Chapter 1 Basic Properties of Integers

Chapter – One
Basic Properties of integers
Introduction
Dear student in this chapter, you will be learning about Algebraic structure of integers, order
properties: the relation of the well ordering Axiom and the principle of mathematical induction,
Divisibility of integers. Also it includes about factors, prime numbers, relatively primness, GCD
and LCM of integers, Euclidean algorithm to find GCD and numbers in different bases.

Each subtopic is followed by enough examples and related exercise

Objectives:-

After successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

 Define the basic terminologies discussed in the unit

 State algebraic structure of integers
 Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove propositions involving positive
integers.
 State and prove the theorems raised in the chapter.
 Identify the GCF and LCM of integers
 Use Euclidean algorithm to find GCF of integers
 Write numbers in different bases
1.1 Algebraic Structure of Integers

Introduction
Dear student, in the course math 321, you have learned about algebraic structure in general, such
as Groups, Rings and fields. In this subtopic your will start by revising these terminologies and
discuss about the Algebraic Structure of integers.

Objectives:
At the end of this subtopic, you will be able to:-

 Define, group, ring, integral domain and field

 Define well-ordered rings
 State and use well ordering Axiom.
 Notations:

N or P = The set of positive integers

Z or I= the set of integers
Q= the set of rational numbers
R = The set of real numbers
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Definitions

1. Group: A group is non empty set G together with a binary operation * defined on G
satisfying the following properties.
For all a,b ∈ G, a¿b∈G.
G1: a¿(b¿c)=(a¿b)¿c, ∀ a,b,c,¿G ( associatively)
G2: There exists e in G such that a¿e= e¿a=a, ∀ a∈G
(existence of identify element for ¿ and e is called identify for ¿ in G)
G3: ∀ a∈G, ∃a-1∈G such that
a¿a-1 = a-1¿a= e
(existence of inverses and a-1 is called inverse of a for ¿ in G)

A Group G is called an abelian (or commutative) group if and only if a¿b= b¿a for every a and b
are in G.

Notation: If G is abelian group, its binary operation is denoted by ’’+’’ and is called addition.
The identify element is denoted by ‘’0’’, and it is called zero.

The inverse of a, that is a-1 is denoted by –a, and called negative a.

Example: a) ( Ζ ,+¿ is a group

b) (Z,.) is not a group

Ring: A ring is a set R together with two binary operations ∆ and∇ satisfying the following
properties:

R1: ( R,∆ ) is an abelian group

R2: (a∇ b)∇ C= a∇ (b∇ C), ∀ a,b,C,∈R.

R3: a∇ (b∆ C) = (a∆ b)∆ (a∇ C) , ∀ a,b,C∈R (left distributive)

(b∆ c)∇ a = (b∇ a)∆ (c∇ a), ∀ a,b,C∈R (right distributive)

- A ring R is said to be commutative ring if and only if a∇ b= b∇ a, ∀ a, b∈R

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 Chapter 1 Basic Properties of Integers

In commutative ring the operation ∆ is called addition and is denoted by ‘’+’’, while the
second operation ∇ is called multiplication and is denoted by ‘’.’’.

In this case we can denoted the ring R by(R, +,.).

A ring R is said to be a ring with unity if and only if there exists an element e∈R such that

a.e= e.a = a ∀ a∈R

Note: If this element exists, it is unique

In a commutative ring, we denote the unity by 1, and call it one.

Let R be a ring with unity 1. a∈R is called a unit ( or invertible) if and only if ∃b ∈R such that
ab=ba=1.

An element a∈R is said to be a zero divisor if and only if

i) a ≠0, where 0 is the additive identify
ii) There exists a non-zero element b∈R such thatab=0 .

For example, consider the set

Zm= 0,1,2,……, m-1

Define ⨁ and ⊙ on Zm as:-

i) a⨁ b = r, where r is the remainder of a+b when divided by m

ii) a ⊙ b= r, where r is the remainder of a . b when divided by m.
Then in Z6= 0,1,2,3,4,5 ,
2 ⊙ 3= 0
Here, in Z6, 2 and 3 are zero- divisors

But the ring of real numbers has no zero divisor

A ring R is said to be an integral domain if and only if R is a commutative ring with no zero
divisor.

A ring R is called a division ring if and only if every non- zero element is a unit

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A field is a commutative division ring.

Examples:

1. (Z,+,.) is an integral domain with unity. But it is not a field, since the only unit elements
of Z are -1 and 1.
2. (Q,+,.) is a field

Note: Algebraically all of the above rings are not the same. However all are integral domains
with unity.

3. Ordered Rings
A ring R is said to be an ordered ring if and only if there exists a non –empty subset R+ of
R such that
O1: a, b∈R+ implies a+b∈R+ and ab∈R+
02: For any a∈R exactly one of the following holds:
i) a∈R+ ii) a=0 iii) -a∈R+
R+ is called the set of all positive elements of R
Examples:
1. The integral domains (Z,+,.),(Q,+,.) and ( R , +,.) are ordered rings
2. Let n be a fixed positive integer. Let Rn= 0,1,2,…. , n-1

Define Define ⨁n and ⊙n on Rn as:-

i. a⨁n b = r, where r is the remainder of a+b when divided by n

ii. a ⊙n b= r, where r is the remainder of a . b when divided by n.

Then(Rn, ⨁ n ,⊙n ) is a commutative ring, but it is not ordered for n.

If R is an ordered ring, then we define the natural ordering relation ‘’>’’ on R as follows:

a> b ⟺ a+(−b)=a−b ∈R+

(> is read as greater than)
a ≥ b ⟺ a>b∨a=b
a< b ⟺ b>a

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a≤b⟺b≥a

4. Well ordered Rings

Let R be an ordered ring and R+ be the set of its positive elements. Let S⊆R+.
Then an element ∝∈S is called the least element S if f ∝≤ x ∀ x∈S.

An ordered ring R is said to be a well ordered ring if and only if every non- empty subset of R+
has a least element.

Example:

i) The set of positive elements of the ring Z is N

ii) That of Q is Q+ = { x∈Q/X>0 }
iii) That of R is R+= {x∈ R /x>0}
Well ordering Axiom( WOA)

Every non- empty subset of the set of natural numbers N has a least element

Remarks:-

1. (Z,+,.) is a well ordered integral domain

2. Every well ordered integral domain is isomorphic to Z.

1.2 The principle of mathematical induction (PMI)

The method of mathematical induction is used to show that certain statements are true for all natural
numbers. Suppose that with each n∈ N there is associated a statement pn. Then all the statements Pn
are true provided:

Provided:

i) P1 is true
ii) If K is an arbitrary natural number such that PK is true, the Pk+1 is also true:

Objectives:

At the end of this subtopic, you will be able to:

 State the principle of mathematical induction
 Use the PMI, to prove statements that are associated with natural numbers.
 Identify that the well ordering aziom and the PMI are equivalent

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The first form of PMI

Suppose that S⊆ N Such that

i) 1 ∈S
ii) If K∈S, Then K+1∈S.
Then S= N

The Second form of PMI

Suppose S⊆ N such that

i) 1∈S
ii) K+1∈S when ever 1,2,….,K are in S.
Then S= N

Note:- The two forms of PMI are equivalent

From now on, the PMI will be used to mean any of the two forms.

Remarks;

1. In practical application the PMI takes a different form. Suppose p(n) is an open proposition for each n
∈ N . To prove that ( ∀ n ¿p(n)is true we need only to prove that
i) p(n) is true
ii) P(n) is true implies p(n+1) is true for some n∈ N

Here we assume that p(n) is true and form this infer that p(n+1) is true. The assumption that p(n) is true is
called induction assumption/hypothesis.

2. The assumption that 1∈S can be little beat relaxed

i) Ko∈ S
ii) K+1∈S whenever K∈ S , where K≥Ko
Then S= x∈ N /x≥Ko

= Ko,Ko+1,Ko+2,…..

Examples; prove the following using the PMI

1. If x,y∈ R , then (xy)n = xnyn, ∀ n ∈ N

n
2. 1+3+5+……+(2n-1)= ∑ (2 i−1 )=¿ ¿n2
i=1

3. 2k+1≤ 2 for all K≥ 3

k

Proof: 1. For each n∈ N , le Pn be the statement

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(xy)n= xnyn

i) For n=1, p1 is (xy)1=x1y1 is true

Hence p1 is true
ii) Next, assume that Pk is true for some K∈ N . i.e, (xy)k= xkyk
Now, we need to prove that pk+1 is true
i.e, (xy) k+1= xk+1 yK+1
But (xy)k+1= (xy) (xy)k
= (xy) xkyk, (induction hypothesis,
= xk+1 yK+1
⟹Pk+1 is true
Hence by PMI , we have
(xy)n= xnyn for all n∈ N
n
3. Let p(n) = 1+3+5+……+(2n-1)= ∑ (2 i−1 )=¿ ¿n2
i=1

i. p(1)=1=(2x1-1) is true
n
iii) Let p(n) is true for some n∈ N i.e, p(n)= ∑ (2 i−1 )=¿ ¿n2
i=1

Next, we need to show that p(n+1) is true

Thus p(n+1) = (n+1)2
n
But p(n+1)= ∑ (2 i−1 ) +2 ¿ ¿n+1)-1
i=1

= n2_2n+2-1 ( Induction hypothesis)

= n2-2n+1
= (n+1)2
∴By PMI, 1+3+5+…….+(2n-1)= n2 ∀ n ∈ N

4. Let p(k)= 2k+1≤2k for all k≥3,

Step 1: For Ko=3
P(3)= 2.3+1=7≤23=8 which is true,
Step2: Assume that p(k) is true for some

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k≥3. That is,

P(k)= 2k+1≤2k for some K≥3
We need to prove that p(k+1) is true
i.e 2(k+1)+1 ≤2k+1
Now, 2(k+1)+1= 2K+2+1
= 2+2K+1
≤ 2+2k, ( by induction hypothesis)
≤2k+2k
¿ 2.2k
k+ 1
¿2
⟹2(k+1)+1≤ 2k+1
T h erefore , By PMI ,if follows t h at
2k+1≤2k, ∀ k ≥3
Exercises: use PMI to prove each of the following for each positive integer n.
n
n ( n+1 )
1. 1+2+3+……………..+n= ∑ i=
i=1 2
2. 7(11)n+3 is a multiple of 5
n
3. 2+4+6+…………+2n=∑ 2 i=n ( n+ 1 )
i=1

n
n ( n+1 ) (2 n+1)
4. 1 +2 +3 +……………+n =∑ 2 i=¿
2 2 2 2
¿
i=1 6
Lemma1: 1 is the smallest positive integer
Proof: (1) using WOA. We proof by contradiction
Let S= x ∈ N |x<1
If 1 is not the smallest positive integer then S≠ ∅ .
Clearly S⊆ N . By WOA, S has a least element say t. Now t<1 and t∈ N
So< t2∈ N and t2<t<1
Hence t2∈ N . This contradicts the minimality of t in s.
So, S=∅ and there is no positive integer less than 1.
There fore 1 is the smallest positive integer.
2) Using the PMI

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Let T= x∈ N /x≥ 1 . Then clearly

i) 1∈T
ii) Suppose K∈T. Then K≥1, which implies that k+1≥ K ≥1
Hence K+1≥1

Thus K∈T⟹k+1∈T

There fore, by PMI, it follows that T= N and 1 is the smallest element of T.

Lemma 2: There is no integer between a and a+1 for any integer a

Proof: Suppose there is an integer n such that

a< n<a+1
Then0< n−a <1

This means that n−a is a positive integer less than 1

Which is a contradiction to lemma 1

Thus, our assumption that there is n between a and a+1, a∈Z is false.

Hence, there is no integer between any two consecutive integers.

Theorem 1.1 The PMI and WOA are equivalent

Proof:- Suppose WOA is true. We need to prove PMI is valid

Thus if S⊆ N Such that

i)l∈S
ii) K∈S⟹k+1∈S

Then we have to show S= N suppose S N

Let T =N ∖S = { x∈ N /x∉S}

Then ∅ ≠T⊆ N

By WOA T has a least element, call it t. t≠1 and hence t>1

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Since t-1<t, t-1∉T. But t-1∉ N

Hence t-1∉ S

By(ii) (t-1) ∉S⟹(t-1)+1∉S

That is t∉S.

This contradicts the fact that t∉T.

∴T=∅ and S= N

Conversely, suppose the OMI is true.

We need to prove that WOA is valid, that is if ∅ ≠T⊆ N , then T has

∴ Least element Suppose there is a non-empty subset T of N that does not have a least element.
Then 1∉T.
Now. Let S= x∉ N /x<t, ∀ t ∉T
Then :- i) l∉S

ii)Suppose K∉S

If K+1∉S, then K+1 is not less than every element of T. There exists, y∉T such that

y≤K+1. But K∉S→K<y

Hence K<y≤K+1. By Lemma 2, y=K+1

But then by lemma 2 again, it follows that K+1≤t ∀ t ∉T and K+1∉T .

This means K+1 is the least element of T. A contradiction to the assumption that T has no least
element.

Thus it must be that K+1∉S.

Now i) l∉S

ii)K∉S⟹K+1∉S

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∴S= N by the PMI

Consequently, T=∅

Again a contradiction to ≥1

1.3 Divisibility of Integers

This subtopic deals with the concepts of factors ( or divisors) and multiples of integers. We also
discuss about basic properties of primes, the greatest common factor, and least common multiple
of integers. Also you will learn how to find GCF and LCM of integers followed by examples.

Objectives:
At the end of this subtopic, you will be able to :-

 Identify factors and multiples of integers

 Define prime numbers
 State and prove some basic theorems one primes and factors
 Find GCF and LCM on integers
 Use Euclidean algorithm to find GCF of integers

Divisibility of integers
Definition:- Let a and b be integers a is said to be divisible by b ( or a multiple of b) if and
only if there exists an integer C such that a=bc

In this case b is called a factor or a divisor of a.

If b is not a factor of a , We write b+a

Note: b/a is read as ‘’b divides a’’

Is there a difference between b/a and b/a ?

Proposition 1.1 If a, b, c, x and y are any non- zero integers, then the following hold.

i) a/a, -a/a, 1/a and -1/a

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ii) If a/b and b/c, then a/c

iii) If a/b and a/c, then a/c bx-cy)
iv) If a/b, then /a/≤/b/
v) If a/b and b/a, then a=± b
vi) For every d∈Z, d/o
But if o/a, then a=0

Vii) a/b if and only if (± a ¿/¿b)

Proof: i) ∀ a ∈Z, a=a.1 then

a/a and 1/a

Also, a=(-a)(-1)

⟹-a/a and -1/a

ii ¿suppose a/b and b/c. then by definition there exists integers m and n such that

b=ma and c=nb

⟹C=nb=n(ma) =(mn)a

⟹a/c

iii ¿ Let a/b and a/c. Then

b=ma∧c =na for some m ,n ∈Z

bx +cy =( ma ) x +¿(na)y

¿ a( mx+ny )

=ak ; K= mx+ny∈Z

∴a/(bx+cy) for x,y∈Z

( iv ) a /b ⟹ b=na,n∈Z

⟹/b/=/na/=/n//a/≥ /a/; since /n/≥1

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⟹/a/≤/b/

v ¿Let a/b. Then /a/≤/b/ by

iv ¿ above Similarly , b/a →/b/≤/a/

⟹/a/=/b/

⟹a=±b

Vi ¿ For any integer d ,0=d ( 0 )∧hence d /o

But if o/a, then a=0(m0 for some m∈Z

O(m)=0

∴a=0

vii) Let a/b to show that (±b) now, a/b →b= ma for some m∈Z
→(± a)/¿b)
Conversely , Let ¿ a) /(±b) then
±b= (±a)m for some m∈Z
⟹b=am
⟹a/b

For any natural number d, dz shall stand for the set of multiples of d in Z

That is,

dZ= dt/t∈Z = ….., -3d,-2d, -d,0,d,2d,….

For example

1) 2Z denotes the set of even integers(the set of multiples 2)

2) 5Z denotes the set of multiples of 5
3) 12Z denotes the set of multiples of 12, etc.

In general, suppose (R, +,.) is a commutative ring and n∈ R . Then it is an easy matter to give
the set of multiples of n with respect to ‘’.’’ In R. Indeed the multiples of n in R is
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nR= nt/t∈ R

If (R,+,.)= (Z,+,.), for instance, then the set of multiples of 2 in R is

2Z= 2t/t∈z = ….,-6,-4,-2,0,2,4,6,……

Which is the set of even integers

Here 2/8 since 8= 2x4, but 2† 6, since ∀ q∈2 Z , 6≠ 2 q

Moreover for every x∈2Z/ 0 , x† x

- If (R,+,.)= 2Z,+,.), however, the set of multiples of 2 in R is:-

- 2R= 2t/t∈2Z = …., -12,-8,-4,0,4,8,…….
=4Z

Evidently, these set of multiples of 2 in the two different rings, I,e, in (Z,+,.) and (2Z, +,.) are
different

Remarks:-1. Some of the assertions in proposition1.1 above may not hold in some other rings.
For instance in (SZ,+,.) 5 is not a factor of 5, 10 is not a factor of 10, and in fact no element of
5Z, except 0 is a factor of itself.

2. To find all the factors of a given integer in Z, it suffices to obtain only the positive
factors of the integer. Indeed, once the positive factors of the given integer are
identified, then all its factors can be given using proposition1.1 (Vii).

Example:

All positive factors of -40 are 1,2,4,5,10,20 and 40.

Hence all the factors of -40 are

± 1, ± 2, ±4,±5,±8,±10,±20,±40

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1 .3 . 1 Basic properties of primes

Definition:An integer P≠1 is called a prime number if and only if the only divisor of p
are ±1 and ±p

¿other words, a prime number is a number which has exactly two positive factors/divisors

T h e prime numbers are :−¿

2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,43 , ………..

Remark ;∈ your study of primes we s h all concentrate on positive prime .

Proposition 1:2 If n>1, then n has at least one prime factor.

Proof Let S= {x∈ N / x/n and x>1}

Since n/n and n>1, n∈S and so S≠ ∅

Then by WOA S has a least element, call it P. Then P>1 and P/n.

If P is not a prime, it has a factor C such that 1<C<P

But then C>1, C|p and so C|n.

Thus C∈S. This is a contradiction to P is the least element of S.

∴ P must be a prime number.

Defn: A number m that is not prime and not equal to 0 and ±1 is called a composite number.

Proposition 1.3: If n>1 and n is composite, then n has at least one factor d such that 1<d≤ √ n

Proof: Let n=n1n2 for some n1 and n2 such that 1<n1,n and 1<n2<n

Suppose n1>√ n and n2>√ n

Then n1n2>√ n.√ n

⟹n1n2>n, Contradiction to the assumption n=n1n2

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Thus n1 ≤ √ n or n2 ≤ √ n

Proportion 1.4 There are infinitely many primes

Proof:- Let S be the set of all primes

If S is a finite set, then

M= ∏ p
P∈ S

Where∏ p denotes the product of all numbers in S.

P∈ S

Clearly 2∈S, and so m>1

Let n= M+1

By proposition 1.2, n has a prime factor, call it q

Now q∈S and so q/m. also q/n

Thus q/(n-m) ⟹ q/1

⟹q≤1 → ←( contradiction)

∴S is infinite.

Exercise: List all positive primes less than 200

1.3.2 the Greatest common Divisor (GCD) and the least common multiple (LCM)

a) The Greatest common Divisor (Factor

Defn:- Let a,a2,…….an be integers not all zero

1) An integer C is called a common divisor (or factor) of the ai’s if and only if C/ai ∀ i=
1,2,3,…….,n
2) d is called the GCD (GCF) of the ai’s iff d is a common divisor ( factor), d>0, and if C is
a common divisor, then C/d.

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Remark; If d is the GCF of a1,a2,…,an and C is a common divisor, then C≤d

Notation: The GCF of the integers a1, a2, …,an is denoted by (a1,a2,…,an)

Theorem 1.2(Disision Algorithm)

If a and b are integers and b≠0, then there exist unique integers q and r such that

A= qb+r, where 0≤r</b/

Proof: Consider the sequence

…., a-2b, a-b, a, a+b, a+b, a+2b,…..

Suppose b>0

If a<0, then a+|a|b≤ 0.

If a>0, then a+ab≥0

Suppose b<0

If a<0, then a-|a|b≥0

If a>0, then a+a|b|≥0

Thus the sequence contains positive integers

Let S= a+bx/a+bx≥0, x∈Z

Then S≠ ∅ and S⊆ N

By WOA, S has a least element, call it r.

Then r= a+by for some y∈ Z and r≥0

Hence a= (-y) b+r , r≥0

i.e, a= qb+r , r≥0

1) b>0 If r≥/b/, then r≥b

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Let n= r-b≥0

⟹n= a+by-b = a+(y-1)b∈S

So n≥r. But this is impossible since

r⏟
−b < r
n <r

2)b<0. If r≥/b/, then r≥-b

Let n= r+b ≥0

But n=r+b=a+by+b = a+(y+1)b∈S

But then n≥r Which is impossible since

n=r+b<r

thus the assumption that r≥/b/ is false

So r<|b|

∴a= qb+r, 0≤r<|b|

To Prove uniqueness, suppose a= q,b+r, and

a=q2b+r2 with 0≤r,</b/, for i=1,2

Then 1,b+r1=q2b+r2

⟹(q1-q2)b=r2-r1

⟹b/cr2-r1)⟹ |b|≤|r 1 ,−r 2|

But |r 1 , −r 2|≤max ¿ r ∨¿1 ¿ ,¿ r ∨¿2 ¿ <b

⟹ r 1 ,-r 2=0

So, r 1 ,=r 2 and q 1 ,=q2

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Theorem 1.3: suppose that a1-a2, ..., an are integers not all zero. Then the GCF of a1,a2,
……………an is the least positive number among the linear combination

a 1 x 1+a 2 x 2+………………+a n x n, xi∈Z, i =1,2,…..,n

Proof: Let S=
{ a1 x 1+ a2 x2 +… … … … …+an x n| a1 x 1 +a2 x 2+ … … … … … …+a n x n >0∧x i∈ Z ,i=1,2, … … .. n }

Then a 1 a1 +a 2 a 2+………………+a n x n,=a 21+a 22+………..a 2n>0

Hence S≠ ∅ . So by WOA, S has a least element, call it d.

Claim: d=( a 1 , a 2 … … … … … … a n )

i) d>0
ii) For each i , let a i=q i d +r i , ≤ d by division algorit h m ,
Then r=a i-q i d

But d∈S. Then d=a 1 x 1+ a2 x 2 +… … … … …+ an xn

Now, r i =a i-q i d

=a i-q i ( a1 x 1 +a2 x 2+ … … … … …+an x n )

=(−qi x 1 ) a1 +( q i x 2 ) a2+…………..+(-q i x n)a n

= y 1 a1 + y 2 a2+ … … … … …+ y n an

Ifr i >0, thenr i ∈ S and hence r i ≥d→ ←

∴ r i=0 and hence

a i=q i d ⟹ d|ai

Thus d is a common divisor of a 1 , a2 … … … … … , an

iii) Let C be any common divisor of a i’s. We shall prove that C is a common divisor of

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a i implies c|ai ∀ i= 1,2……………,n

⟹ c| a1 , c| a2 ,……………., c|an ,
⟹ c| a1 , x1 , c|a 2, x 2 ,……………., c|an , x n , for x i ∈ Z
⟹ c| a1 , x1 , +a2 , x 2 ,…………….,+ an , x n ,
⟹ c| d
∴d=( a 1 , a 2 … … … … .. , an , )
T h is complete t h e prov of t h e t h eorem
Defn:1)Two numbers a and b are said to be relatively prime iff (a,b)=1

2)The numbers a 1 , a2 … … … … .. , an ,are said to be pair wise relatively prime iff (a i , ai )=1 ∀ i, j , i
≠j

Note: (a,b) =(a,-b)=(-a,b)=(-a,-b)

Corollary 1: (a,b)=1 iff there exist x,y∈ Z

Such that ax+by =1

Proof: Let (a,b)=1 Then by theorem 1.3 we have 1= ax+by for some x, y∈ Z

Conversely, suppose ax+by=1, for some x,y∈ Z

We need to prove that (a,b) =1

Let d=(a,b). Then d/a and d/b

Hence d/(ax+by) for some x,y∈ Z

⟹ d| 1 ⟹d≤1

Since d is positive integer and d≤1,

d=1

∴(a,b)=1

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a b
Corollary 2 : If d= (a,b), then ( , )=1
d d

a
Proof; Let m= and n= b/d clearly m,n∈ Z
d

Now d= (a,b)⟹d= ax+by for some x,y∈ Z

a b
⟹1= x + y
d d

⟹1=mx+ny

⟹(m,n)=1 by corollary 1.

a b
∴( , )=1
d d

Theorem 1.4 If (a,b) =1 and a|bc, then a|c

Proof: suppose ( a,b) = 1 and a|b c

( a , b )=1 ⟹ax+by=1

⟹ c =acx+bcy and a|bc⟹ bc=am for some m∈ Z

Then c= acx +bcy

⟹ c =acx +amy = (cx+my)a

⟹ a|c

Corollary 3 :i ¿ If p is a prime and p|ab, then p|a or p|b.

ii) If p is prime and p|a1a2….an, then p|ai for some i.

iii ¿ If P, p1,p2,………….pn are primes and if p|p1p2….. pn, then p=± pj for some j.

T h eorem 1.5: If ( a ,bi )=1 , i=1,2,…..,n then (a,b1b2………..bn)=1

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Proof ; Let d=¿……b n)

Suppose d >1. t h en d has a prime fctor p .

T h en p|d.

But d|a and d|b1 , b2………..b n

T h en p|d and p|b1 , b2………..b n

Hence p| a and p|bi for some i.

t h us p is a common factor of a∧bi

∴ P is a factor of (a, bi)=1. i.e, p|1.

⟹p≤1 →←

Hence d=1

i.e (a , b1 b2 ……b n ¿=1

Theorem 1.6 If a|c and b|c and ( a , b )=1, then ab|c.

Proof: a|c. and b|c⟹ c= at= br for some t,r∈ Z

at=br ⟹ b|at.

(a,b)=1 and b|at ⟹ b| t.(theorem 1.4)

b|t⟹t=bk for some k∈ Z

Now C= at= abk= (ab)k

⟹ ab|c.

Corollary 4: If m1, m2,..., mk are pair wise relatively primes and if m i| a, then m|a where m=m1 m2
…,m k

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Remark: If a 1, a2……a n are integers not all zero, then

(a 1, a2……a n)= (¿ ¿……a n−1 ¿ , an ¿ In particular,

(a,b,c)= ((a,b),c)

b) the least common multiple (LCM)

Definition:- Let a 1, a2…….a n be non – zero integers. A number m is called a common multiple
of a i ' s if and only if ai|m ∀ i= 1,2,………,n. The smallest positive integer which is a common
multiple of a i ' s is called the least common multiple (LCM) of a i ' s and it is denoted by [a 1, a2
…….a n].

Note: If a i ' s are non- zero, then the integers m=a 1 a 2…a n and n= −a 1, a2…….a n=−¿m are
common multiples.

Thermos 1.7 Let a and b be non- zero integers m=[a,b] if and only if m>o, m is a common
multiple and for any common multiple n of a and b, m|n .

Corollary 5: M[a 1, a2……., a niff m>o m is a common multiple and m is a factor of any common
multiple of a i ' s.

Theorem 1.8 For any integers a and b with not all zero, [a,b](a,b)=|ab| .

Proof: Let m=[a,b]and d=(a,b). Then

|ab| ab a |ab|
=± =(± )b= kb and =¿ )a= na for some k,n∈ Z
d d d d

|ab|
Thus is a common multiple of a and b.
d

|ab| |ab|
∴ m| . Thus m≤ or md≤|ab|….(*)
d d

Clearly|ab|=±ab=¿a)b =¿b)a is a common multiple of a and b.

Then m |ab| i.e ,|ab|=mk o for some k o ∈ Z

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|ab|
Thus is an integer.
d

On the other hand m=a=k 2 b for somek 1and k 2

|ab| k 2|ab| k 2 ab
k2 = =± =± a
m k2 b k2 b

|ab|
⟹a=(± k 2)
m

|ab|
⟹ |a
m

Similarly

|ab| k 1 ab k 1 ab
k1 =± =± =±b
m m k 1a

|ab| |ab|
⟹b= (±k) ⟹ |b
m m

|ab|
Thus is a common factor of a and b
m

|ab|
∴ ≤ d. ⟹|ab|≤ md……………….(**)
m

From(*) and (**), we have md=|ab|

∴[a,b](a,b) = |ab|

Thermos 1.9(The fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (FTA))

Every natural number n>1 is expressible as a product of a finite number of primes in one and
only one way except for the order of the primes.

Proof: (exercise!)

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Remarks:1) If n>1 and p1 ¿ p2 < p3 <¿ ……….< p F are the distinct prime factors, then we call the
product.

∝ ∝ ∝
n= p1 p2 … … … … … pk , where ∝i ≥ 0 , t h e standard representation of prime factorization of n.
1 2 k

2) Suppose m= p∝1 p∝2 … … … … … p∝k , is the prime factorization of a natural number

1 2 k

m.Then the number of positive divisors of m is given by (∝1+1)(∝2+1)……… (∝k +1)(

Example: Find the prime factorizations and the number of positive divisors /factors of

a) 360 b) 2450

Solution

a)360=23x32x5

Here ∝1=3, ∝2=2 and ∝3=1

Then number of positive factors of 360

= (3+1) (2+1) (1+1)

=24

b)2450=2x52x72

⟹n(+ve factors or 2450) = (1+1)(2+1)(2+1)

= 18

Next, we shall discuss how to find GCF and LCM of two or more integers

Prime factorization method

Let a 1 , a2 ,…………..a nbe natural numbers. Then by FTA, we get that

a 1= p∝11
1
∝12 ∝1 k
, p 2 ……….. pk

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a 2= p∝21 ∝22 ∝2 k
1 , p 2 ……….. pk

⋮ ⋮⋮ ⋮

a n= p∝1 n1 , p ∝n 2 ∝ nk
2 ……….. pk

With positive primes p1 < p2<…………. pk and ∝ij ≥ 0

1≥ i≤ n and 1≤j≤k

For each j=1,2,…………,k, put

∝ j = min { ∝ij|i=1,2… … … .. , n }and

β j = Mix { ∝ij|i=1,2… … … .. , n }

Then the GCF and LCM of a 'i s are respectively given by

i) d= ( a 1 , a2 ,…………..a n ¿ = p∝1 ∝2 ∝k
1 , p 2 ……….. pk

ii) m= [a 1 , a2 ,…………..a n ¿ = pB1 1 , p B2 2……….. pBk

k

Example: Using the prime factorization, find the GCD and LCM of the given numbers,

a) 420, 1540 and 6600

b) 56, 150, , - 280 and -900
Solution
a) 420=22x3x5x7
1540=22x5x7x11
6600=23x3x52x11

Then i) (420,1540,6600)= 22x5=20

ii)[420,2540,6600]=23x3x52x7x1

=46,200

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b) 56=23x7
150= 2x3x52
280=23x5x7
900=22x32x52

Therefore,

i) (56,150,-280,-900)=(56,150,280.900)
=2

ii)[56,150,-280,-900]=[56,150,280,900]

= 23x32x52x7

= 12,600

Euclidean Algorithm to find GCD

Theorem 1:10(Euclidean Algorithm)

Suppose a and b are integers such that b>0. We make a repeated application of the division
Algorithm to obtain.

a =bq 1+r 1 ; 0≤ r 1<b

b =r 1 q2 +r 2 ; 0≤ r 2<r 1

r 1=r 2 q3 +r 3 ; 0≤ r 3<r 2………………..(*)

r n−2=r n−1 qn +r n ; 0≤ r n<r n−1

r n−1=r n q n+1

Then (a,b) is the last non-zero remalinder in the division process, Moreover a solution of the
equation ax +by =(a , b) for integers x and y and be obtained by solving for

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r n−1,r n−2,…………,r 2 ,r 1 from the system of equations in (*).

Proof: Since the sequence b,r 1,r 2 ,……….r n is strictly decreasing (i.e, b>r 1 >r 2 >…..>r n ) sequence
of non-negative integers, there exists n such that r n +1=0

Then (a,b)= d|r 1 and hence r 2.

We proceed down the line in(*) show that d|r n

Consequently r n is the last non-zero remainder and r n|( r i , r i+1 ), i 1,2……..,n-1

⟹ r n|d=(a,b)

∴(a,b)= r n

Where r n is the last non-zero remainder in the division process

To verify the last part of the assertion, one step by step eliminate r n−1 , r n −2 ,….r 2 , to get r n=¿ ¿
ax+by for some x, y∈ z

Examples:

1. Use Euclidean algorithm to find GCD of 51 and 288, and express the GCD as a linear
combination of 51 and 288
Solution
288= 5+51+33 ; r 1 ,=33
51= 1x33+18 ;r 2 , 18
33= 1x18+15 ;r 3 ,=15
18= 1x15+3 ; r 4 ,=3
15= 5x3 ; r 5 ,=0

Hence by Euclidean Algorithm

(51, 288)=3

Now to express 3 as a linear combination of 51 and 288, form the above chain of equations, we
get,

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18= 1x15+3⟹3= 18-1x15

33= 1x18+15 ⟹15=33-1x18

51= 1x33+18⟹18+51-1x33

288= 5x51+33⟹33=288-5x51

Then successive substitution gives

3=18-1x15

=18-1x(33-1x18)

=2x18-1x33

3= 2(51-1x33)=1x33

=2x51-3x33

=2x51-3(288-5x51)

=17x51-3x288

=(-3)288+(17)51

This shows that (-3,17) is the solution of the equation 288x+51y=3

Thus (x,y)=(-3,17) is a solution

2.Find integers x and y such that

(1029,1911)=1029x+1911y

Solution:

Using Euclidean algorithm

1911=1x1029+882

1029=1x882+147

882=6x147

∴(1029,1911)=147

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Moreover, from the above chains of equations we have

147=1029-1x882

=1029-1(1911-1x1029)

=2x1029-1x1911

=2x1029+(-1)x1011

∴(x,y)=(2,-1) is a solution to the equation 147=1029x+1911y.

2. Solve the equation 64x+72y=24

Solution

64x+72y=24

⟹8x+9y=3

Now, we have

9=1x8+1

8=1x8

⟹1=9-1x8=9+(-1)x8

⟹3=-3x8+3x9

⟹8(3=-3x8+3x9)

⟹24=-3x64+3x72

∴(x,y)=(-3,3) is a solution of the equation 64x+72y=24

Remarks:-

i) Any two consecutive integers are relative primes. Thus, if n is any integer, then

(n,n+1)=1

Moreover, [n,n+1]=n(n+1)=n2+n

ii)For any integer n,

a) (n,n+2)= {2if1 if nisn iseven

odd
}

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{
n(n+2)if nis odd
b) [n,n+2] 2( n+2)
if n iseven
2

1.4 Number Bases

Dear student, in this section you learn numbers in different bases you also learn how to convert
base ten in to different bases and vice versa.

Objectives:

At the end of this section, you will be able to

 Write numbers in different bases

 Expand numbers in different bases
 Convert any base to base ten and vice versa.

Now, we give you the following definition

Defn: Let g∈ N and g>1. Any integer a>0 is said to be written in the scale of 9 (or in base 9) if
and only if there exist non-negative integers r o ,r 1 r 2,……r n such that

a=r n gn+r n−1 g n−1+……..+r 1g+r o

Where 0≤ r i<g ∀ i= 0,1,2,…….n

In this case we write

a=(r n , r n−1,……r 1 , r o)g

The integersr n , r n−1,……r o are called the digits of a in base 9.

Theorem 1.11(Bases theorem)

Suppose g is a natural number greater than one. For any Natural number m, there exist unique
integers r o ,r 1,……r n with 0≤ r i<g

Such that

m=(r n ,r n−1,……r 1,r 0 )g=r n gn+ r n−1 g n−1+……..+r 1g+r 0 and r n ≠ 0

Proof:- Using Division Algorithm, we have

M=q 0g+r 0 ; 0≤ r 0<g

q 0=q 1g+r 1 ; 0≤ r 1<g (if q 0 ≥ g)

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q 1=q 2g+r 2 ; 0≤ r 2<g (ifq 1 ≥ g)

q n−1=q ng+r n ; 0≤ and 0< q n<g

Then step by step substituting for q 0,q 1,…..q n−1 we get

M= q 0g+r 0 =(q 1g+r 1)g+r o

=q 1 g2+r 1g+r o

=q 2g+r 2 ) g2+r 1g+r 0

= g3+r 2 g 2+r 1g+r 0

⋮
n n−1
m= r n g +r n−1 g + … r 1 g+r o, letting q n =r n
n
=∑ r i g
i

i=0

Which is abbreviated as (r n r n−1 … r 1 r 0)g, called the representation of m in base g,

If g is ten, then the representation (r n r n−1…….r 1 r 0) ten s called the decimal representation of m
and is simply written as.

m=r n r n −1 …….r 1 r 0

Note:- The resporsentation of m in base two is called the binary respresentation of m.

Exapme: Covert 318 to base 5 and base 7.

Solution:-

i) 318= 63x5+3 ; r 0= 3
63= 12x5+3 ;r 1= 3
12=2x5+2 ; r 2 =2
2= 0x5+2 ;r 2=2

∴318= 2x53 +2x52+3x5+3= (2233)5

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ii) 318=45x7+3 ;r 0 = 3
45=6x7+3 ;r 1= 3
6=0x7 +6 ;r 2= 6

∴318= 6x72 +3x7+3= (633)7

Theorem 1.12: If g>1, then every real number ∝ can be written as the infinite series
∞
an
∝= ∑ ; 0≤ an ≤g-1
n=0 gn

Proof : Let [x]= the greatest integer less than or equal to x.

Let ∝∈ R and a o= [∝] and let ∝1= ∝−a 0

Then = 0≤ ∝1 <1 →0≤g ∝1<g

a 1= [g∝1] , 0≤ a1<g

∝2= g∝1-a 1 , a 2= [ g ∝2]

∝3= g∝1-a 2 , a 3=[g∝3]

Proceeding in this manner, we get

∝ a 0=[∝]

∝1= ∝−a 0, ∝1=[ g ∝1]

∝2=g∝1-a 1, ∝2= [g∝1]

∝3=g∝2-a 2, ∝3= [g∝3]

∝k =g∝k−1-a k−1, = [g∝k ]

Observe that 0≤ ∝k<1 ∀ k =1,2,3 … …∧hence 0 ≤∝k <g-1

Now, we have

∝= a 0+∝1

a1 ∝2
∝ 1= +
g g

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a2 ∝3
∝3 = +
g g

ak−1 ∝k
∝k−1= +
g g

Now, step by step substitutions gives

a1 ∝2
= a 0+∝1= ∝0= +
g g

a1 a2 ∝3
=a 0+ + +
g g2 g2

a1 a 2 a 3 ∝ 4
=a 0+ + + +
g g 2 g 3 g3

a1 a2 a3 a 4 a5 ∝6
=a 0+ + + + + +
g g 2 g 3 g4 g 5 g 5

a1 a 2 a3 an ∞
an
→ ∝=a0 + + 2 + 3 +…+ n +…=∑ n
g g g g n−0 g

∞
an
Corollary: If 0<∝<¿1, then the series of ∝is given by ∝ = ∑ ; 0≤ an <g,
n −1 gn
∞
an
Defn: The series ∑ n
is colled the expansionof ∝ in base g
n −1 g

If g=10, we get the decimal expansion we write as

∝=(0.a 1 , a2 , a3……)g and ∝= 0.a 1 , a2 , a3…… if g¿ 10

Example 1:- Convert 0.4 to base 3

Solution: Let 0.4 = 0.a 1 , a2 , a3……¿3

a1 a2 a3 a4
Then 0.4= + + + +…
3 32 33 3 4

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a2 a3 a4
⟹3(0.4)=a 1+ + + +…
3 32 3 4

a2 a 3 a 4 a5
⟹ a1=¿ 0.2 + + + +…
3 3 2 34 34

a3 a4 a5
→0.6= a 2+ + + +…
3 32 33

a3 a4 a5
⟹ a2=0∧0.6= + + +…
3 32 3 3

a 4 a 5 a6
→1.8= a 3+ + + +…
3 3 2 33

a4 a5 a6 a7
⟹ a3=1∧0.8= + + + …
3 3 2 33 34

a 5 a 6 a7
→2.4= a 4 + + + +…
3 3 2 33

a 4 a 5 a6 a7
⟹ a4 =2∧0.4= + + + +…
3 3 2 33 33

Repeating the above gives

a 5=1 , a6=0 , a 7=1, a 8=2

a9 a10 a10 a 11
¿ 0.4= + + + +…
3 32 3 3 33

From this we get,

Thus 0.4 = (0.101210121012…..¿3

Or 0.4 = (0.1012 ¿3

Example 2: Convert 21.3 to base 4 solution:

21.3 21+0.3

Then we convert each number separately to base 4. Thus

i) 21=5x4+1 ; r0=1
5= 1x4+1 ;r1=1

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1= x4 +1 ;r2=1
⟹21=(111)4
0.3 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.8
ii) x4 x 4 x 4 x 4 x4
1.2 0 .8 3 .2 0.8 3 .2
This implies
0.3= ( 0.1030303…)4
= (0.1 03 ¿4
Therefore, from (i) and (ii), we have
21.3 = (111.1 03 ¿4
Self check exercise;
Solve the following problems
1. a) Let f(x)= xn, where n∈ N . Using PMI prove that the derivative of f, f’(x) is given by f’)x)
= n x n−1, ∀ n ∈ N

b)use the PMI to prove that if x≤-1 then (1+x)n ≥1+nx, for every n∈ N

2. For non –zero integers a, b and c, if a|b and a|c , then show that a|(bx-cy) for x,y∈ Z

3. In n is any odd integer, then show that n2-1 is a multiple of 4.

4. For each pair of numbers, express m in the form of m=nq+r, with q,r∈Z and 0≤r<|n|.

a) m= 37 ; n= 8
b) m= -342 ; n=33

5. Use Euclidean algorithm to GCF of the following integers.

a) 1350 and 4500

b) 4851 and 33, 800

c) 1890, 5250 and 14,170

6. Express the GCF of 236 and 632 as a linear combination of the integers 236 and 632

7. Us the Euclidean Algorithm to find integers x and y such that

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 Chapter 1 Basic Properties of Integers

A) 1350x + 4500y=900

B) 115x + 203y = 1

8. For non- zero integers a1,a2,…,an, if d=(a1, a2,…,an), then show that

( ad , ad ,… , ad )= 1
1 2 n

9. Prove the following

a) The sum of two odd integers is even,

b) The product of two odd integers in odd

10. Find the representation of each of the following numbers in the indicated base

a) 45 in base two

b) 8491 in base eight

C) 25.6 in base four

d) 124.33 in base five

11. Find the decimal ( base ten) representation of each of the following

a) ( 101212 )3 C ¿ (34.32 ) ¿5

b)( 23402 )5 D ¿ ( 3451 ) ¿6

Summary of the unit ( Chapter one )

A Group is a set G together with a binary operation * defined on G satisfying the following
properties.

G1: a*(b*C)= (a*b)*C ∀ a,b,C∈G .( Associatively )

G2: ∀ a∈G, ∋e∈G such that a*e=e*a=a( existence of identify element)

G3: ∀ a∈G ∋ a−1 ∈G such that a*a−1= a−1*b=e( existence of inverse)

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 A Group G is called an abelian group if and only if a*b= b*a ∀ a , b ∈G

 A group is denoted by (G,*)

A ring is a set R together with two binary operations ∆∧∇ such that

R1: ( R,¿ is an abelian gorup

R2 :R 2 : ( a ∇ b ) ∇ C=a ∇ ( b ∇ ) ∀ a , bC ∈ R

R3 :(i) a∇ ( b ∆ C )= (a∇ b ¿ ∆ (a∇ C ¿ ∀ a ,b C∈ R ( ¿ )

ii ¿ ( b ∆ C ) ∇ a=( b ∇ a ) ∆ ( C ∇ a ) ∀ a , b C∈ R ( Right distributive)

A ring is denoted by ( R,∆ , ∇)

A ring R is said to be commutative if and only if

a∇ b=b ∇ a ∀ a , b C∈ R

The commutative ring R is denoted by ( R,+,.)

A ring R is said to be a ring with unity iff there exists an element

e ∈ R such that a . e=e .a=a ∀ a ∈ R

This element is unique if it exists

In a commutative ring the unity is denoted by 1.

Let R be a ring with unity 1. Then a ∈ R is called a unit (or invertible) if and only if there exists b
∈ R such that ab= ba=1

 An element a ∈R is said to be a zero divisor if and only

i) a≠o, where 0 is the additive identify
ii) There exists a no- zero element b≠R such that ab=0
 A ring R is said to be an integral demain zero divisor.
 A ring R is called a division ring if and only if every non- zero element is a unit
 A commutative division ring is called a field.

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 A ring a is said to be an ordered ring if and only if thee exists a non- empty subset of R+
has a least element.
 Well ordering Axiom ( WOA):- every non- empty subst of the set of natural numbers N
has a least element.
 (Z,+, .) Is a well ordered integral domain?
 Any well ordered integral domain is isomorphic to (Z,+, .)
 The principle of mathematical induction ( PMI) suppose S⊆N Such that
i) l∈S
ii) K∈S ⟹K+1 ∈S
iii) Then S=N

Let a, b ∈Z, a is said to be divisible by b ( or a multiple of b) iff there exists an integer a

such that

a=bc

In this b is called a factor ( or a divisor) of a and we denote if as b|a

 A integer p≠1 is called a prime number iff the only divisors of p are ± 1and ± p.
 A number m that is not prime and not equal to 0 and ± 1 is called a composite
number.
 Let a1, a2, …, an be integers not all zero
i) An integer c is called a common divisor of the ai’s iff c|ai for each i= 1,2,
……, n
ii) d is called the GCD (or GCF) of the ai’s iff d is a common divisor, d>o,
and if c is a common divisor, then c|d . Thus c≤ d.

The GCF of the integers a1, a2,…,an is denoted by ( a1,a2,...,an)

Two numbers a and b are said to be relatively prime iff (a,b) = 1

 the numbers a1, a2, …,an are said t be pair wise relatively prime iff ( ai,ai)=1
∀ i, j∧i≠ j

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 Number Theory Math 392

 Let a 1 , a2 , … , an be non- zero integers. A number m is called a common multiple of ai’s iff
ai|m ∀ i= 1,2, …,n
the smallest positive integer which isa common multiple of of a i ' sis called the least
common multiple (LCM) of a i ' s and it is denoted by [a 1, a2 ,… ,a n]
For any two non−zero integers a∧b ( a , b ) [ a , b ]=¿ |ab|
 Let 9∈ N and 9>1. Any integer a>0 is said to be written in the scale of 9 ( or in base 9) iff
there exist non- negative integers r 0 , r 1 r 2 ,…,r n , Such that
n n−1
 a=r n , g +r n−1 , g +…+r 1 , g+r 0 ,Where 0≤ r i ≤ g-1 ∀ i=0,1,2 , … , n
In this case we write
a= ( r n r n−1 … … … . r 1 r 0 ) g – Representation of a in base g
And the integers r n r n−1 … … … .r 1 , r 0 are called the digits of a in base g.
If g=10, then the representation (r n r n−1 … r 1 r 0 ¿ten is called the decimal representation of
a and simply written as
a=r n r n−1 … … … .r 1 r 0

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