]. This phenomenon
in a swirl burner can give rise to undesirable uneven burning and induce high-pressure ¯uctuations

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +61-2-9351-4147; fax: +61-2-9351-2854.
E-mail address: davidf@chem.eng.usyd.edu.au (D.F. Fletcher).

0307-904X/02/$ - see front matter Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 0 7 - 9 0 4 X ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 4 1 - 5
2 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15

(as in gas turbines, see [2]). In addition, the oscillations arising from such precession within a large
expansion tend to cause particle deposition on walls in spray dryers, thus ruining product quality
[3,4]. A good understanding of these complex turbulent ¯ows is necessary to improve methods of
prediction and to allow better control.
Although some experimental results are available [2,5,6], the basic understanding of this kind of
¯ow remains incomplete. One feature of the ¯ow is that a sustained oscillation (transient ¯ow
pattern) often arises from the ¯ow instability. There have been some numerical investigations of
con®ned jet instability, which relate closely to the current work. However, they are restricted
either to three-dimensional steady-state simulations at low Reynolds numbers [7,8] or to two-
dimensional transient simulations [9±11].
The Reynolds averaged Navier±Stokes (RANS) method is still the most feasible one for ad-
dressing these engineering problems. In our previous papers, the ¯ow behavior was investigated
over a range of expansion ratios without swirl [12,14], and an expansion ratio of about two for
swirling ¯ow [13], with the focus being on the unsteadiness of the ¯ow patterns. For the case of
swirl ¯ow, the frequency of precession was compared with the experimental data by Dellenback
et al. [6]. The good agreement between frequencies measured and predicted by the numerical
simulation gives con®dence in the procedures used in the simulation.
In our previous work [14,13] we have discussed in detail the reasons why this approach was
used. Ideally, one would use large eddy simulation (LES) for this type of ¯ow but such calcula-
tions require very signi®cant computing resources and there are no uniformly validated subgrid
scale models available yet. These limitations led Speziale [15] to seek an intermediate approach
between the LES and RANS approaches. This method, termed very large eddy simulation
(VLES), uses a ®ne enough grid to resolve the main energy carrying features of the ¯ow and a
simple closure model (in this case the standard k±e model) to represent the small-scale dissipative
scales. As the k±e model is being used only to represent the small-scale features, it does not su€er
from the same limitations as if it were being applied in a steady-state simulation, where its iso-
tropic nature means it predicts swirl ¯ows very poorly.
At the walls standard log law boundary conditions have been applied. Care is taken to ensure
that they are applied in the appropriate regime, i.e. that the y ‡ values are above 30 and less than
500 in all signi®cant regions of the ¯ow. Previous work, in which a two-dimensional ¯ow insta-
bility was considered [16] showed that use of the k±e model with wall functions gave results similar
to a low Reynolds number model. This is believed to be because the main in¯uence of the wall is
to ``re¯ect'' impinging ¯uid jets. This is fortunate, as use of the low Reynolds number model in
this ¯ow geometry would be computationally impractical.
Here, an axisymmetric sudden expansion ¯ow with an expansion ratio of ®ve is numerically
investigated in a low swirl range, using the CFD code CFX4. The results obtained will be useful
for future work on the simulation of ¯ow patterns in spray dryers, in which a large expansion
ratio is usually the case.

2. Description of numerical procedures

The computational ¯uid dynamics (CFD) program CFX4 is utilized in these simulations. Its
features are described in [17], so only a summary of the main features is given here. A
 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15 3

block-structured computational mesh is mapped to the physical space of the problem that may be
divided into a number of simple blocks patched together (multi-block structure). Each block is a
three-dimensional array of cells that are topologically cuboidal. A non-orthogonal body-®tted
coordinate system is used, which is ¯exible for modeling complex three-dimensional geometries.
The multi-block approach can be used to minimize memory usage and to optimize the grid res-
olution in order to maximize computational eciency. Smoothness, near orthogonality and
sucient resolution are the properties for a good grid that makes the ¯ow solver more robust and
more accurate.
The working variables are the Cartesian velocity components and the pressure. The time-av-
eraged Navier±Stokes equations including the supplemental closure equations are discretized
based on a ®nite volume formulation, and their solutions are carried out on the hexahedral mesh.
The continuity equation is used to obtain a pressure-correction equation according to the SIM-
PLEC algorithm. The Rhie±Chow algorithm has been used to handle the pressure±velocity
coupling on a co-located grid. The ¯ow solver employs an iterative method at two levels: an inner
iteration solving for the linear algebraic systems of equations, and an outer iteration to take into
account the non-linearity and coupling of variables.
A choice of turbulence models, di€erencing schemes and solution methods for the resulting sets
of discrete equations is available in the code. In the current work, the di€erencing scheme used for
the convective term is the third-order QUICK scheme for all velocity components. The Van Leer
limiter is used for the turbulence quantities k and e, to prevent the occurrence of unphysical values
that are possible with the QUICK scheme. The quadratic (second-order), fully implicit backward
Euler scheme has been used for time di€erencing. A time-step of around 0.01 s (two orders of
magnitude smaller than the time period of the PVC) is small enough that the oscillation frequency
is insensitive to further reduction. The linearized equation solvers used are Stone's method for
velocities and algebraic multigrid for the pressure.

3. Geometrical model

The geometry, co-ordinate system and some of the notation are shown in Fig. 1. The inlet is
located 5 diameters upstream from the expansion, and the downstream pipe is about 20 diameters
long. A uniform axial velocity pro®le is set and a swirl velocity is imparted to the ¯ow at the inlet
in the form of a solid body rotation (forced vortex). At the outlet, the velocity gradients in the
x-direction are assumed to be zero.

Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of the geometry used in the simulations.

4 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15

Fig. 2. Cross-section of the grid used for swirling ¯ow (grid-2).

Table 1
Grids for the chamber used in the calculation
Grid-1 Grid-2 Grid-3
Number of cells in streamwise direction 90 112 125
Number of cells across diameter 52 47 53
Number of cells in the chamber 152,280 148,848 217,625

In the simulations, a steady-state calculation is ®rst attempted to generate an initial condition.

In this simulation the residuals initially fall and then become oscillatory. At this point, the ¯ow
solver is restarted in transient mode. After a short period of time, a periodic solution occurs and
convergence at each time-step to a very high degree is achieved [14].
A multi-block structured mesh with a body-®tted boundary has been generated. Fig. 2 shows
the cross-sectional view of a typical grid pattern. In generating a grid, the need to have near-wall
node y ‡ values in the log layer range, a sucient cell density in regions of high gradients and a
smooth change of cell sizes have all been taken into consideration. The grid points are progres-
sively distributed in the streamwise direction, so that the grid density is highest in the expansion
region in order to resolve the high velocity gradient. Three grids (named grid-1, grid-2 and grid-3)
have been used, which are represented by the diametrical and streamwise number of cells as shown
in Table 1. Grid-1 and grid-2 di€er primarily in the number of cells in the cross-sectional plane
relative to the streamwise direction, while the total number of cells in the chamber is approxi-
mately the same. The ®nest grid (grid-3) used is larger than the coarse ones (grid-1 and grid-2) by
more than 40% in terms of the number of cells.

4. Results

The Reynolds number based on the axial velocity and diameter of the inlet is 105 . Calculations
indicate that the angular momentum decreases by about 17% in the inlet tube. To minimize this
 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15 5

e€ect, the swirl number (de®ned as the ratio of the axial ¯ux of angular momentum to the axial
¯ux of axial momentum divided by the inlet radius) is recalculated according to the velocity
pro®les at the expansion throat. Thus all the values of swirl numbers presented here refer to the
value at the expansion throat.

4.1. Time series

The mean ¯ow quantities (velocity and pressure) are recorded at a number of chosen moni-
toring points for each time-step. The initial conditions used to start the simulation are not critical
for most cases. The time-dependent calculation, if run for a suciently long time, ®nally evolves
asymptotically to a stable oscillation pattern which is sustained with a well-de®ned frequency. The
time required for establishing this time-invariable pattern mainly depends upon the initial con-
dition used; but a downstream point always lags behind a corresponding upstream point. For
example, Fig. 3 shows the time sequences of the mean ¯ow quantities at a centerline monitoring
point one diameter from the expansion for the case of S ˆ 0:25. Time is scaled as tUi =D; the
velocities are normalized by the average inlet velocity Ui and pressure is normalized by 12 qUi2 .
Limit cycles (as we name them) are generated by plotting the two cross-stream velocity com-
ponent sequences recorded at a ®xed centerline point, which is normalized by the inlet velocity. By
means of a limit cycle, we are able to identify the pattern and direction of the movement of the
global ¯ow®eld. For a steady ¯ow, the limit cycle would be reduced to a single point. Fig. 4 shows
a series of limit cycles obtained at di€erent locations in the chamber. These limit cycles suggest
that a precessing motion exists and is fundamental throughout the simulation domain. Although
they may appear di€erent in shape at di€erent locations, the whole ¯ow ®eld precesses coherently
as a large-scale structure at an identical period (or frequency) regardless of the distance from the
expansion. The downstream oscillation also creates a feedback to the upstream of the expansion;
thus there is an obvious oscillation at the expansion throat.
Fig. 5 shows how the limit cycle evolves at the centerline with swirl number at 0:2D from the
expansion. It is seen that a precession (or rotational) motion is present and is dominant for most

Fig. 3. Time sequence of mean ¯ow quantities on the centerline 1D from expansion …S ˆ 0:25†.
6 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g)

Fig. 4. Limit cycles for swirling expansion ¯ow obtained at di€erent distance from the expansion (S ˆ 0:25, using
grid-3): (a) at the expansion center, (b) 0.2D, (c) 1D, (d) 2D, (e) 3D, (f) 5D and (g) 8D.

cases, regardless of the degree of regularity. The limit cycles in Fig. 5 appear to be highly cyclical,
except that for the case of S ˆ 0:33 which looks chaotic, at least at this monitoring point. This
point may fall in a transition region between di€erent modes.
For the case of no swirl, the limit cycle shows a strong ¯apping motion in a rotating frame of
reference, which can be interpreted as a combination of a precession and ¯apping oscillation. For
 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15 7

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig. 5. Limit cycles for swirling expansion ¯ows obtained at the centerline 0.2D from the expansion (using grid-3):
(a) S ˆ 0, (b) S ˆ 0:13, (c) S ˆ 0:23, (d) S ˆ 0:25, (e) S ˆ 0:33, (f) S ˆ 0:48.

the very low swirl level below S ˆ 0:05, the ¯apping motion is still signi®cant, and the limit
cycle looks similar to the case of no swirl. Increasing the swirl number above 0.08 suppresses
the ¯apping motion, and thus makes the precession motion dominant and the limit cycles
become more regular. Meanwhile, the precession frequency decreases with increasing swirl
intensity until it stops. However, when the swirl level approaches the crossover point (zero
frequency), the oscillation begins to show slightly complex behavior, i.e., the limit cycle becomes
non-circular.
When the swirl number is increased to S ˆ 0:48, where a central recirculation zone (well-known
in literature as vortex breakdown) occurs, the limit cycle looks like a bouncing-around pattern on
the wall, a behavior similar to the non-swirl case [12,13]. The precession direction is opposite to
the mean swirl direction.
In most cases, the center of the limit cycle is found to coincide with the geometrical centerline.
This indicates that the global ¯ow®eld oscillates about the centerline basically in a symmetric
fashion in spite of the instantaneous asymmetry.
8 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15

4.2. Visualization of the instantaneous ¯ow®eld

Visualization of an instantaneous ¯ow solution can provide some spatial information about the
¯ow®eld. The series of cross-stream vector slices in Figs. 6 and 7 show the evolution of the ¯ow
along the stream for di€erent swirl numbers. The ¯ow pattern in the near-®eld region of the
expansion appears to be quite complicated. There is a primary vortex which originates from the

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig. 6. Vectors in cross-sectional planes downstream from the expansion …S ˆ 0:13†: (a) 0.5D from expansion, (b) 1D
from expansion, (c) 2D from expansion, (d) 3D from expansion, (e) 4D from expansion, (f) 5D from expansion.
 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15 9

Fig. 7. Vectors in cross-sectional planes downstream from the expansion …S ˆ 0:25†: (a) 0.5D from expansion, (b) 1D
from expansion, (c) 2D from expansion, (d) 3D from expansion.

input swirl at the inlet and carries the angular momentum. A minor vortex is also observed to
arise around 1±2 diameters from the expansion, opposite to the primary vortex. It is seen that,
unlike in the inlet tube, the jet and the vortex core are no longer at the same location. Moreover, a
stronger swirl level tends to cause a short development length and thus the velocity becomes
evenly distributed within a short distance from the expansion.
Fig. 8(a) is an instantaneous iso-surface of velocity for the case of S ˆ 0:13, and the enclosed
volume represents the spatial shape of the jet. A vortex consists of rotating ¯uid ¯owing around a
core, therefore the location of the vortex core can be identi®ed by means of cross-stream veloc-
ities. Fig. 8(b) shows such an iso-surface corresponding in time to Fig. 8(a), where within the zone
the cross-¯ow velocity components are very small. The spiral (helical) nature of the ¯ow®eld is
clearly visible from these images in the downstream ¯ow. The spiral direction is consistent with
that of the streamlines, or in other words, the helix angle acts in the same sense as that of the
streamlines. Although the jet and the vortex are co-axial in the inlet tube, they become separated
in the chamber. The de¯ection of the jet and vortex core from the center-axis is signi®cant, but the
vortex core moves closer to the centerline as the ¯ow moves downstream towards the exit.
When the swirl number exceeds the zero frequency critical number, another mode seems to take
place (a co-precession mode). The de¯ection of the vortex core becomes much smaller. The spiral
10 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15

(a) (b)

Fig. 8. Instantaneous visualization of swirl ¯ow showing its spiral nature …S ˆ 0:13†. (a) Iso-surface of axial velocity.
(b) Image showing the location of the main vortex core corresponding to (a) in time.

Fig. 9. Instantaneous visualization of the swirl ¯ow showing the jet and vortex core …S ˆ 0:25†.

direction also changes correspondingly when the precession reverses direction. In this sense, the
co-precession mode is relatively stable compared with the counter-precession mode. Fig. 9 shows
a similar iso-surface for the case of S ˆ 0:25, in which the jet and vortex core are generated to-
gether. The volume decrease enclosed by the axial velocity iso-surface indicates that the strong
swirl accelerates the jet spreading rate, so that the velocity of the jet decreases quickly. Meanwhile,
the vortex core moves back towards the centerline.
At the transitional swirl number between these modes, the ¯ow®eld has no tendency to become
axisymmetric, although a steady solution of zero frequency is possible. This indicates that the ¯ow
instability in an expansion is unlikely to be eliminated merely by using inlet swirl.
When the swirl number is increased to 0.48, a central recirculation zone (so-called vortex
breakdown) arises at the centerline as shown in Fig. 10, shaped like a tuber starting from around
0:2D from the expansion. (The iso-surface is generated on the axial velocity at a small negative
value, so a reverse ¯ow occurs in the enclosed volume.) It has a maximum dimension of 1:7D in
length and 0:7D in diameter. The asymmetric appearance is a consequence of the oscillation. This
central back-¯ow results from a low-pressure zone created by the centrifugal force. Although the
 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15 11

Fig. 10. Instantaneous visualization of the swirl ¯ow showing the vortex breakdown bubble …S ˆ 0:48†.

PVC is still present, the displacement of the vortex core from the centerline is less than the inlet
radius. The precession reverses direction again to move against the mean swirl direction, whereas
the spiral direction becomes consistent with that of the streamlines.

4.3. Strouhal number

The frequencies are normalized as a Strouhal p number

 2 in terms of the jet momentum ¯ux and
chamber diameter, which is simpli®ed as St ˆ …2= p†E …fd=Ui †. The Strouhal number varies with
swirl number as shown in Fig. 11. This indicates that the precession frequency is a function of
both the axial jet momentum and the swirl intensity.
Note that the data presented in Fig. 11 include the results obtained using three grids with the
same block structure but di€erent grid numbers. These clearly show the current results to be
independent of the grid used in the low swirl number range.
As observed in the non-swirl ¯ow, the jet can precess in either the clockwise or anti-clockwise
directions. For very low swirl numbers (below 0.05), the features predicted for the non-swirl case
dominate. However, the inclusion of a slight amount of swirl at the inlet makes a di€erence and
®xes the precession to a direction that is related to the swirl number.

Fig. 11. Variation of Strouhal number with swirl number.

12 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15

For a low swirl number from 0 to about 0.23, the large ¯ow structure precesses in the opposite
direction to the swirl (called the counter-precession mode) and the precession frequency decreases
as the swirl number increases, until no precession occurs at a transitional swirl number between
0.23 and 0.25 (zero frequency crossover). Although the precession is very slow in the proximity of
the zero frequency point, the jet is still directed at the wall rather than being symmetrical. Then at
a swirl number of 0.25, the precession reverses direction and becomes coincident with the swirl
(called the co-precession mode). The precession frequency increases with increasing swirl, and its
variation with the swirl number is higher than in the counter-precession mode.
When the swirl number is further increased to S ˆ 0:48, a tuber-shaped central recirculation
zone (CRZ) is formed behind the expansion plane. However, the ¯ow is still unstable and os-
cillations of higher frequency appear, but with the precession direction being against the mean
swirl. The abrupt jump in frequency indicates the formation of the CRZ has signi®cantly changed
the ¯ow behavior.

5. Discussion

5.1. Grid sensitivity

It seems that a higher swirl level requires a ®ner grid, due to the fact that the limit cycles are
insensitive to the grid for the cases of no swirl and very low swirl number …S < 0:15†, while the
data points for a higher swirl level (above S ˆ 0:25) are slightly more scattered. The highest
sensitivity to the grid density is found at the zero frequency crossover point, where an oscillation
of one order higher is predicted when using the coarse grid, which is superimposed on the fun-
damental low frequency PVC. This appears to be a combination of the counter-procession mode
and co-precession mode, but the range of swirl numbers for this overlapping region is smaller
when using the current ®ne grid. The high frequency oscillation seems to be related to the ir-
regularity observed in Fig. 5(c) (produced on the ®ne grid), but the coarse grid has not given
adequate accuracy in this region. Physically, high sensitivity to external conditions is often pos-
sible in the transitional region, which would cause the simulation to be more uncertain in this
region.
The simulation results have been improved for other regions in two ways when using the ®ne
grid: (1) The time sequences are smoother and the limit cycles are more regular. (2) The center of
the limit cycles coincides with the geometry centerline, while a bias is possible when using the
coarse grid, which is not physically reasonable. Nevertheless, it is seen that the trend of the low
frequency oscillation (PVC) with swirl intensity is not grid-sensitive in terms of the identical di-
rection and close precession frequency obtained.

5.2. Oscillation mode

With the direction reversal of the PVC, the spiral direction also changes at the same time. The
precession frequency changes signi®cantly. Thus, these changes seem to be transitions between
di€erent oscillation modes. While the combination and interaction between a con®ned jet and a
vortex core are too complicated to interpret, it is postulated that the ®rst mode (counter-
 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15 13

precession mode) is related to the instability of a con®ned jet, as previously investigated for non-
swirling ¯ow [12,14], since the jet momentum is much stronger than the swirling momentum for
very low swirl levels. This is supported by the fact that a straight line ®ts the available data at swirl
numbers between 0 and 0.25 well. In this mode, introduction of a slight swirl at the inlet is able to
signi®cantly suppress the ¯apping oscillation predicted for the unswirled case and to slow down
the precession. However, it seems that a fully steady and axisymmetric ¯ow could not be achieved
by changing the inlet swirl level alone.
As the swirl intensity increases, the rapid spreading of the jet causes the vortex to dominate over
the jet, therefore the co-precession mode may be considered to be related to the instability of a
vortex core. On the other hand, the PVC in conjunction with vortex breakdown may be relevant
to the instability of the central recirculation zone (CRZ), because, as the swirl intensity increases,
the CRZ can grow to a comparable size to the chamber diameter, and consequently can control
the ¯ow features.
The sense of the spiral (helix) angle seems to be determined by the direction of the precession,
whether the PVC rotates coincidentally with, or opposite to, the mean swirl direction. This cannot
be explained as an asymmetric disturbance in the upstream plane being carried along the
streamlines, as otherwise the helical shape would not change relative to the swirl direction.
However, it may imply that ¯ow inertia plays a role, because the ¯ow pattern at a downstream
plane always lags behind a corresponding upstream plane in terms of the azimuthal location of the
vortex core.

5.3. Comparison with previous results

In the previous study, the numerical solutions to the swirl ¯ow in a smaller expansion of 1.96
show unsteadiness only in a range of swirl numbers between 0.05 and 0.45, in which the precession
frequency of the fundamental PVC varies smoothly with swirl number [14]. Beyond that range,
however, the ¯ow is predicted to be stable for very low swirl numbers. At higher swirl numbers, it
becomes steady again after vortex breakdown occurs. A spiral structure also remains in the same
direction regardless of the precession direction.
In contrast, the ¯ow®eld in the present case of E ˆ 5:0 is highly unstable over the swirl number
range considered from 0 to 0.48, even after vortex breakdown occurs. The existence of multiple
modes and the abrupt changes of the precession frequency indicate that the ¯ow with a larger
expansion ratio is more complex.
The swirl number and Strouhal number are de®ned in the same way as for the case of E ˆ 1:96.
The chosen Strouhal numbers are of the same order, and the reversal of precession direction, from
against the mean swirl to coincident with the swirl as the swirl level increases, is a common
phenomenon for both expansion ratios. The critical swirl number for the reversal in this case is
larger by about 40% than for the case of E ˆ 1:96.

6. Conclusions

In this paper, three-dimensional, time-dependent VLES simulations have been carried out using
the ®nite volume CFD code CFX4 and the standard k±e model to simulate the turbulent swirl
14 B. Guo et al. / Appl. Math. Modelling 26 (2002) 1±15

¯ow in axisymmetric sudden expansion of diameter ratio ®ve for a Reynolds number of 105 . Self-
sustained oscillations have been predicted over the entire swirl number range considered between
0 and 0.48, and a large-scale coherent structure is found to precess about the centerline. The
current results suggest that the complexity of the ¯ow in such a geometry increases with the ex-
pansion ratio.
Visualization of the instantaneous ¯ow®elds shows the spiral nature of the ¯ow in terms of the
shape of the jet and the vortex core. Increasing swirl intensity is able to enhance the jet spreading
rate and also to reduce the precession amplitude of the PVC.
Di€erent modes are predicted as the swirl number increases, which can be described by the
precession direction with time, spiral direction in space and presence of vortex breakdown. The
transitions between di€erent modes have resulted in abrupt changes of the precession frequency.
For the limiting case of no inlet swirl, a strong ¯apping oscillation is predicted in addition to
precession. However, inclusion of a slight swirl in the counter-precession mode with swirl numbers
below 0.23 causes the ¯apping oscillation to be considerably suppressed, and the precession
frequency decreases with swirl number. Above this transitional swirl number, the precession
frequency increases with swirl number.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by an Australian Research Council Large Grant.

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