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Bonding of Glass - Latest Trends and Research

Article · May 2010

DOI: 10.1061/41130(369)229

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2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2545

Bonding of Glass - Latest Trends and Research

B. Weller1 and F. Nicklisch2

1
Institute of Building Construction, Department of civil Engineering, Technische
Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany; PH +49 351 463-34845; FAX
+49 351 463-35039; email: bernhard.weller@tu-dresden.de
2
Institute of Building Construction, Department of civil Engineering, Technische
Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany; PH +49 351 463-33906; FAX
+49 351 463-35039; email: felix.nicklisch@tu-dresden.de

ABSTRACT

Adhesive bonds offer a high potential for glass connections in structural applications.
The strength, rigidity, durability and other material parameters of selected adhesive
systems and substrates need to be assessed by intensive testing to identify suitable
adhesives. The test programs cover short, long-term and dynamic load scearios.
Current research is also increasingly focused on hybrid products, where several tasks
are combined in the same structural element. The combination of brittle glass and
ductile materials expands the scope of potential applications beyond the initial limita-
tions of glass. Glass-polycarbonate composite panels and glass-steel beams offer a
distinctly improved post-breakage behaviour compared to standard products. Experi-
mental research focuses mainly on the ageing behaviour, post-breakage performance
and manufacturing technology. Further impulses arise from studies on specific
applications of bonded glass, which are developed from a first idea to the final solu-
tion in close collaboration with industrial partners. To demonstrate this, the experi-
mental analysis for bonded frames of an all glass cabinet is presented.

INTRODUCTION

Glass is an inspiring and ambivalent building material. In use it is demanding because

the brittle material does not forgive design or construction errors, but indulgent when
it is handled properly. The usage of adhesives offer the unique possibility to join glass
in form of a substance-to-substance bond, which allows a homogenous load transfer
resulting in a significant reduction of local stress peaks in comparison to clamped or
bolted connections. But only a few pioneering projects explore the high potential of
adhesive technology beyond the scope standard applications.

Knowing about this potential, interdisciplinary research needs to be carried out on

various stages before arriving at a final approved application. Selected research
projects at the Institute of Building Construction provide an insight into the funda-
mental und applied scientific analysis of adhesive connections for the structural use of
glass. An example shows how this knowledge can successfully be transferred to the
building industry.
2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2546

POTENTIAL OF ADHESIVES IN GLASS CONSTRUCTIONS

Adhesive selection
When developing bonded glass members, designers need to choose from an immense
diversity of available adhesive products. Preferred characteristics of adhesives for
façade and structural glass applications comprise [Schadow 2006]:

− Adequate strength,
− Durability (UV, weathering, detergents),
− High rigidity for discrete connections,
− High flexibility for linear or laminar bonds of materials with different thermal
expansion coefficients,
− Low tendency to creep,
− Temperature range from -20 °C to 80 °C,
− Transparency at visible joints.

Some of the aims are conflictive. A distinct scheme of requirements to be met by the
material properties does not exist. Depending on the parameters listed above adhe-
sives from different chemical families qualify for structural applications. Silicone-,
acrylate- or epoxy-based adhesives are within the scope of the presented research
activities.

Other than the material characteristics of the adhesives, further parameters, predomi-
nantly the geometry of the joint, the substrate materials and the applied loading, have
an influence on the structural performance of a bonded joint. Recommendations for
their design according to glass structure requirements are given in [Schadow 2006].

Applications
Silicones are widely used for Structural Sealant Glazing (SSG) façades. A linear load-
bearing joint connects the glass with the carrier frame of a façade element. There are
several guidelines for the application and testing of silicones in glass constructions.
Silicones offer adequate temperature stability and remain highly flexible even at low
temperatures. Hence, they qualify for linear bonding of materials with different
thermal expansion coefficients like glass and aluminium. Ageing tests and years of
practical experience have proven an excellent durability. However, the allowable
stresses are rather poor. The thickness of the joint and the opaque appearance of the
adhesive are frequently regarded as disadvantages.

In order to increase the transparency of glass constructions, loadbearing joints can be

produced with acrylate adhesives that cure in UV and visible light. These adhesives
are clear and do not disturb the dematerialised visual appearance of the glass object.
Compared to silicone adhesives, the acrylate adhesives reach much higher initial
strengths and also enable thinner joints. However, restrictions occur due to their
weaker ageing performance [Tasche 2007]. Attention must be paid to their distinct
temperature dependent material behaviour [Vogt 2009].
2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2547

Specific epoxy systems also offer a high potential for bonded glass assemblies. They
are valued for their toughness and resistance to chemical and environmental damage.
Connections, where higher strength and less flexibility are required, mark a possible
field of application, for example butt-joints or glued point fixings.

FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH

Material characterization
Appropriate adhesives for joining glass are entirely or partially based on polymeric
compounds. Thus, their chemical structure and their material properties are to a large
degree similar to plastics. Depending on the molecular structure, polymers show not
only a load- and temperature-dependent but also a time-dependent material behav-
iour. Adhesives tend to creep and yielding under permanent loads. Therefore an in-
depth material characterization becomes necessary if those materials are introduced
for structural connections.

Temperature-dependent visco-elastic properties of amorphous polymers can be

recorded by dynamic-mechanical analysis (DMA). The analysis determines the
modulus of elasticity and the damping values by applying an oscillating force to the
sample. The glass transition can be observed by monitoring the temperature, which
indicates significant changes in the material behaviour (Figure 1).
1.0E+04 1.20
Storage modulus E' [N/mm²]

Dissipation factor tan δ [./.]

1.0E+03 0.90
Epoxy
Acrylate
Silicone
1.0E+02 0.60

1.0E+01 0.30

1.0E+00 0.00
-50 -25 0 25 50 75 100
Temperature T [°C]
Figure 1. Dynamic-mechanical analysis of selected adhesives: testing device (left)
and results (right) - storage modulus (solid line), dissipation factor (dashed line).

The silicone adhesive shows no significant change of the storage modulus (E’)
considering a relevant temperature range for façade and structural glass applications
from -20 °C to 80 °C. In contrast to this, the stiffness of the acrylate decreases dis-
tinctly at temperature levels greater than room temperature. The epoxy offers a
slightly declining but rather high rigidity within the relevant temperature range with a
glass transition above 75 °C.

Further fundamental material characteristics like Young's modulus or Poisson's ratio

are derived from tensile tests on standard dumb-bell specimens. A wide range of tests
2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2548

were carried out to investigate the performance at different temperatures and veloci-
ties. Additional analysis under cyclic loading [Weller 2009c] allows an improved
material characterization. Creep effects under dynamic loading are assessed since
alterations of the polymeric structure and internal degradation may lead to irreversible
deformations and initiate failures. For instance, an acrylate specimen heats up (Figure
2) if loaded dynamically either by high strain rates or high stress. As a consequence
the adhesive material softens. Further load cycles lead to an acceleration of heating
and contraction of the material, which finally results in failure.

Cycles: 0 15000 27000 31000 32000 32384

Figure 2. Set-up and thermal image of a dynamic test on an acrylate specimen.

Surface treatments of substrate materials

Adhesion on substrate surfaces has a significantly impact on the load-bearing capac-
ity and the durability of the bond. Controlable and improved surface qualities are
obtained by specific cleaning and surface pre-treatments. In particular, a good wet-
tability of the surfaces is fundamental for the formation of adequate adhesion forces.

In this context, research activities at the Institute of Building Construction comprise

diverse treatment methods like pyrolysis or atmospheric plasma. Their improvements
to the wettability of substrate surfaces are assessed by measuring the contact angle
(Figure 3). The contact angle is defined as the slope of the drop contour in the contact
point and arises from the energetic interaction of the three phases of solid, liquid and
gas. Pre-treatments induce chemical and physical changes to the surface. Those are
characterized with the help of several thermal analysis methods, scanning electron
microscopy as well as infrared and Raman spectroscopy.

Figure 3. Contact angle measuring to evaluate the wettability of bonding surfac-

es: untreated (left) and pretreated (right).
2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2549

APPLIED RESEARCH

Glass-metal bonds using acrylate adhesives

Acrylates that cure in UV and visible light are transparent and may be used for joints
with a high optical quality (Figure 4). The ageing behaviour has been examined in a
comprehensive research project [Tasche 2007]. Based on the test protocol defined in
the EOTA guideline [ETAG 1999], the ageing resistance of acrylate bonds between
untreated glass (i.e. annealed glass) and metals was investigated for seven different
metal surfaces: polished-chrome brass; matt-chrome brass; powder-coated brass;
turned, polished, sanded stainless steel; and anodized aluminium. These metals and
surfaces represent state-of-the-art materials for interior and exterior glass fittings.

Figure 4. Research on transparent actylates: prototype point fixing (left) and

long-term weathering shelf with various glass-metal specimens (right).

Shear and tensile tests were conducted on small bonded specimen for five different
light curing acrylates after artificial ageing as defined in the EOTA guideline. The
assessment focused on the collection of data pertaining to the long-term stability of
35 different material combinations, resulting from 7 substrates and 5 acrylate adhe-
sives. Due to the adhesive's characteristics specimens deviating in type and geometry
from the EOTA guideline were used. Detailed results could be found in [Weller
2009d]. Additionally some of them were exposed long-term to natural weathering
(Figure 4). Those tests are still continuing.

Apart from the investigation of small specimens, the structural behaviour of adhesive
connections was assessed on life-size glazing elements. In particular, the experimen-
tal studies comprised glued point fixings for glass canopies, bonded glass fixings in
barriers as well as bonded glass lamellas [Vogt 2009]. Earlier tests on bonded frame
corners also supplied promising results: the adhesive joints remained intact while the
glass failed [Schadow 2006]. In result of the testing and theoretical studies, UV- and
light-curing acrylates could prove their suitability for load-bearing connections in
glass applications under the condition that long lasting moisture is avoided and
temperature-dependent material behaviour is taken into account for structural design.
2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2550

Hybrid elements
Glass beams, composed of laminated glass, usually provide poor post-breakage
robustness if all plies are broken. Research activities focus on the combination of
glass with ductile materials to improve the structural performance after failure and
expand the scope of applications beyond the initial limits. Furthermore, hybrid
elements enable a more efficient functionality of structural glass elements, i.e. steel
components allow the use of conventional joining techniques.

Two different research projects explore hybrid structural elements either made of
glass and polycarbonate [Weller 2009e] or glass and steel [Weller 2009f]. Relevant
cross-sections are shown in Figure 5.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Polycarbonate
Glass
Glass
Glass

Glass

Glass

Glass
Glass
Glass

Glass
Glass
Glass

Glass
Glass
Glass
Axis of symmetry Adhesive Steel
Figure 5. Examined hybrid beam sections: laminated glass (1), glass-
polycarbonate (2), glass-steel (3-5).

The tested hybrid beams have rectangular cross-sections. The glass-polycarbonate-

hybrid section is similar to a three-ply laminated glass beam, but the inner pane is
substituted by a sheet of polycarbonate. The cross-section of the glass-steel beam is
principally designed as a flange beam with two steel flanges and a glass web. Other
cross-sections are also possible. Suitable adhesives are used to bond glass and the
ductile materials. The load bearing behaviour of the hybrid beams is examined by
bending tests and compared to conventional laminated glass beams (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Testing on hybrid beams: laminated glass (left) and glass-steel (right).

Glass is the crucial component for the load-bearing capacity. The post-breakage
robustness essentially depends on the ductile component. Composite action develops
with increasing deformations between the broken glass and the attached material.
2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2551

KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER

Bonded frame joints

After years of comprehensive studies on bonded glass connections in general and
acrylate adhesives in particular, the demand arises to transfer the knowledge attained
to innovative projects or real products. As an example, one promising application for
acrylate adhesives has been identified in glued glass frame corners. The glazed
entrance foyer to Broadfield House Glass Museum in Kingswinford, United Kingdom
[Richards 2006] can be regarded as the pioneer of this construction principle. Among
the few projects that have adopted this connection principle, most that have been built
often employ additional mechanical fasteners.

There are no regulations covering the use of loadbearing adhesive joints for glass in
Germany apart from [ETAG 1999] for structural sealant glazing systems [Weller
2009b]. Their application requires verification of applicability by an individual
approval. Thus, a complex programme of tests was drawn up to realise a glued frame
corner without additional metal fasteners for the first time in Germany. The frames
are part of an fully-glazed enclosure for a helium liquefaction unit of the Leibniz
Institute for Solid State and Materials Research in Dresden, Germany (Figure 7).

Figure 7. All-glass enclosure with glued frames, Dresden, Germany.

The experimental analysis [Institute of Building Construction 2009] comprised

studies of the material behaviour, the adhesion of aged and non-aged specimens, the
load-bearing capacity and the production method. High-quality manufacturing was
achieved based on comprehensive technology studies. The innovative glass construc-
tion was completed in autumn 2009. Further studies are planned within the scope of a
research project that is exclusively devoted to transparent bonded glass frame corners.
The aim of this project is to provide further momentum for the gluing of glass and
such corner details.
2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2552

All-Glass Enclosure - project facts

The pressure-vessels of the liquefaction unit are located almost completely below
ground level in a concrete trough, covered by a glass box measuring approximately
7.70 x 4.40 m on plan and about 2.50 m in height. Four glass frames support the
transparent enclosure. The posts and rails of each frame are connected at the corners
by means of a transparent radiation-cured acrylate adhesive in double shear. The glass
panes of the enclosure are bonded to the frame members with a structural silicone
adhesive. The frame members are made from four-ply laminated safety glass. At each
corner the outer plies of the vertical posts overlap with the inner plies of the horizon-
tal rails to form what woodworkers would call a “corner bridle joint”. To meet the
requirements of a fail-safe concept, a transparent plastic setting block carries the
vertical load in the event of failure of the adhesive.

Experimental studies
The adhesive material was indentified by means of tensile tests on standard dumb-bell
specimens at different temperatures. A temperature of +60 °C was specified by
expertise as the maximum value. The shear strength values were determined using
small test specimens. Single-shear glass to glass bonded connections were tested in a
compression shear test. Some of the test specimens were subjected to accelerated
ageing and subsequently tested at room temperature. Climatic cycle tests and immer-
sion in cleaning agent have proved to be relevant ageing scenarios for acrylate adhe-
sive joints [Tasche 2007]. The test results indicate a temperature-related behaviour of
the acrylate adhesive. Therefore, limit value considerations reflecting different
stiffnesses are included in the structural calculations.

Tests on specimen components were carried out to establish the load-carrying capac-
ity of the bonded glass frame corner Figure 8. The dimensions and glass build-up of
the test specimen reflected those of the actual corner detail of the original component.
In the test setup, the glass post was clamped in a frame. The critical moment at the
corner was used as the characteristic load and applied in form of an equivalent load at
the outer end of the rail segment. The test programme provided for an incremental
increase in the loading up to three times the characteristic design load. Vertical forces
were directly transferred via a plastic setting block.
4,0 5,0
F Mk = 8,2 kNm (characteristic design moment)
3,5 Meff. = F · a
4,0
Loading level Meff/Mk [-]

3,0
Deflection [mm]

2,5 3,0
2,0

1,5 2,0

1,0
1,0
0,5 Loading level
Deflection
0 0,0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time [s]
Figure 8. Loading test on specimen components.
2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2553

All six specimen components tested within the scope of the approval procedure
withstood the specified load without any failure of the adhesive joint or the glass.
This constitutes verification of applicability in the meaning of building legislation.
The production of the frames and their installation on site could therefore be initiated
and successfully completed.

Manufacturing
Acrylate adhesives are frequently used for point or linear joints. Building a “patch”
connection in double shear, the challenge was to introduce the adhesive into the
planar joint, barely 2 mm wide, without any bubbles. Furthermore the aim was to
achieve homogenous curing of a relatively large amount of adhesive. In order to
apply the adhesive, a suitable flat nozzle was developed that could be attached di-
rectly to the cartridge of the adhesive. The final design parameters were determined
on the basis of a series of curing tests. These have an influence on both the visual and
the structural properties of the joint.

Particular attention has to be paid to the shrinkage behaviour of the adhesive. Con-
traction is prevented by the stiff members at the joint. A decrease in volume during
curing leads to air being sucked into the joint and hence to imperfections and bubbles
in the adhesive [Weller 2009a]. Significant impairments as a result of this phenome-
non are judged critically in terms of both, the appearance and the load-carrying
capacity of the joint. In the course of the technology testing it was discovered that this
behaviour could be counteracted by applying an additional reservoir of adhesive
along the side and top of the adhesion surfaces and by exposing the joint to the
radiation intermittently. At the end of the test phase it was possible to produce speci-
men components with a high optical quality and without any serious flaws. The
adhesive connections of the frames were manufactured in a workshop under con-
trolled ambient conditions (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Manufacturing of the glued connection: application of adhesive (left),

curing with UV- and visible light (right).
 2010 Structures Congress © 2010 ASCE 2554

After delivery and erection of all four frames, the outer glass panes were installed and
bonded to the frames by structural silicon. The handling of the lateral panels was
quite challenging because of their dimensions which exceeded significantly the
standard-size of usual flat glass.

REFERENCES

ETAG 002 (1999). Guideline for European Technical Approval for Structural Sea-
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Richards, B. (2006). New Glass Architecture, Laurence King Publishing Ltd., Lon-
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Schadow, T. (2006). Beanspruchungsgerechtes Konstruieren von Klebverbindungen
in Glastragwerken [Designing adhesively bonded joints to meet structural re-
quirements], PhD thesis, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany.
Tasche, S. (2007). Strahlungshärtende Acrylate im Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau
[Light curing acrylates in glass structures], PhD thesis, Technische Universität
Dresden, Germany.
Vogt, I. (2009). Strukturelle Klebungen mit UV- und lichthärtenden Acrylaten [Struc-
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