NCERT Chemistry Class 6-10 Compilation by Pmfias.

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1. Matter ............................................................................................................................. 7

Elements ................................................................................................................................................................7
Some facts ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Metals ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Non-metals ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Metalloids ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Compound .............................................................................................................................................................9
Mixtures vs Compounds .................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Molecule .............................................................................................................................................................. 10
John Dalton’s Atomic Theory .......................................................................................................................................................... 10
Molecules of Elements and Compounds ......................................................................................................................................... 11

What is an Ion? .................................................................................................................................................... 12

Writing chemical formulae ................................................................................................................................... 12
Atomic mass, Molecular mass and Formula unit mass ........................................................................................... 12
Mole concept ....................................................................................................................................................... 13
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 13

2. Structure of The Atom ................................................................................................... 14

Thomson’s Model of an Atom ............................................................................................................................... 14

Rutherford’s Model of an Atom ............................................................................................................................ 15
Conclusions drawn from the α-particle scattering experiment ...................................................................................................... 15
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom .............................................................................................................................. 16 1

Neutrons.............................................................................................................................................................. 16
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Atomic Number.................................................................................................................................................... 16
Mass Number....................................................................................................................................................... 16
Isotopes ............................................................................................................................................................... 17
Applications of Isotopes .................................................................................................................................................................. 17

Isobars ................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Bohr’s Model of Atom .......................................................................................................................................... 18
 How are electrons distributed in different orbits (shells)? ............................................................................................................. 18

Valency ................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 19

3. Physical Change & Chemical Change .............................................................................. 20

Crystallisation – Physical Change .......................................................................................................................... 20

Rusting of iron – Chemical Change ........................................................................................................................ 21
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 21

4. Chemical Equations ....................................................................................................... 22

Types of chemical reactions .................................................................................................................................. 22

Combination Reaction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Decomposition Reaction ................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Displacement Reaction ................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Double Displacement Reaction ....................................................................................................................................................... 24
Oxidation and Reduction................................................................................................................................................................. 24

Electric Current & Chemical Reactions................................................................................................................... 25

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 26
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 26

5. Acids, Bases and Salts .................................................................................................... 27

Acid rain .............................................................................................................................................................. 28

Indicators ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
Litmus: A natural dye ...................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Phenolpthalein ................................................................................................................................................................................ 29

How do Acids React with Metals? ......................................................................................................................... 29

How do Metal Carbonates & Metal Hydrogen carbonates React with Acids? .......................................................... 29 2
Preparing a soda-acid fire extinguisher ........................................................................................................................................... 29
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Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids.................................................................................................................. 30

How do acids react with bases (Neutralisation)? ................................................................................................... 30
Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base ................................................................................................................................... 30
Uses of Neutralization ..................................................................................................................................................................... 30

What do all acids and all bases have in common?.................................................................................................. 31

What Happens to an Acid or a Base in a Water Solution?....................................................................................... 31
 How strong are acid or base solutions? ................................................................................................................. 32
Importance of pH in Everyday ............................................................................................................................... 32
pH in our digestive system .............................................................................................................................................................. 32
pH change as the cause of tooth decay .......................................................................................................................................... 33
Self-defence by animals and plants through chemical warfare ...................................................................................................... 33
Nature provides neutralisation options .......................................................................................................................................... 33

More about salts .................................................................................................................................................. 33

pH of Salts ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Common Salt ................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Are the crystals of salt really dry? ................................................................................................................................................... 35

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 35
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 36

6. Metals and Non-metals ................................................................................................. 37

Chemical properties of metals .............................................................................................................................. 38

What happens when Metals are burnt in Air? ................................................................................................................................ 38
What happens when Metals react with Water? ............................................................................................................................. 39
What happens when Metals react with Acids? ............................................................................................................................... 39
How do Metals react with Solutions of other Metal Salts? ............................................................................................................ 39
How do metals and non-metals react? ........................................................................................................................................... 40

Occurrence of metals ........................................................................................................................................... 41

Extraction of Metals ........................................................................................................................................................................ 41
Refining of Metals ........................................................................................................................................................................... 43

Corrosion ............................................................................................................................................................. 44
Prevention of Corrosion .................................................................................................................................................................. 44

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 45
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 45 3

7. Carbon and its Compounds ............................................................................................ 46

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Bonding in carbon – the covalent bond ................................................................................................................. 46

Allotropes of carbon ............................................................................................................................................. 48
Versatile nature of carbon .................................................................................................................................... 48
Catenation ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Tetravalency .................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
 Organic compounds ............................................................................................................................................. 49
Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds.................................................................................................... 49
Chains, Branches and Rings................................................................................................................................... 50
Functional groups................................................................................................................................................. 51
Homologous Series ............................................................................................................................................... 52
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds ................................................................................................................... 52
Combustion of Carbon .......................................................................................................................................... 53
Formation of coal and petroleum ......................................................................................................................... 54
Reactions in Carbon Compounds........................................................................................................................... 54
Oxidation ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Addition Reaction ............................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Substitution Reaction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 54

Some important carbon compounds – ethanol and ethanoic acid .......................................................................... 55

Reactions of Ethanol ....................................................................................................................................................................... 55
How do alcohols affect living beings? ............................................................................................................................................. 55
Alcohol as a fuel .............................................................................................................................................................................. 55
Properties of Ethanoic Acid ............................................................................................................................................................. 56
Reactions of ethanoic acid: ............................................................................................................................................................. 56

Soaps and detergents ........................................................................................................................................... 56

How soaps work? ............................................................................................................................................................................ 56

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 57
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 58

8. Chemistry in everyday life ............................................................................................. 58

Classification of Drugs .......................................................................................................................................... 58

Antacids ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Antihistamines ................................................................................................................................................................................ 59
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Neurologically Active Drugs: Tranquilizers ...................................................................................................................................... 60
Analgesics ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 60
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Antimicrobials ................................................................................................................................................................................. 61
Antiseptics and disinfectants .......................................................................................................................................................... 61
Antifertility drugs ............................................................................................................................................................................ 62

Chemicals in Foods ............................................................................................................................................... 62

Artificial Sweetening Agents ........................................................................................................................................................... 62
Food Preservatives .......................................................................................................................................................................... 62
 Soaps and detergents ........................................................................................................................................... 62
Soaps ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Synthetic Detergents ....................................................................................................................................................................... 63

9. Periodic Table ................................................................................................................ 64

Mendeléev’s Periodic Table .................................................................................................................................. 64

Achievements of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table ................................................................................................................................ 64
Limitations of Mendeléev’s Classification ....................................................................................................................................... 65

Modern Periodic Table ......................................................................................................................................... 66

Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table ........................................................................................................................ 66

Trends in the Modern Periodic Table .................................................................................................................... 66

Metallic and Non-metallic Properties .................................................................................................................... 66
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 67
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 67

10. Misc. Topics ................................................................................................................... 67

Combustion and flame ......................................................................................................................................... 67

Vapourisation and Flame ................................................................................................................................................................ 68
Matchstick ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Water vs Carbon Dioxide as fire extinguisher ................................................................................................................................. 69
Calorific value .................................................................................................................................................................................. 69

Fossil Fuels ........................................................................................................................................................... 69

Coal.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 69
Petroleum........................................................................................................................................................................................ 70
Natural Gas...................................................................................................................................................................................... 71

Important alloys and their contents ...................................................................................................................... 71

Steel................................................................................................................................................................................................. 71 5
Copper alloys ................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
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Gold and platinum alloys................................................................................................................................................................. 71

Aluminum alloys .............................................................................................................................................................................. 72

Synthetic materials .............................................................................................................................................. 72

Some Generally Used Synthetic Fibres ............................................................................................................................................ 72
Plastic .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 73

Properties of a solution ........................................................................................................................................ 74

 Non-homogeneous systems ............................................................................................................................................................ 74
What is a colloidal solution? ........................................................................................................................................................... 74
Questions ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 75

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 1.
• Atoms of most elements are not able to exist in-
dependently.
• Atoms form molecules and ions.
• These molecules or ions aggregate in large num-
bers to form matter.
Elements
• Robert Boyle was the first scientist to use the
term element in 1661.
• Antoine Lavoisier (1743-94) was the first to es-
tablish an experimentally useful definition of an
element.
• He defined an element as a basic form of mat-
ter that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical reactions.
• Element: A chemical element is a pure chemical
substance consisting of a single type of atom
distinguished by its atomic number, which is the
number of protons in its atomic nucleus.
• If a substance cannot be broken down further
by chemical reactions, by cooling, heating, or
by electrolysis, it is called ‘element’. Sulphur is
an element. So is iron. Carbon, too, is an element.
Matter
• Elements are divided into metals, metalloids,
and non-metals.
• In the beginning, the names of elements were
derived from the name of the place where they
were found for the first time. For example, the
name copper was taken from Cyprus.
• Some names were taken from specific colours.
E.g. gold was taken from the English word mean-
ing yellow.
• Now-a-days, IUPAC (International Union of
Pure And Applied Chemistry) approves names
of elements.
• Many of the symbols are the first one or two let-
ters of the element’s name in English.
• The first letter of a symbol is always written as an
7
uppercase and the second letter as a lowercase.
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Some facts
• The number of elements known at present are
more than 100.
• Ninety-two elements are naturally occurring,
and the rest are manmade.
• Majority of the elements are solid.
• Eleven elements are in gaseous state at room • Elements, gallium and cesium become liquid at
temperature. a temperature slightly above room temperature
• Two elements are liquid at room temperature (303 k).
— mercury and bromine.

Metals • Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room

temperature.
• They have a lustre (shine).
• They have silvery-grey or golden-yellow colour. Non-metals 8
• They conduct heat and electricity.
• They display a variety of colours.
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• They are ductile (can be drawn into wires).

• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• They are malleable (can be hammered into thin
• They are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.
sheets).
• Examples of non-metals are hydrogen, oxygen,
• They are sonorous (make a ringing sound when
iodine, carbon (coal, coke), bromine, chlorine
hit)
etc.
• Examples of metals are gold, silver, copper, iron,
sodium, potassium etc.
Metalloids
• Some elements have intermediate properties • Properties of a compound are different from its
between those of metals and non-metals, they constituent elements, whereas a mixture shows
are called metalloids. The six commonly recog- the properties of its constituting elements or
nised metalloids are: compounds.
1. Boron • Any material that is not a mixture, is called a
2. Silicon pure substance.
3. Germanium • Pure substances can be elements or com-
4. Arsenic pounds.
5. Antimony
6. Tellurium Mixtures vs Compounds

• Mixtures are constituted by more than one kind

Compound
• A compound is a substance formed when two or
more chemical elements are chemically bonded
together.
of pure form of matter, known as a substance.
• A substance cannot be separated into other
kinds of matter by any physical process.
Mixtures Compounds

1. Elements or com- 1. Elements react to

pounds just mix to- form new com-
gether to form a pounds.
mixture and no new 2. The composition
compound is of each new sub-
formed. stance is always
2. A mixture has a fixed.
variable composi- 3. The new substance
tion. has totally differ-
3. A mixture shows ent properties.
the properties of 4. The constituents
the constituent can be separated
• Two types of chemical bonds common in com- substances. only by chemical
pounds are covalent bonds and ionic bonds. 4. The constituents or electrochemical
• The elements in any compound are always can be separated reactions. 9
present in fixed ratios. fairly easily by
A chemical compound can be separated into
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• physical methods.
simpler substances by chemical reactions. Homogeneous mix- Heterogeneous mix-
• On heating the two elements strongly we get a tures tures
compound, which has totally different proper- 1. Homogeneous mix- 1) Heterogeneous
ties compared to the combining elements. tures have uniform mixtures have non
• The composition, texture and the colour of the composition. uniform composi-
compound are the same throughout. tion
 2. It has no visible 2) It has visible John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
boundaries of sepa- boundaries of sep-
ration between its aration between its • The problem faced by scientists was to give ap-

constituents. constituents. propriate explanations to the above laws.

3. Some examples of 3) Some examples of
homogeneous mix- heterogeneous
tures are: salt in wa- mixtures are: water
ter, sugar in water. and sand, oil and
water.
Molecule
• A molecule is a group of atoms that are chem-
ically bonded together (held together by at-
tractive forces).
• A molecule can be defined as the smallest par-
ticle of an element (e.g., O2) or a compound
(e.g., H2O) that is capable of an independent
existence and shows all the properties of that
substance.
• Atoms of the same element (e.g., O2) or of dif-
ferent elements (e.g., H2O) can join together to
form molecules.
• Law of conservation of mass: Law of conserva-
tion of mass states that mass can neither be cre-
ated nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• Law of constant proportions: Many com-
pounds are composed of two or more elements
and each such compound has the same elements
in the same proportions, irrespective of where
the compound came from.
• In a compound such as water, the ratio of the
mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is al-
• British chemist John Dalton provided the basic
theory about the nature of matter.
• He said that the smallest particles of matter are
atoms (At present, Quarks are the smallest par-
ticles we know).
 A quark is a type of elementary particle and
a fundamental constituent of matter.
 Quarks combine to form composite particles
called hadrons, the most stable of which are
protons and neutrons, the components of
atomic nuclei.
• His theory was based on the laws of chemical
combination.
• It provided an explanation for the law of conser-
vation of mass and the law of definite propor-
tions.
• In 1808, he presented his atomic theory which
was a turning point in the study of matter.
• According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter,
whether an element, a compound or a mixture is
composed of small particles called atoms.
The postulates of John Dalton’s Atomic The-
ory
1. All matter is made of very tiny particles called at-
oms.
2. Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be 10
created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
3. Atoms of a given element are identical in mass
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ways 1:8.
and chemical properties.
• Thus, if 9 g of water is decomposed, 1 g of hy-
4. Atoms of different elements have different
drogen and 8 g of oxygen are always obtained.
masses and chemical properties.
• Law of constant proportions is also known as the
5. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole num-
law of definite proportions (in a chemical sub-
bers to form compounds.
stance the elements are always present in defi-
nite proportions by mass).
6. The relative number and kinds of atoms are
constant in a given compound.

Molecules of Elements and Compounds

Molecules of elements

• The molecules of an element are constituted by

• Molecules of metals and some other elements,
the same type of atoms. E.g., O2
such as carbon, do not have a simple structure
• Molecules of many elements, such as Argon
but consist of a very large and indefinite number
(Ar), Helium (He) etc. are made up of only one
of atoms bonded together.
atom of that element. But this is not the case
with most of the non-metals.
• E.g. a molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms
of oxygen and hence it is known as a diatomic
molecule.
• If 3 atoms of oxygen unite into a molecule, in-
stead of the usual 2, we get ozone (O3).
• The number of atoms constituting a molecule is
Molecules of compounds
known as its atomicity.

• Atoms of different elements join together in

definite proportions to form molecules of com-
pounds. E.g. H2O, CO2, etc.

 Molecule is the general term used to describe

any atoms that are connected by chemical
bonds. 11
 A compound is a molecule made of atoms from
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different elements.
 All compounds are molecules, but not
all molecules are compounds.
 E.g. Hydrogen gas (H2) is a molecule, but
not a compound because it is made of only one
element.
What is an Ion?
• Compounds composed of metals and non-met-
als contain charged species known as ions.
• An ion is a charged particle and can be nega-
tively or positively charged.
• A negatively charged ion is called an ‘anion’
and the positively charged ion, a ‘cation’.
• E.g., The constituent particles of sodium chloride
(NaCl) are positively charged sodium ions (na+)
-
and negatively charged chloride ions (cl ).
• Ions mainly consist of a single charged atom or
a group of atoms that have a net charge on
them.
• A group of atoms carrying a charge is known as
a polyatomic ion.
Writing chemical formulae
• The chemical formula of a compound is a sym-
bolic representation of its composition.
• The combining power (or capacity) of an element
is known as its valency.
• Valency can be used to find out how the atoms
of an element will combine with the atom(s) of
another element to form a chemical compound.
• The valency of the atom of an element can be
thought of as hands or arms of that atom.
The rules that you have to follow while writing a
chemical formula are as follows:
• The valencies or charges on the ion must bal-
ance.
• When a compound consists of a metal and a
non-metal, the name or symbol of the metal is
written first.
• For example: calcium oxide (CaO), sodium chlo-
ride (NaCl), iron sulphide (FeS), copper oxide
(CuO) etc.
• In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the
ion is enclosed in a bracket before writing the
number to indicate the ratio. E.g. Calcium hy-
droxide is Ca(Oh)2 and not CaOh2.
• We use brackets when we have two or more of
the same ions in the formula.
• Here, the bracket around oh with a subscript 2
indicates that there are two hydroxyl (Oh) groups
joined to one calcium atom.
• In other words, there are two atoms each of ox-
ygen and hydrogen in calcium hydroxide.
Atomic mass, Molecular mass and Formula
unit mass
• The most remarkable concept that Dalton’s
Atomic Theory proposed was that of the atomic
mass.
• According to him, each element had a character-
istic atomic mass.
• One atomic mass unit (amu) is a mass unit 12
equal to exactly 1/12th the mass of one atom
of carbon-12.
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• The relative atomic masses of all elements have
been found with respect to an atom of carbon-
12.
• The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of
the atomic masses of all the atoms in a mole-
cule of the substance. It is therefore the relative
 mass of a molecule expressed in atomic mass
units(u).
• The formula unit mass of a substance is a sum
of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula
unit of a compound.
• Formula unit mass is calculated in the same man-
ner as we calculate the molecular mass. The only
difference is that we use the word formula unit
for those substances whose constituent particles
are ions.
• Scientists use the relative atomic mass scale to
compare the masses of different atoms of ele-
ments.
• Atoms of carbon-12 isotopes are assigned a rel-
ative atomic mass of 12 and the relative masses
of all other atoms are obtained by comparison
with the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• The Avogadro Constant 6.022 ×1023 is de-
fined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g
of carbon-12.
• This number is called the Avogadro Constant or
Avogadro Number.
 1 Mole of Carbon = Number of atoms in 12 u
of Carbon = 6.022 ×1023 Carbon Atoms
 1 Mole of Carbon-12 = Number of atoms in
12 u of Carbon-12 = 6.022 ×1023 Carbon-12
Atoms
 1 Mole of Oxygen = Number of atoms in 16

Mole concept u of Oxygen = 6.022 ×1023 Oxygen Atoms

• The quantity of a substance can be characterized

by its mass or the number of molecules.
• But a chemical reaction equation indicates the
number of atoms or molecules taking part in
the reaction.
• Therefore, it is more convenient to refer to the
quantity of a substance in terms of the number
of its molecules or atoms, rather than their
masses. So, a new unit “mole” was introduced.
• One mole of any species (atoms, molecules, ions 13
or particles) is that quantity in number having a
mass equal to its atomic or molecular mass in
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grams.
• The number of particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) present in 1 mole of any substance is fixed, Summary
23
with a value of 6.022 ×10 . This is an experi-
mentally obtained value.
• Law of Conservation of Mass: During a chemi-
cal reaction, the sum of the masses of the re-
actants and products remains unchanged.
• Law of Definite Proportions: In a pure chemi-
cal compound, elements are always present in
a definite proportion by mass.
• An atom is the smallest particle of the element
that can exist independently and retain all its
chemical properties.
2. Structure of The Atom
• It was known by 1900 that the atom was not a
simple, indivisible particle but contained at
least one sub-atomic particle – the electron
identified by J.J. Thomson.
• Even before the electron was identified, E. Gold-
stein discovered the presence of protons which
were positively charged.
• Protons had a charge, equal in magnitude but
opposite in sign to that of the electron.
• Its mass was approximately 2000 times as that of
the electron.
• The mass of an electron is considered to be
negligible and its charge is minus one.
• It seemed likely that an atom was composed of
protons and electrons, mutually balancing their
charges.
• It also appeared that the protons were in the in-
terior of the atom, for whereas electrons could
easily be peeled off but not protons.
• Dalton’s atomic theory suggested that the
atom was indivisible and indestructible.
• But the discovery of two fundamental particles
(electrons and protons) inside the atom, led to
the failure of this aspect of Dalton’s Atomic The-
ory.
• A molecule is the smallest particle of an ele-
ment or a compound capable of independent
existence under ordinary conditions. It shows all
the properties of the substance.
• A chemical formula of a compound shows its
constituent elements and the number of atoms
of each combining element.
• Clusters of atoms that act as an ion are called
polyatomic ions. They carry a fixed charge on
them.
• It was then considered necessary to know how
electrons and protons are arranged within an
atom.
• For explaining this, many scientists proposed
various atomic models.
• J.J. Thomson was the first one to propose a
model for the structure of an atom
Thomson’s Model of an Atom
• J.J. Thomson (1856-1940), was awarded the No-
bel prize in physics for his work on the discovery
of electrons.
• Thomson proposed the model of an atom to be
similar to that of a watermelon.
• The positive charge in the atom is spread all over
like the red edible part of the watermelon, while
the electrons are studded in the positively
14
charged sphere, like the seeds in the watermelon
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Thomson proposed that:
1. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere
and the electrons are embedded in it.
2. The negative and positive charges are equal in
magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral.
• Although Thomson’s model explained that at-
oms are electrically neutral, the results of exper-
iments carried out by other scientists could not
be explained by this model, as we will see below.
Rutherford’s Model of an Atom
• E. Rutherford was known as the ‘father’ of nu-
clear physics.
• He is famous for his work on radioactivity and the
discovery of the nucleus of an atom with the
gold foil experiment. He got the Nobel prize in
chemistry in 1908.
• Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing
how the electrons are arranged within an atom.
• Rutherford designed an experiment for this.
• In this experiment, fast moving alpha (α)-parti-
cles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
• (α)-particles are doubly-charged helium ions.
• Since they have a mass of 4 u, the fast-moving
α-particles have a considerable amount of en-
ergy.
• It was expected that α-particles would be de-
flected by the sub-atomic particles in the gold
atoms.
• Since the α-particles were much heavier than the
protons, he did not expect to see large deflec-
tions.
• But, the α-particle scattering experiment gave
totally unexpected results.
• The following observations were made:
1. Most of the fast-moving α-particles passed
straight through the gold foil.
2. Some of the α-particles were deflected by
the foil by small angles.
3. Surprisingly one out of every 12000 particles
appeared to rebound.
• In the words of Rutherford, “this result was al-
most as incredible as if you fire a 15-inch shell at
a piece of tissue paper and it comes back and
hits you”.
Conclusions drawn from the α-particle scat-
tering experiment
• Most of the space inside the atom is empty
because most of the α-particles passed through
the gold foil without getting deflected.
• Very few particles were deflected from their path,
indicating that the positive charge of the atom
occupies very little space.
• A very small fraction of α-particles were de-
flected indicating that all the positive charge
and mass of the gold atom were concentrated 15
in a very small volume within the atom.
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• From the data he also calculated that the radius
of the nucleus is about 105 times less than the
radius of the atom.
• On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford put
forward the nuclear model of an atom, which
had the following features:
 1. There is a positively charged centre in an
atom called the nucleus.
2. Nearly all the mass of an atom resides in
the nucleus.
3. The electrons revolve around the nucleus
in well-defined orbits.
4. The size of the nucleus is very small as
compared to the size of the atom.
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the
atom
• The orbital revolution of the electron is not ex-
pected to be stable.
• Any particle in a circular orbit would undergo ac-
celeration.
• During acceleration, charged particles would ra-
diate energy.
• Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy
and finally fall into the nucleus.
• If this were so, the atom should be highly unsta-
ble and hence matter would not exist in the form
that we know. We know that atoms are quite
stable.
Neutrons
• In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another suba-
tomic particle which had no charge and a mass
nearly equal to that of a proton. It was eventu-
ally named as neutron.
• Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all at-
oms, except hydrogen.
• In general, a neutron is represented as ‘n’.
• The mass of an atom is therefore given by the
sum of the masses of protons and neutrons
present in the nucleus (The mass of electrons is
quite negligible).
 Electron ➔ J.J. Thomson
 Proton ➔ E. Goldstein
 Neutron ➔ J. Chadwick
 Nucleus ➔ E. Rutherford (father of nuclear
physics)
Atomic Number
• We know that protons are present in the nucleus
of an atom.
• It is the number of protons of an atom, which
determines its atomic number. It is denoted by
‘z’.
• All atoms of an element have the same atomic
number, z.
• In fact, elements are defined by the number of
protons they possess.
• For hydrogen, z = 1, because in hydrogen atom,
only one proton is present in the nucleus.
• Similarly, for carbon, z = 6.
• Therefore, the atomic number is defined as the
total number of protons present in the nu-
cleus of an atom.
Mass Number 16
• After studying the properties of the subatomic
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
particles of an atom, we can conclude that mass
of an atom is practically due to protons and
neutrons alone.
• These are present in the nucleus of an atom.
Hence protons and neutrons are also called nu-
cleons.
• Therefore, the mass of an atom resides in its
nucleus.
• For example, mass of carbon is 12 u because it
has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, 6 u + 6 u = 12 u.
• Similarly, the mass of aluminium is 27 u (13 pro-
tons+14 neutrons).
• The mass number is defined as the sum of the
total number of protons and neutrons pre-
sent in the nucleus of an atom.
• The atomic number, mass number and symbol of
the element are to be written as:
Isotopes
• In nature, a number of atoms of some elements
have been identified, which have the same
atomic number but different mass numbers.
• For example, take the case of hydrogen atom, it
has three atomic species, namely protium
(1H1), deuterium (2H1) and tritium (3H1).
• The atomic number of each one is 1, but the
mass number is 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
• Other such examples are (i) carbon, 12C6 and
14C6 (ii) chlorine, 35Cl17 and 37Cl17, etc.
• On the basis of these examples, isotopes are de-
fined as the atoms of the same element, hav-
ing the same atomic number but different
mass numbers.
• Therefore, we can say that there are three iso-
topes of hydrogen atom, namely protium, deu-
terium and tritium.
• Each isotope of an element is a pure sub-
stance.
• Many elements consist of a mixture of isotopes.
• The chemical properties of isotopes are simi-
lar, but their physical properties are different.
• Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic forms,
with masses 35 u and 37 u in the ratio of 3:1. Ob-
viously, the question arises: what should we take
as the mass of chlorine atom?
• The mass of an atom of any natural element is
taken as the average mass of all the naturally
occurring atoms of that element.
• If an element has no isotopes, then the mass of
its atom would be the same as the sum of pro-
tons and neutrons in it.
• But if an element occurs in isotopic forms, then
we have to know the percentage of each isotopic
form and then the average mass is calculated.
Applications of Isotopes
• Since the chemical properties of all the isotopes
of an element are the same, normally we are not
concerned about taking a mixture.
• But some isotopes have special properties which
find them useful in various fields. Some of them
are:
1. An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in
nuclear reactors.
2. An isotope of cobalt is used in the treat-
ment of cancer.
3. An isotope of iodine is used in the treat-
ment of goitre.
Isobars
• Let us consider two elements — calcium, atomic
17
number 20, and argon, atomic number 18.
• The number of electrons in these atoms is differ-
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
ent, but the mass number of both these elements
is 40.
• That is, the total number of nucleons is the same
in the atoms of this pair of elements.
• Atoms of different elements with different
atomic numbers, which have the same mass
number, are known as isobars.
Bohr’s Model of Atom
• In order to overcome the objections raised
against Rutherford’s model of the atom, Neils
Bohr put forward the following postulates about
the model of an atom:
1. Only certain special orbits known as discrete
orbits of electrons, are allowed inside the
atom
2. While revolving in discrete orbits the elec-
trons do not radiate energy
• These orbits or shells are called energy levels.
Energy levels in an atom are shown in figure be-
low.
• These orbits or shells are represented by the let-
ters k,l,m,n,… or the numbers, n=1,2,3,4,….
How are electrons distributed in different
orbits (shells)?
• The distribution of electrons into different orbits
of an atom was suggested by Bohr and Bury.
• The following rules are followed for writing the
number of electrons in different energy levels or
shells:
1. the maximum number of electrons present in
a shell is given by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’
is the orbit number or energy level index, 1,
2, 3, ….
2. Hence the maximum number of electrons in
different shells are as follows: first orbit or k-
shell will be = 2 ×12 = 2, second orbit or l-
shell will be = 2 ×22 = 8, third orbit or m-shell
will be = 2 × 32 = 18, fourth orbit or n-shell
will be = 2 ×42 = 32, and so on.
3. The maximum number of electrons that can
be accommodated in the outermost orbit is
8.
4. Electrons are not accommodated in a given
shell, unless the inner shells are filled. That is,
the shells are filled in a step-wise manner.
Valency
• The electrons present in the outermost shell of
an atom are known as the valence electrons.
• The outermost shell of an atom can accom-
modate a maximum of 8 electrons.
• It was observed that the atoms of elements, hav-
ing a completely filled outermost shell show
little chemical activity. In other words, their
combining capacity or valency is zero.
• Of these inert elements, the helium atom has
two electrons in its outermost shell and all
other elements have atoms with eight elec-
trons in the outermost shell.
• The combining capacity of the atoms of other el-
ements, that is, their tendency to react and form
molecules, was thus explained as an attempt to
attain a fully-filled outermost shell.
• An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons
was said to possess an octet.
• Atoms would thus react, so as to achieve an octet
in the outermost shell. 18
• This was done by sharing, gaining or losing elec-
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
trons.
• The number of electrons gained, lost or shared
so as to make the octet of electrons in the outer-
most shell, gives us directly the combining ca-
pacity of the element, that is, the valency.
• For example, hydrogen/lithium/sodium atoms
contain one electron each in their outermost
 shell, therefore each one of them can lose one
electron. So, they are said to have valency of one.
• The valency of magnesium and aluminium is two
and three, respectively, because magnesium has
two electrons in its outermost shell and alumin-
ium has three electrons in its outermost shell.
• If the number of electrons in the outermost shell
of an atom is close to its full capacity, then va-
lency is determined in a different way.
• For example, the fluorine atom has 7 electrons in
the outermost shell, and its valency could be 7.
• But it is easier for fluorine to gain one electron
instead of losing seven electrons.
• Hence, its valency is determined by subtracting
seven electrons from the octet and this gives you
a valency of one for fluorine.
• Therefore, an atom of each element has a defi-
nite combining capacity, called its valency.
Summary
• The chemical formula of a molecular compound
is determined by the valency of each element.
• In ionic compounds, the charge on each ion is
used to determine the chemical formula of the
compound.
• Scientists use the relative atomic mass scale to
compare the masses of different atoms of ele-
ments.
• Atoms of carbon-12 isotopes are assigned a
relative atomic mass of 12 and the relative
masses of all other atoms are obtained by com-
parison with the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• The Avogadro constant 6.022 × 1023 is de-
fined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g
of carbon-12.
• The mole is the amount of substance that con-
tains the same number of particles (atoms/
ions/ molecules/ formula units etc.) as there are
atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
• Mass of 1 mole of a substance is called its molar
mass.
• Credit for the discovery of electron and proton
goes to J.J. Thomson and E. Goldstein, respec-
tively.
• J.J. Thomson proposed that electrons are em-
bedded in a positive sphere.
• Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experi-
ment led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus.
• Rutherford’s model of the atom proposed that a
19
very tiny nucleus is present inside the atom and
electrons revolve around this nucleus. The stabil-
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
ity of the atom could not be explained by this
model.
• Neils bohr’s model of the atom was more suc-
cessful. He proposed that electrons are distrib-
uted in different shells with discrete energy
around the nucleus.
• If the atomic shells are complete, then the atom
will be stable and less reactive.
• J. Chadwick discovered presence of neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.
• So, the three sub-atomic particles of an atom are:
(i) electrons, (ii) protons and (iii) neutrons.
• Electrons are negatively charged; protons are
positively charged, and neutrons have no
charges.
• The mass of an electron is about 1/2000 times
the mass of a hydrogen atom.
• The mass of a proton and a neutron is taken as
one unit each.
3. Physical Change & Chemical Change
• Properties such as shape, size, colour and state
of a substance are called its physical properties.
• A change in which a substance undergoes a
change in its physical properties is called a phys-
ical change.
• A physical change is generally reversible. In such
a change no new substance is formed.
• A change in which one or more new substances
are formed is called a chemical change.
• A chemical change is also called a chemical reac-
tion.
• All new substances are formed as a result of
chemical changes.
• For example, if a metal is to be extracted from an
ore, such as iron from iron ore, we need to carry
out a series of chemical changes.
• Useful new materials, such as plastics and deter-
gents, are produced by chemical reactions.
• When carbon dioxide is passed through lime wa-
ter, calcium carbonate is formed, which makes
lime water milky. The turning of lime water
into milky is a standard test of carbon diox-
ide.
• Shells of an atom are designated as k,l,m,n,….
• Valency is the combining capacity of an atom.
• The atomic number of an element is the same
as the number of protons in the nucleus of its
atom.
• The mass number of an atom is equal to the
number of nucleons in its nucleus
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which
have different mass numbers.
• Isobars are atoms having the same mass num-
ber but different atomic numbers.
• Elements are defined by the number of protons
they possess.
Carbon dioxide (CO 2) + Lime water (Ca(OH)2) →
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) + Water (H2O)
• We have seen that one or more new substances
are produce in a chemical change. In addition to
new products, the following may accompany a
chemical change:
✓ Heat, light or any other radiation (ultravio-
let, for example) may be given off or ab-
sorbed.
✓ Sound may be produced.
✓ A change in smell may take place or a new
smell may be given off.
✓ A colour change may take place.
✓ A gas may be formed.
20
Crystallisation – Physical Change
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Take a cupful of water in a beaker and add a few
drops of dilute sulphuric acid. Heat the water.
• When it starts boiling add copper sulphate pow-
der slowly while stirring continuously.
• Continue adding copper sulphate powder till no
more powder can be dissolved. Filter the
 solution. Allow it to cool. Do not disturb the so-
lution when it is cooling. Look at the solution af-
ter some time.
• Large crystals of pure substances can be formed
from their solutions. The process is called crys-
tallisation. It is an example of a physical change.
UPSC CSE Prelims 2014: Which of the following
is/are the example/examples of chemical
change?
1. Crystallization of sodium chloride
2. Melting of ice
3. Souring of milk
Select the correct answer using the code given be-
low.
1) 1 and 2 only
2) 3 only
3) 1, 2 and 3
4) None
Rusting of iron – Chemical Change
• The process of rusting of iron can be represented
by the following equation:
Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2, from the air) + water (H2O)
→ rust (iron oxide Fe2O3)
• For rusting, the presence of both oxygen and
water (or water vapour) is essential.
• In fact, if the content of moisture in air is high,
which means if it is more humid, rusting be-
comes faster.
• So, how do we prevent rusting? Prevent iron ar-
ticles from coming in contact with oxygen, or wa-
ter, or both.
• One simple way is to apply a coat of paint or
grease.
• Another way is to deposit a layer of a metal like
chromium or zinc on iron.
• This process of depositing a layer of zinc on iron
is called galvanisation.
• The iron pipes we use in our homes to carry wa-
ter are galvanised to prevent rusting.
• The saltwater makes the process of rust for-
mation faster.
• Therefore, ships suffer a lot of damage from rust-
ing in spite of being painted.
• Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with car-
bon and metals like chromium, nickel and
manganese. It does not rust.
Questions
• Classify the changes involved in the following
processes as physical or chemical changes: (a)
Photosynthesis (b) Dissolving sugar in water (c)
Burning of coal (d) Melting of wax (e) Beating al-
uminium to make aluminium foil (f) Digestion of
food.
• State whether the following statements are true
or false. In case a statement is false, write the cor-
rected statement in your notebook.
✓ Formation of manure from leaves is a physi-
cal change. (True/False)
✓ Iron pipes coated with zinc do not get rusted
easily. (True/False)
✓ Condensation of steam is not a chemical
change. (True/False)
• When baking soda is mixed with lemon juice,
bubbles are formed with the evolution of a gas.
What type of change is it? 21
• When a candle burns, both physical and chemi-
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
cal changes take place. Identify these changes.
Give another example of a familiar process in
which both the chemical and physical changes
take place.
• How would you show that setting of curd is a
chemical change?
• Explain how painting of an iron gate prevents it
from rusting.
4. Chemical Equations
• Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
• That is, the total mass of the elements present
in the products of a chemical reaction has to
be equal to the total mass of the elements
present in the reactants.
• In other words, the number of atoms of each
element remains the same, before and after a
chemical reaction.
• A skeletal chemical equation for a reaction is
unbalanced because the mass is not the same on
both sides of the equation.
Zinc + Sulphuric acid → Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
• The above word-equation may be represented
by the following chemical equation –
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
• As the number of atoms of each element is the
same on both sides of the arrow, Eq. is a bal-
anced chemical equation.
• To make a chemical equation more informative,
the physical states of the reactants and products
are mentioned along with their chemical formu-
lae.
• The gaseous, liquid, aqueous and solid states of
reactants and products are represented by the
notations (g), (l), (aq) and (s), respectively.
• The word aqueous (aq) is written if the reactant
or product is present as a solution in water.
• Explain why rusting of iron objects is faster in
coastal areas than in deserts
• Sometimes the reaction conditions, such as tem-
perature, pressure, catalyst, etc., for the reaction
are indicated above and/or below the arrow in
the equation. For example –
Types of chemical reactions
• During a chemical reaction, atoms of one ele-
ment do not change into those of another el-
ement.
• Nor do atoms disappear from the mixture or
appear from elsewhere.
• Actually, chemical reactions involve the break-
ing and making of bonds between atoms to
produce new substances.
Combination Reaction
• Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to
produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) releas-
ing a large amount of heat.
CaO(s) (Quick lime) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
(Slaked lime) + Heat 22
• In this reaction, calcium oxide and water com-
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
bine to form a single product, calcium hydroxide.
• Such a reaction in which a single product is
formed from two or more reactants is known
as a combination reaction.
• Reactions in which heat is released along with • This is due to the decomposition of silver chlo-
the formation of products are called exothermic ride into silver and chlorine by light.
chemical reactions. • Silver bromide also behaves in the same way.
• Examples of exothermic reactions are – Burning
of natural gas CH 4(g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) +
2H2O (g), Respiration & Decomposition of
• The above reactions are used in black and white
vegetable matter into compost.
photography.

Decomposition Reaction • We have seen that the decomposition reactions

require energy either in the form of heat, light or
electricity for breaking down the reactants.
• Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known
as endothermic reactions.
• In this reaction you can observe that a single re- • The temperature of water decreases when Urea
actant breaks down to give simpler products. is added to water. The process is endothermic.
This is a decomposition reaction.
• Decomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium Displacement Reaction
oxide and carbon dioxide on heating is an im-
portant decomposition reaction used in various
industries.
• Calcium oxide is called lime or quick lime. It
has many uses – one is in the manufacture of ce-
ment.
• When a decomposition reaction is carried out by
heating, it is called thermal decomposition.

23
PMF IAS – Learn Smart

• Why does the iron nail become brownish in col-

our and the blue colour of copper sulphate solu-
tion fade?
• The following chemical reaction takes place –
• White silver chloride turns grey in sunlight.
• In this reaction, iron has displaced or removed
another element, copper, from copper sulphate
solution. This reaction is known as displacement
reaction.
• Other examples of displacement reactions are
• Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than
copper. They displace copper from its com-
pounds.
Double Displacement Reaction
• Take about 3 mL of sodium sulphate solution in
a test tube.
• In another test tube, take about 3 mL of barium
chloride solution. Mix the two solutions.
• You will observe that a white substance, which is
insoluble in water, is formed.
• This insoluble substance formed is known as a
precipitate.
• Any reaction that produces a precipitate can be
called a precipitation reaction.
• What causes this? The white precipitate of BaSO4
is formed by the reaction of 2–SO4 and Ba2+.
• The other product formed is sodium chloride
which remains in the solution.
• Such reactions in which there is an exchange of
ions between the reactants are called double
displacement reactions.
Oxidation and Reduction
• Heat a china dish containing about 1 g copper
powder
• The surface of copper powder becomes coated
with black copper(II) oxide.
• This is because oxygen is added to copper and
copper oxide is formed.
• If hydrogen gas is passed over this heated mate-
rial (CuO), the black coating on the surface turns
brown as the reverse reaction takes place and
copper is obtained.
• If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction,
it is said to be oxidised.
• If a substance loses oxygen during a reaction,
it is said to be reduced.
• During this reaction, the copper(II) oxide is losing
oxygen and is being reduced. The hydrogen is
gaining oxygen and is being oxidised.
• In other words, one reactant gets oxidised
while the other gets reduced during a reac-
tion. Such reactions are called oxidation-reduc-
tion reactions or redox reactions.
• Some other examples of redox reactions are:
24
• In reaction above, carbon is oxidised to CO and
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
ZnO is reduced to Zn.
• In reaction above, HCl is oxidised to Cl2 whereas
MnO2 is reduced to MnCl2.
• From the above examples we can say that
 ✓ if a substance gains oxygen or loses hy-
drogen during a reaction, it is oxidised.
✓ If a substance loses oxygen or gains hy-
drogen during a reaction, it is reduced.
The effects of oxidation reactions in every-
day life
Corrosion
• When a metal is attacked by substances around
it such as moisture, acids, etc., it is said to cor-
rode, and this process is called corrosion.
• The black coating on silver and the green coating
on copper are other examples of corrosion.
• Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges,
iron railings, ships and to all objects made of
metals, especially those of iron. Corrosion of iron
is a serious problem.
Rancidity
• Have you ever tasted or smelt the fat/oil contain-
ing food materials left for a long time?
• When fats and oils are oxidised, they become
rancid and their smell and taste change.
• Usually substances which prevent oxidation (an-
tioxidants) are added to foods containing fats
and oil.
• Keeping food in airtight containers helps to
slow down oxidation.
• Do you know that chips manufacturers usually
flush bags of chips with gas such as nitrogen to
prevent the chips from getting oxidised?
• This is because Nitrogen gas is an inert gas with
low reactivity compared to O2.
Electric Current & Chemical Reactions
• In 1800, a British chemist, William Nicholson
(1753–1815), had shown that if electrodes were
immersed in water, and a current was passed,
bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen were pro-
duced.
• Oxygen bubbles formed on the electrode con-
nected to the positive terminal of the battery and
hydrogen bubbles formed on the other elec-
trode.
Positive Terminal → Anode → Oxygen
Negative Terminal → Cathode → Hydrogen
• The passage of an electric current through a con-
ducting solution causes chemical reactions.
• As a result, bubbles of a gas may be formed on
the electrodes.
• Deposits of metal may be seen on electrodes.
• Changes of colour of solutions may occur.
• The reaction would depend on what solution and
electrodes are used.
• These are some of the chemical effects of the
electric current.
• When electric current is passed through the cop-
per sulphate solution, copper sulphate dissoci-
ates into copper and sulphate.
• The free copper gets drawn to the electrode con- 25
nected to the negative terminal of the battery
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
and gets deposited on it. But what about the loss
of copper from the solution?
• From the other electrode, a copper plate, an
equal amount of copper gets dissolved in the so-
lution.
• Thus, the loss of copper from the solution is re-
stored and the process keeps going. This means
 that copper gets transferred from one electrode
to the other.
• The process of depositing a layer of any de-
sired metal on another material by means of
electricity is called electroplating.
• It is one of the most common applications of
chemical effects of electric current.
• Electroplating is a very useful process. It is widely
used in industry for coating metal objects with a
thin layer of a different metal.
• The layer of metal deposited has some desired
property, which the metal of the object lacks.
• For example, chromium plating is done on
many objects such as car parts, bath taps, kitchen
gas burners, bicycle handlebars, wheel rims and
many others.
• Chromium has a shiny appearance. It does not
corrode. It resists scratches.
• However, chromium is expensive, and it may not
be economical to make the whole object out of
chromium.
• So, the object is made from a cheaper metal and
only a coating of chromium over it is deposited.
• Jewellery makers electroplate silver and gold on
less expensive metals. These ornaments have the
appearance of silver or gold but are much less
expensive.
• Tin cans, used for storing food, are made by
electroplating tin onto iron. Tin is less reactive
than iron.
• Thus, food does not come into contact with iron
and is protected from getting spoilt
• Iron is used in bridges and automobiles to pro-
vide strength. However, iron tends to corrode
and rust.
• So, a coating of zinc is deposited on iron to
protect it from corrosion and formation of
rust.
• In the electroplating factories the disposal of the
used conducting solution is a major concern.
Summary
• A complete chemical equation represents the re-
actants, products and their physical states sym-
bolically.
• A chemical equation is balanced so that the
numbers of atoms of each type involved in a
chemical reaction are the same on the reactant
and product sides of the equation. Equations
must always be balanced.
• In a combination reaction two or more sub-
stances combine to form a new single substance.
• Decomposition reactions are opposite to com-
bination reactions.
• In a decomposition reaction, a single substance
decomposes to give two or more substances.
• Reactions in which heat is given out along with
the products are called exothermic reactions.
• Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known
as endothermic reactions.
• When an element displaces another element
from its compound, a displacement reaction
occurs.
• Two different atoms or groups of atoms (ions)
are exchanged in double displacement reac-
tions.
• Precipitation reactions produce insoluble salts.
• Reactions also involve the gain or loss of oxygen
or hydrogen by substances.
• Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hy-
drogen.
26
• Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of hy-
drogen.
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Questions
• Which of the statements about the reaction be-
low are incorrect? 2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) +
CO2(g)
a) Lead is getting reduced.
 b) Carbon dioxide is getting oxidised.
c) Carbon is getting oxidised.
d) Lead oxide is getting reduced.
(i) (a) and (b) (ii) (a) and (c) (iii) (a), (b) and (c) (iv) all
• Fe2O3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + 2Fe. The reaction is an ex-
ample of a
a) combination reaction.
b) double displacement reaction.
c) decomposition reaction.
d) displacement reaction.
• What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is
added to iron fillings? Tick the correct answer.
a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are pro-
duced.
b) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are pro-
duced.
c) No reaction takes place.
d) Iron salt and water are produced
• Translate the following statements into chemical
equations and then balance them.
a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to
form ammonia.
b) Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to give
water and sulphur dioxide
c) Barium chloride reacts with aluminium sul-
phate to give aluminium chloride and a pre-
cipitate of barium sulphate.
5. Acids, Bases and Salts
• Curd, lemon juice, vinegar, etc. taste sour be-
cause they contain acids.
• The chemical nature of such substances is acidic.
• Each cell in our body contains an acid, the deox-
yribonucleic acid or DNA.
• It controls every feature of the body such as our
looks, colour of our eyes, our height etc.
d) Potassium metal reacts with water to give
potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
• Hydrogen, it is colourless, odourless and
combustible. The gas obtained by GROUP II is
hydrogen sulphide. It is a colourless gas with
the smell of rotten eggs.
• What does one mean by exothermic and endo-
thermic reactions? Give examples.
• Why is respiration considered an exothermic re-
action? Explain.
• Why are decomposition reactions called the op-
posite of combination reactions? Write equa-
tions for these reactions.
• Write one equation each for decomposition re-
actions where energy is supplied in the form of
heat, light or electricity.
• What is the difference between displacement
and double displacement reactions? Write equa-
tions for these reactions.
• What do you mean by a precipitation reaction?
Explain by giving examples.
• Explain the following in terms of gain or loss of
oxygen with two examples each. (a) Oxidation (b)
Reduction
• Why do we apply paint on iron articles?
• Oil and fat containing food items are flushed
with nitrogen. Why?
• Explain the following terms with one example
each. (a) Corrosion (b) Rancidity
27
• Proteins that build part of our cells are also
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
made of amino acids.
• The fats in our body contain fatty acids.
• The atmosphere of Venus is made up of thick
white & yellowish clouds of sulphuric acid.
• Venus is bright (it has a high albedo) because
it is blanketed by highly reflective sulphuric
acid clouds.
• Baking soda does not taste sour as it has no acids
in it. It is bitter in taste. Substances like these
which are bitter in taste and feel soapy on
touching are known as bases. The nature of such
substances is basic.
Acid rain
• When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is
called acid rain.
• The rain becomes acidic because
1. carbon dioxide,
2. sulphur dioxide (released by the combus-
tion of coal or diesel) and
3. nitrogen dioxide (released by the com-
bustion of petrol) (which are released into
the air as pollutants)
• dissolve in rain drops to form
1. carbonic acid,
2. sulphuric acid and
3. nitric acid respectively.
• Acid rain can cause damage to buildings, histor-
ical monuments, plants and animals.
Indicators
• Indicators are special type of substances used to
test whether a substance is acidic or basic.
• Turmeric, litmus, red cabbage leaves, China
rose petals (Gudhal), etc., are some of the nat-
urally occurring indicators.
Litmus: A natural dye
• The most commonly used natural indicator is lit-
mus. It is extracted from lichens.
• A lichen is a composite organism that emerges
from algae or cyanobacteria (or both) living
among filaments of a fungus in a mutually
28
beneficial (symbiotic) relationship.
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
 Lichen ➔ Symbiotic relationship of Algae &
Fungus (previous prelims question)
• Litmus solution has a mauve (purple) colour in
distilled water.
• When added to an acidic solution, it turns red
and when added to a basic solution, it turns
blue.
 • The metal in the above reactions displaces hy-
drogen from the acids. This is seen as hydro-
gen gas.
• The metal combines with the remaining part of
the acid and forms a compound called a salt.
• Thus, the reaction of a metal with an acid can be
summarised as

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas

• The solutions which do not change the colour of
either red or blue litmus are known as neutral How do Metal Carbonates & Metal Hydro-
solutions. gen carbonates React with Acids?

Phenolpthalein

• Phenolpthalein and methyl orange are syn-

thetic indicators.
• When the solution is basic, phenolphthalein
gives a pink colour.
• On the other hand, when the solution is
acidic, it remains colourless.
 Acidic ➔ Litmus solution turns RED
 Basic ➔ Litmus solution turns BLUE
 Acids ➔ Change the colour of blue litmus to
RED
 Bases ➔ Change the colour of the red litmus
to BLUE
 Acidic ➔ Phenolphthalein gives No Colour • Limestone, chalk and marble are different forms
 Basic ➔ Phenolphthalein gives PINK Colour of calcium carbonate.
• All metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
How do Acids React with Metals?
react with acids to give a corresponding salt,
carbon dioxide and water.
29
• Thus, the reaction can be summarised as –
PMF IAS – Learn Smart

Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogen carbonate +

Acid → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water

Preparing a soda-acid fire extinguisher

• The reaction of acids with metal hydrogen car-

bonates is used in the fire extinguishers which
produce carbon dioxide.

Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids
• Take a small amount of copper oxide in a beaker
and add dilute hydrochloric acid slowly while
stirring.
• You will notice that the colour of the solution be-
comes blue-green and the copper oxide dis-
solves.
• The blue-green colour of the solution is due to
the formation of copper(II) chloride in the reac-
tion.
• The general reaction between a metal oxide and
an acid can be written as –
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
How do acids react with bases (Neutralisa-
tion)?
• When an acid solution and a base solution are
mixed in suitable amounts, both the acidic na-
ture of the acid and the basic nature of the base
are destroyed. The resulting solution is neither
acidic nor basic.
• In neutralization reaction, heat is always pro-
duced. The evolved heat raises the temperature
of the reaction mixture. (Exothermic Reaction)
• In neutralization reaction a new substance is
formed. This is called salt.
• Salt may be acidic, basic or neutral in nature.
Thus, neutralisation can be defined as follows:
• The reaction between an acid and a base is
known as neutralisation. Salt and water are pro-
duced in this process with the evolution of heat.
• Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) + Sodium hy-
droxide (NaOH) ⟶ Sodium chloride (NaCl) +
Water (H2O)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• In the above reaction, we see that the effect of a
base is nullified by an acid and vice-versa.
• In general, a neutralisation reaction can be writ-
ten as –
Base + Acid → Salt + Water
Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base
• Calcium hydroxide, which is a base, reacts with
carbon dioxide to produce a salt and water.
• Since this is similar to the reaction between a
base and an acid, we can conclude that non-
metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
Uses of Neutralization
Indigestion
• Our stomach contains hydrochloric acid. It helps
us to digest food.
• But too much of acid in the stomach causes indi-
gestion.
• To relieve indigestion, we take an antacid (base)
such as milk of magnesia, which contains mag- 30
nesium hydroxide. It neutralizes the effect of
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
excessive acid.
Ant sting
• The sting of an ant contains formic acid.
• When an ant bites, it injects the acidic liquid into
the skin.
• The effect of the sting can be neutralized by rub-
bing moist baking soda (sodium hydrogen
carbonate; baking soda → Sodium bicar-
bonate) or calamine solution, which contains
zinc carbonate.
Soil treatment
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers makes the
soil acidic.
• Plants do not grow well when the soil is either
too acidic or too basic.
• The pH range of 5.5 to 7.0 is highly suitable for
plant growth.
• When the soil is too acidic, it is treated with bases
like quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide).
• If the soil is basic, organic matter is added to it.
• Organic matter releases acids which neutralises
the basic nature of the soil.
What do all acids and all bases have in com-
mon?
• Glucose and alcohol solutions do not conduct
electricity.
• But the bulb will start glowing in the case of ac-
ids, as shown in Fig. 2.3.
• Glowing of the bulb indicates that there is a flow
of electric current through the solution.
• The electric current is carried through the solu-
tion by ions.
• Since the cation present in acids is H+, this sug-
gests that acids produce hydrogen ions,
H+(aq), in solution, which are responsible for
their acidic properties.
What Happens to an Acid or a Base in a Wa-
ter Solution?
• Hydrogen ions in HCl are produced in the pres-
ence of water.
• The separation of H+ ion from HCl molecules
cannot occur in the absence of water.
• Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they
exist after combining with water molecules.
• Thus, hydrogen ions must always be shown as
H+(aq) or hydronium ion (H3O+).
• We have seen that acids give H3O+ or H+(aq)
ion in water.
• Let us see what happens when a base is dissolved
in water.
31
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Bases generate hydroxide (OH–) ions in water.
• All bases do not dissolve in water. Bases which
are soluble in water are called alkalis.
• Alkalis are soapy to touch, bitter and corrosive.
• Now as we have identified that all acids gener-
+ –
ate H (aq) and all bases generate OH (aq), we
can view the neutralisation reaction as follows –
• The process of dissolving an acid or a base in
water is a highly exothermic one.
• Care must be taken while mixing concentrated
nitric acid or sulphuric acid with water.
• The acid must always be added slowly to water
with constant stirring.
• Mixing an acid or base with water results in de-
+ –
crease in the concentration of ions (H3O /OH )
per unit volume.
• Such a process is called dilution and the acid, or
the base is said to be diluted.
How strong are acid or base solutions?
• The strength of acids and bases depends on
the number of H+ ions and OH– ions pro-
duced, respectively.
• If we take hydrochloric acid and acetic acid of the
same concentration, say one molar, then these
produce different amounts of hydrogen ions.
• Acids that give rise to more H+ ions are said to
be strong acids, and acids that give less H+ ions
are said to be weak acids.
• The universal indicator shows different colours at
different concentrations of hydrogen ions in a
solution.
• A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentra-
tion in a solution, called pH scale has been de-
veloped.
• The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, mean-
ing power.
• On the pH scale we can measure pH from 0
(very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).
• pH should be thought of simply as a number
which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a so-
lution.
• Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower
is the pH value.
• The pH of a neutral solution is 7.
• Values less than 7 on the pH scale represent an
acidic solution.
• As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it repre-
sents an increase in OH– ion concentration in
the solution, that is, increase in the strength of
alkali.
• Generally, paper impregnated with the universal
indicator is used for measuring pH.
Importance of pH in Everyday
• Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to
7.8.
• Living organisms can survive only in a narrow
32
range of pH change.
• When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
called acid rain.
• When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers the
pH of the river water.
• The survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes
difficult.
pH in our digestive system
• It is very interesting to note that our stomach
produces hydrochloric acid.
• It helps in the digestion of food without harming
the stomach.
• During indigestion the stomach produces too
much acid and this causes pain and irritation.
• To get rid of this pain, people use bases called
antacids.
• These antacids neutralise the excess acid.
• Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of magnesia), a
mild base, is often used for this purpose.
pH change as the cause of tooth decay
• Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth
is lower than 5.5.
• Tooth enamel made up of calcium phosphate
is the hardest substance in the body.
• It does not dissolve in water but is corroded
when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5.
• Bacteria produce acids by degradation of sugar
and food particles remaining in the mouth after
eating.
• The best way to prevent this is to clean the
mouth after eating food.
• Using toothpastes, which are generally basic, for
cleaning the teeth can neutralise the excess acid
and prevent tooth decay.
Self-defence by animals and plants through
chemical warfare
• Have you ever been stung by a honey-bee? Bee-
sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irrita-
tion.
• Use of a mild base like baking soda on the stung
area gives relief.
• Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic
acid causing burning pain.
Nature provides neutralisation options
• Nettle is a herbaceous plant which grows in the
wild. Its leaves have stinging hair, which cause
painful stings when touched accidentally. This is
due to the methanoic acid secreted by them.
• A traditional remedy is rubbing the area with the
leaf of the dock plant, which often grows beside
the nettle in the wild.
More about salts
• Potassium sulphate, sodium sulphate, calcium
sulphate, magnesium sulphate, copper sulphate,
sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, sodium car-
bonate and ammonium chloride are examples
for salts.
• Salts having the same positive or negative radi-
cals are said to belong to a family.
• For example, NaCl and Na2SO4 belong to the
family of sodium salts.
• Similarly, NaCl and KCl belong to the family of
chloride salts.
pH of Salts
 Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are
neutral with pH value of 7.
 Salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic
with pH value less than 7.
 Salts of a strong base and weak acid are basic
in nature, with pH value more than 7.
Common Salt
33
• The combination of hydrochloric acid and so-
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
dium hydroxide solution is called sodium chlo-
ride.
• Seawater contains many salts dissolved in it. So-
dium chloride is separated from these salts.
• Deposits of solid salt are also found in several
parts of the world. These large crystals are often
brown due to impurities. This is called rock salt.
• Beds of rock salt were formed when seas of by-
gone ages dried up. Rock salt is mined like coal.
• The common salt thus obtained is an important
raw material for various materials of daily use,
such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, wash-
ing soda, bleaching powder and many more.
• Let us see how one substance is used for making
all these different substances.
Sodium hydroxide
• When electricity is passed through an aqueous
solution of sodium chloride (called brine), it de-
composes to form sodium hydroxide.
• The process is called the chlor-alkali process
because of the products formed– chlor for chlo-
rine and alkali for sodium hydroxide.
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
• Chlorine gas is given off at the anode, and hy-
drogen gas at the cathode.
• Sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the
cathode.
• The three products produced in this process are
all useful.
Bleaching powder (Calcium hypochlorite)
• You have already come to know that chlorine is
produced during the electrolysis of aqueous so-
dium chloride.
• This chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of
bleaching powder.
• Bleaching powder is produced by the action of
chlorine on dry slaked lime (Ca(OH)2).
• Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2,
though the actual composition is quite complex.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
• Bleaching powder is used – (i) for bleaching cot-
ton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching
wood pulp in paper factories and for bleaching
washed clothes in laundry; (ii) as an oxidising
agent in many chemical industries; and (iii) for
disinfecting drinking water to make it free of
germs.
Baking soda (Sodium hydrogen carbonate)
• The soda commonly used in the kitchen for mak-
ing tasty crispy pakoras is baking soda.
• Sometimes it is added for faster cooking.
• The chemical name of the compound is sodium
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3).
• It is produced using sodium chloride as one of
the raw materials.
• It is a mild non-corrosive base.
Uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)
34
• Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda and
a mild edible acid such as tartaric acid.
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• When baking powder is heated or mixed in wa-
ter, the following reaction takes place –
• Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction
causes bread or cake to rise making them soft
and spongy.
• Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredi-
ent in antacids.
• Being alkaline, it neutralises excess acid in the
stomach and provides relief.
• It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
Washing soda (Sodium carbonate)
• Another chemical that can be obtained from so-
dium chloride is Na2CO3.10H2O (washing soda).
• Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating
baking soda; recrystallisation of sodium car-
bonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt.
Uses of washing soda
• Sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen car-
bonate are useful chemicals for many industrial
processes.
• Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in
glass, soap and paper industries.
• It is used in the manufacture of sodium com-
pounds such as borax.
• Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning
agent for domestic purposes.
• It is used for removing permanent hardness of
water.
Are the crystals of salt really dry?
• Copper sulphate crystals which seem to be dry
contain water of crystallisation.
• When we heat the crystals, this water is removed,
and the salt turns white.
• If you moisten the crystals again with water, you
will find that blue colour of the crystals reap-
pears.
• Chemical formula for hydrated copper sulphate
is Cu SO4. 5H2O.
• Similarly, the molecule of Na2CO3.10H2O is wet.
• One other salt, which possesses water of crystal-
lisation is gypsum.
• It has two water molecules as water of crystalli-
sation.
• Let us look into the use of this salt.
Plaster of Paris
• On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water mol-
ecules and becomes calcium sulphate hemihy-
drate.
• This is called Plaster of Paris, the substance
which doctors use as plaster for supporting
fractured bones in the right position.
• Plaster of Paris is a white powder and on mixing
with water, it changes to gypsum once again
giving a hard solid mass.
Summary
• Acids are sour in taste. Bases are bitter in taste
and soapy to touch.
• Acid turns blue litmus red. Bases turn red lit-
mus blue.
• Substances which are neither acidic nor basic are
called neutral.
• Mixing concentrated acids or bases with water is
a highly exothermic process.
• Acids and bases neutralise each other to form
corresponding salts and water.
• A salt may be acidic, basic or neutral in nature.
35
• Acid-base indicators are dyes or mixtures of dyes
which are used to indicate the presence of acids
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
and bases.
• Acidic nature of a substance is due to the for-
mation of H+(aq) ions in solution.
• Formation of OH–(aq) ions in solution is respon-
sible for the basic nature of a substance.
• When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen gas
is evolved, and a corresponding salt is formed.
• When a base reacts with a metal, along with the
evolution of hydrogen gas a salt is formed
which has a negative ion composed of the metal
and oxygen.
• When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate or
metal hydrogen carbonate, it gives the corre-
sponding salt, carbon dioxide gas and water.
• Acidic and basic solutions in water conduct
electricity because they produce hydrogen
and hydroxide ions respectively.
• The strength of an acid or an alkali can be tested
by using a scale called the pH scale (0-14) which
gives the measure of hydrogen ion concentra-
tion in a solution.
• A neutral solution has a pH of exactly 7, while
an acidic solution has a pH less than 7 and a
basic solution a pH more than 7.
• Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of
water molecules chemically attached to each for-
mula unit of a salt in its crystalline form.
Questions
• Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false:
1. Nitric acid turns red litmus blue. (T/F)
2. Sodium hydroxide turns blue litmus red. (T/F)
3. Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
neutralise each other and form salt and wa-
ter. (T/F)
4. Indicator is a substance which shows differ-
ent colours in acidic and basic solutions. (T/F)
5. Tooth decay is caused by the presence of a
base. (T/F)
• Ammonia is found in many household products,
such as window cleaners. It turns red litmus blue.
What is its nature?
• Explain why:
1. An antacid tablet is taken when you suffer
from acidity.
2. Calamine solution is applied on the skin
when an ant bites.
3. Factory waste is neutralised before disposing
it into the water bodies.
• Blue litmus paper is dipped in a solution. It re-
mains blue. What is the nature of the solution?
Consider the following statements:
a) Both acids and bases change colour of all in-
dicators.
b) If an indicator gives a colour change with an
acid, it does not give a change with a base.
c) If an indicator changes colour with a base, it
does not change colour with an acid.
d) Change of colour in an acid and a base de-
pends on the type of the indicator.
Which of these statements are correct?
(i) All four (ii) a and d (iii) b and c (iv) only d
• Why do HCl, HNO3, etc., show acidic characters
in aqueous solutions while solutions of com-
pounds like alcohol and glucose do not show
acidic character?
• Why does an aqueous solution of an acid con-
duct electricity?
• While diluting an acid, why is it recommended
that the acid should be added to water and not
water to the acid?
• How is the concentration of hydronium ions
(H3O+) affected when a solution of an acid is di-
luted? 36
• How is the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH–
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
) affected when excess base is dissolved in a so-
lution of sodium hydroxide?
• Why should curd and sour substances not be
kept in brass and copper vessels?
• Which gas is usually liberated when an acid re-
acts with a metal?
• You have two solutions, A and B. The pH of solu-
tion A is 6 and pH of solution B is 8. Which solu-
tion has more hydrogen ion concentration?
Which of this is acidic and which one is basic?
• What effect does the concentration of H+(aq)
ions have on the nature of the solution?
• Do basic solutions also have H+(aq) ions? If yes,
then why are these basic?
• Under what soil condition do you think a farmer
would treat the soil of his fields with quick lime
(calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydrox-
ide) or chalk (calcium carbonate)?
• A solution turns red litmus blue, its pH is likely to
be (a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 10
• A solution reacts with crushed egg-shells to give
a gas that turns lime-water milky. The solution
contains (a) NaCl (b) HCl (c) LiCl (d) KCl
• Which one of the following types of medicines is
used for treating indigestion? (a) Antibiotic (b)
Analgesic (c) Antacid (d) Antiseptic
6. Metals and Non-metals
• There are no more than 92 naturally occurring
elements.
• An important classification of elements is in
terms of metals and non-metals.
• Most of the elements are metals. Less than 20
are non-metals.
• A few are metalloids which possess characters
of both metals and non-metals.
• The property of metals by which they can be
beaten into thin sheets is called malleability.
• The property of metal by which it can be drawn
into wires is called ductility.
• Compounds such as alcohols and glucose also
contain hydrogen but are not categorised as ac-
ids. Why?
• Why does distilled water not conduct electricity,
whereas rainwater does?
• Why do acids not show acidic behaviour in the
absence of water?
• Five solutions A,B,C,D and E when tested with
universal indicator showed pH as 4,1,11,7 and 9,
respectively. Which solution is (a) neutral? (b)
strongly alkaline? (c) strongly acidic? (d) weakly
acidic? (e) weakly alkaline?
• Fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think the
pH will change as it turns into curd? Explain your
answer.
• A milkman adds a very small amount of baking
soda to fresh milk. (a) Why does he shift the pH
of the fresh milk from 6 to slightly alkaline? (b)
Why does this milk take a long time to set as
curd?
• Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture-
proof container. Explain why?
• Gold is the most ductile metal. A wire of about
2 km length can be drawn from one gram of
gold.
• It is because of their malleability and ductility
that metals can be given different shapes.
• Since metals produce ringing sounds, they are 37
said to be sonorous.
• Sodium metal is very reactive. It reacts vigor-
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
ously with oxygen and water.
• A lot of heat is generated in the reaction. It is,
therefore, stored in kerosene.
• Generally, non-metals do not react with water
though they may be very reactive in air.
• Such non-metals are stored in water. For exam-
ple, phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal.
• It catches fire if exposed to air. Hence it is stored
in water.
• Non-metals generally do not react with acids,
but metals react with acids and produce hydro-
gen gas that burns with a ‘pop’ sound.
• On burning, metals react with oxygen to pro-
duce metal oxides which are basic in nature.
• Non-metals react with oxygen to produce
non-metallic oxides which are acidic in nature.
• Most non-metals produce acidic oxides when
dissolved in water.
• On the other hand, most metals, give rise to
basic oxides.
• Metals are good conductors of heat and have
high melting points.
• The best conductors of heat are silver and cop-
per.
• Lead and mercury are comparatively poor con-
ductors of heat.
• Metals have high melting points, but gallium
and caesium have very low melting points.
• These two metals will melt if you keep them on
your palm.
• Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) are
so soft that they can be cut with a knife.
• They have low densities and low melting points.
• Mercury is the only metal which is found in liq-
uid state at room temperature. These are excep-
tions.
• Iodine is a non-metal, but it is lustrous.
Chemical properties of metals
What happens when Metals are burnt in Air?
• Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form
metal oxides.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
• For example, when copper is heated in air, it
combines with oxygen to form copper(II) oxide,
a black oxide.
2Cu + O 2 → 2CuO (Copper) (Copper(II) oxide)
• Metal oxides are basic in nature.
• But some metal oxides, such as aluminium oxide,
zinc oxide, etc., show both acidic as well as basic
behaviour.
• Such metal oxides which react with both acids as
well as bases to produce salts and water are
known as amphoteric oxides.
• Most metal oxides are insoluble in water but
some of these dissolve in water to form alka-
lis.
• All metals do not react with oxygen at the same
rate.
• Metals such as potassium and sodium react so
vigorously that they catch fire if kept in the open.
• Hence, to protect them and to prevent accidental
fires, they are kept immersed in kerosene oil.
• At ordinary temperature, the surfaces of metals
such as magnesium, aluminium, zinc, lead, etc.,
are covered with a thin layer of oxide. The pro-
tective oxide layer prevents the metal from
further oxidation.
• Iron does not burn on heating, but iron filings
burn vigorously when sprinkled in the flame of
the burner.
• Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even
at high temperatures. 38
• Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide
layer of aluminium.
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• This aluminium oxide coat makes it resistant to
further corrosion.
• During anodising, a clean aluminium article is
made the anode and is electrolysed with dilute
sulphuric acid.
• The oxygen gas evolved at the anode reacts with
aluminium to make a thicker protective oxide
layer.
• This oxide layer can be dyed easily to give alu-
minium articles an attractive finish.
What happens when Metals react with Wa-
ter?
• Metals react with water and produce a metal ox-
ide and hydrogen gas.
• Metal oxides that are soluble in water dissolve in
it to further form metal hydroxide.
• But all metals do not react with water.
Metal + Water → Metal oxide + Hydrogen
Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide
• In case of sodium and potassium, the reaction
is so violent and exothermic that the evolved hy-
drogen immediately catches fire.
• The reaction of calcium with water is less violent.
The heat evolved is not sufficient for the hydro-
gen to catch fire.
• Calcium starts floating because the bubbles
of hydrogen gas formed stick to the surface of
the metal.
• Magnesium does not react with cold water. It re-
acts with hot water to form magnesium hydrox-
ide and hydrogen. It also starts floating due to
the bubbles of hydrogen gas sticking to its
surface.
• Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not re-
act either with cold or hot water.
• But they react with steam to form the metal ox-
ide and hydrogen.
• Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold do
not react with water at all.
What happens when Metals react with Ac-
ids?
• Metals react with acids and produce metal salts
and hydrogen gas.
Metal + Dilute acid → Salt + Hydrogen
• Hydrogen gas is not evolved when a metal reacts
with nitric acid.
• It is because HNO3 is a strong oxidising agent.
• It oxidises the H2 produced to water and itself
gets reduced to any of the nitrogen oxides.
• But magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) react
with very dilute HNO3 to evolve H2 gas.
• The reactivity decreases in the order Mg > Al >
Zn > Fe.
• Aqua regia, (Latin for ‘royal water’) is a freshly
prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric
acid and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of
3:1.
• It can dissolve gold, even though neither of
these acids can do so alone.
• Aqua regia is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid.
• It is one of the few reagents that is able to dis-
solve gold and platinum.
How do Metals react with Solutions of other
Metal Salts?
• Reactive metals can displace less reactive
metals from their compounds in solution or
molten form.
• All metals are not equally reactive.
• Displacement reactions studied earlier give bet-
ter evidence about the reactivity of metals. 39
• It is simple and easy if metal A displaces metal B
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from its solution, it is more reactive than B
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A +
Metal B
The Reactivity Series
• The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged
in the order of their decreasing activities.
• After performing displacement experiments, the
following series, known as the reactivity or activ-
ity series has been developed.
How do metals and non-metals react?
• We learnt that noble gases, which have a com-
pletely filled valence shell, show little chemical
activity.
• We, therefore, explain the reactivity of elements
as a tendency to attain a completely filled va-
lence shell.
• Sodium and chloride ions, being oppositely
charged, attract each other and are held by
strong electrostatic forces of attraction to exist
as sodium chloride (NaCl).
• Sodium chloride does not exist as molecules but
aggregates of oppositely charged ions.
• The compounds formed in this manner by the
transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-
metal are known as ionic compounds or elec-
trovalent compounds.
Properties of Ionic Compounds
Physical nature
• Ionic compounds are solids and are somewhat
hard because of the strong force of attraction
between the positive and negative ions.
• These compounds are generally brittle and break
into pieces when pressure is applied.
Melting and Boiling points
40
• Ionic compounds have high melting and boil-
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ing points (because of the strong force of at-
traction).
• This is because a considerable amount of energy
is required to break the strong inter-ionic attrac-
tion.
Solubility
• Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble
in water & insoluble in solvents such as kero-
sene & petrol.
Conduction of Electricity
• The conduction of electricity through a solution
involves the movement of charged particles.
• A solution of an ionic compound in water con-
tains ions, which move to the opposite elec-
trodes when electricity is passed through the so-
lution.
• Ionic compounds in the solid state do not
conduct electricity because movement of ions
in the solid is not possible due to their rigid
structure.
• But ionic compounds conduct electricity in
the molten state.
• This is possible in the molten state since the elec-
trostatic forces of attraction between the op-
positely charged ions are overcome due to
the heat. Thus, the ions move freely and conduct
electricity.
• For example, gold, silver, platinum and copper
are found in the free state.
• Copper and silver are also found in the combined
state as their sulphide or oxide ores.
• The metals at the top of the activity series (K,
Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are so reactive that they
are never found in nature as free elements.
• The metals in the middle of the activity series (Zn,
Fe, Pb, etc.) are moderately reactive.
• They are found in the earth’s crust mainly as ox-
ides, sulphides or carbonates.
• You will find that the ores of many metals are
oxides. This is because oxygen is a very reac-
tive element and is very abundant on the
earth.
• Thus, on the basis of reactivity, we can group the
metals into the following three categories (Fig.
3.9) – (i) Metals of low reactivity; (ii) Metals of
medium reactivity; (iii) Metals of high reactiv-
ity.

Occurrence of metals

• The elements or compounds, which occur natu-

rally in the earth’s crust, are known as minerals.
• At some places, minerals contain a very high per-
centage of a particular metal and the metal can
be profitably extracted from it. These minerals
are called ores.
41
Extraction of Metals
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• Some metals are found in the earth’s crust in the

free state.
• Some are found in the form of their compounds.
• The metals at the bottom of the activity series are
the least reactive. They are often found in a free
state.

Enrichment of Ores
• Ores mined from the earth are usually contami-
nated with large amounts of impurities such as
soil, sand, etc., called gangue.
• The impurities must be removed from the ore
prior to the extraction of the metal.
• The processes used for removing the gangue
from the ore are based on the differences be-
tween the physical or chemical properties of the
gangue and the ore.
Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series
• Metals low in the activity series are very unreac-
tive.
• The oxides of these metals can be reduced to
metals by heating alone.
• For example, cinnabar (HgS) is an ore of mer-
cury.
• When it is heated in air, it is first converted into
mercuric oxide (HgO).
• Mercuric oxide is then reduced to mercury on
further heating
• Similarly, copper which is found as Cu2S in nature
can be obtained from its ore by just heating in
air.
Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activ-
ity Series
• The metals in the middle of the activity series
such as iron, zinc, lead, copper, etc., are mod-
erately reactive.
• These are usually present as sulphides or car-
bonates in nature.
• It is easier to obtain a metal from its oxide, as
compared to its sulphides and carbonates.
• Therefore, prior to reduction, the metal sulphides
and carbonates must be converted into metal
oxides.
• The sulphide ores are converted into oxides
by heating strongly in the presence of excess
air. This process is known as roasting.
• The carbonate ores are changed into oxides by
heating strongly in limited air. This process is
known as calcination.
• The metal oxides are then reduced to the corre-
sponding metals by using suitable reducing
agents such as carbon. For example, when zinc
oxide is heated with carbon, it is reduced to me-
tallic zinc.
• Besides using carbon (coke) to reduce metal
oxides to metals, sometimes displacement re- 42
actions can also be used.
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• The highly reactive metals such as sodium,
calcium, aluminium, etc., are used as reducing
agents because they can displace metals of
lower reactivity from their compounds.
• These displacement reactions are highly exo-
thermic.
• The amount of heat evolved is so large that the
metals are produced in the molten state.
• In fact, the reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with
aluminium is used to join railway tracks or
cracked machine parts. This reaction is known as
the thermite reaction.
Extracting Metals towards the Top of the
Activity Series
• The metals high up in the reactivity series are
very reactive.
• They cannot be obtained from their compounds
by heating with carbon.
• For example, carbon cannot reduce the oxides of
sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium, etc., to
the respective metals. This is because these met-
als have more affinity for oxygen than carbon.
• These metals are obtained by electrolytic re-
duction.
• For example, sodium, magnesium and calcium
are obtained by the electrolysis of their molten
chlorides.
• The metals are deposited at the cathode (the
negatively charged electrode), whereas, chlo-
rine is liberated at the anode (the positively
charged electrode).
• Similarly, aluminium is obtained by the electro-
lytic reduction of aluminium oxide.
Refining of Metals
• The metals produced by various reduction pro-
cesses described above are not very pure.
• They contain impurities, which must be removed
to obtain pure metals.
• The most widely used method for refining im-
pure metals is electrolytic refining.
Electrolytic Refining
• Many metals, such as copper, zinc, tin, nickel, sil-
ver, gold, etc., are refined electrolytically.
• In this process, the impure metal is made the
anode and a thin strip of pure metal is made
the cathode.
• A solution of the metal salt is used as an elec-
trolyte.
• On passing the current through the electrolyte,
the pure metal from the anode dissolves into the
electrolyte.
• An equivalent amount of pure metal from the
electrolyte is deposited on the cathode.
• The soluble impurities go into the solution,
whereas, the insoluble impurities settle down at
the bottom of the anode and are known as an-
ode mud.
43
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Corrosion
• Silver articles become black after some time
when exposed to air. This is because it reacts with
sulphur in the air to form a coating of silver sul-
phide.
• When a copper vessel is exposed to moist air for
long, it acquires a dull green coating. The green
material is a mixture of copper hydroxide
(Cu(OH)2) and copper carbonate (CuCO3).
• Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time
acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance
called rust.
• In the test tube A, the nails are exposed to both
air and water. In the test tube B, the nails are ex-
posed to only water, and the nails in test tube C
are exposed to dry air.
• You will observe that iron nails rust in test tube
A, but they do not rust in test tubes B and C.
Prevention of Corrosion
• The rusting of iron can be prevented by paint-
ing, oiling, greasing, galvanising, chrome
plating, anodising or making alloys.
• Galvanisation is a method of protecting steel
and iron from rusting by coating them with a thin
layer of zinc.
• The galvanised article is protected against rust-
ing even if the zinc coating is broken.
• Alloying is a very good method of improving the
properties of a metal. We can get the desired
properties by this method.
• For example, iron is the most widely used metal.
But it is never used in its pure state. This is be-
cause pure iron is very soft and stretches easily
when hot.
• But, if it is mixed with a small amount of carbon
(about 0.05 %), it becomes hard and strong.
• When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium,
we get stainless steel, which is hard and does
not rust.
• An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or
more metals, or a metal and a non-metal.
• It is prepared by first melting the primary metal,
and then, dissolving the other elements in it in
definite proportions. It is then cooled to room
temperature.
• Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold, is very soft. It
is, therefore, not suitable for making jewellery.
• It is alloyed with either silver or copper to make
it hard.
• Generally, in India, 22 carat gold is used for
44
making ornaments. It means that 22 parts of
pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either copper
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or silver.
• If one of the metals is mercury, then the alloy is
known as an amalgam.
• The electrical conductivity and melting point
of an alloy is less than that of pure metals.
• For example, brass, an alloy of copper and zinc
(Cu and Zn), and bronze, an alloy of copper
 and tin (Cu and Sn), are not good conductors of
electricity whereas copper is used for making
electrical circuits.
• Solder, an alloy of lead and tin (Pb and Sn),
has a low melting point and is used for welding
electrical wires together.
The wonder of ancient Indian metallurgy
• The iron pillar near the Qutub Minar in Delhi was
made around 400 BC by the iron workers of In-
dia.
• They had developed a process which prevented
wrought iron from rusting.
• This is likely because of formation of a thin film
of magnetic oxide (Fe3O4) on the surface, as a
result of finishing treatment given to the pillar,
painting it with a mixture of different salts, then
heating and quenching.
Summary
• Elements can be classified as metals and non-
metals.
• Metals are lustrous, malleable, ductile and are
good conductors of heat and electricity. They are
solids at room temperature, except mercury
which is a liquid.
• Metals can form positive ions by losing elec-
trons to non-metals.
• Metals combine with oxygen to form basic
oxides.
• Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide show the prop-
erties of both basic as well as acidic oxides. These
oxides are known as amphoteric oxides.
• Different metals have different reactivities with
water and dilute acids.
• A list of common metals arranged in order of
their decreasing reactivity is known as an activity
series.
• Metals above hydrogen in the Activity series can
displace hydrogen from dilute acids.
• A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive
metal from its salt solution.
• Metals occur in nature as free elements or in the
form of their compounds.
• The extraction of metals from their ores and then
refining them for use is known as metallurgy.
• An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or
more metals, or a metal and a non-metal.
• The surface of some metals, such as iron, is cor-
roded when they are exposed to moist air for a
long period of time. This phenomenon is known
as corrosion.
• Non-metals have properties opposite to that of
metals. They are neither malleable nor ductile.
They are bad conductors of heat and electricity,
except for graphite, which conducts electricity.
• Non-metals form negatively charged ions by
gaining electrons when reacting with metals.
• Non-metals form oxides which are either
acidic or neutral.
• Non-metals do not displace hydrogen from
dilute acids. They react with hydrogen to form
hydrides.
Questions
• Which of the following pairs will give displace-
ment reactions? (a) NaCl solution and copper
metal (b) MgCl2 solution and aluminium metal
(c) FeSO4 solution and silver metal (d) AgNO3 45
solution and copper metal.
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• Which of the following methods is suitable for
preventing an iron frying pan from rusting? (a)
Applying grease (b) Applying paint (c) Applying
a coating of zinc (d) All of the above.
• An element reacts with oxygen to give a com-
pound with a high melting point. This compound
 is also soluble in water. The element is likely to
be (a) calcium (b) carbon (c) silicon (d) iron.
• Food cans are coated with tin and not with zinc
because (a) zinc is costlier than tin. (b) zinc has a
higher melting point than tin. (c) zinc is more re-
active than tin. (d) zinc is less reactive than tin.
• What are amphoteric oxides? Give two examples
of amphoteric oxides.
• In the electrolytic refining of a metal M, what
would you take as the anode, the cathode and
the electrolyte?
• Give reasons (a) Platinum, gold and silver are
used to make jewellery. (b) Sodium, potassium
7. Carbon and its Compounds
• The amount of carbon present in the earth’s crust
and in the atmosphere is quite meagre.
• The earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon in the
form of minerals (like carbonates, hydrogen car-
bonates, coal and petroleum) and the atmos-
phere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide.
Bonding in carbon – the covalent bond
• Ionic compounds have high melting and boil-
ing points and conduct electricity in solution
or in the molten state.
• Most carbon compounds are poor conductors
of electricity.
• From the data on the boiling and melting points
of the above compounds, we can conclude that
and lithium are stored under oil. (c) Aluminium is
a highly reactive metal, yet it is used to make
utensils for cooking. (d) Carbonate and sulphide
ores are usually converted into oxides during the
process of extraction.
• You must have seen tarnished copper vessels be-
ing cleaned with lemon or tamarind juice. Explain
why these sour substances are effective in clean-
ing the vessels.
• Give reasons why copper is used to make hot wa-
ter tanks and not steel (an alloy of iron).
the forces of attraction between these mole-
cules are not very strong.
• Since these compounds are largely non-con-
ductors of electricity, we can conclude that the
bonding in these compounds does not give
rise to any ions.
• The combining capacity of various elements and
how it depends on the number of valence elec-
trons.
• The atomic number of carbon is 6.
• We know that the reactivity of elements is ex-
plained as their tendency to attain a completely
filled outer shell, that is, attain noble gas config-
uration.
• Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this
by either gaining or losing electrons from the 46
outermost shell.
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• In the case of carbon, it has four electrons in its
outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four
electrons to attain noble gas configuration. If it
were to gain or lose electrons –
1. It could gain four electrons forming C4– an-
ion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus
 with six protons to hold on to ten elec- • The shared pair of electrons is said to constitute
trons, that is, four extra electrons. a single bond between the two hydrogen at-
+
2. It could lose four electrons forming C4 cat- oms.
ion. But it would require a large amount of • A single bond is also represented by a line be-
energy to remove four electrons leaving be- tween the two atoms.
hind a carbon cation with six protons in its • In the case of oxygen, we see the formation of a
nucleus holding on to just two electrons. double bond between two oxygen atoms.
• Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its • This is because an oxygen atom has six electrons
valence electrons with other atoms of carbon in L shell and it requires two electrons to com-
or with atoms of other elements. plete its octet.
• Not just carbon, but many other elements form
molecules by sharing electrons in this manner.
• The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outer shells
of both the atoms and lead to both atoms at-
taining the noble gas configuration.
• Before going on to compounds of carbon, let us
look at some simple molecules formed by the
sharing of valence electrons.
• The simplest molecule formed in this manner is
that of hydrogen.

• The atomic number of hydrogen is 1.

• The two electrons contributed by each oxygen
• Hence hydrogen has one electron in its K shell 47
atom give rise to two shared pairs of electrons.
and it requires one more electron to fill the K
This is said to constitute a double bond between
shell.
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the two atoms.

• So two hydrogen atoms share their electrons to
• Nitrogen has the atomic number 7. In order to
form a molecule of hydrogen, H2.
attain an octet, each nitrogen atom in a molecule
• This allows each hydrogen atom to attain the
of nitrogen contributes three electrons giving
electronic configuration of the nearest noble
rise to three shared pairs of electrons.
gas, helium.
• This is said to constitute a triple bond between
the two atoms.
• Methane has a formula CH4. Hydrogen has a va-
lency of 1. Carbon is tetravalent.
• In order to achieve noble gas configuration, car-
bon shares these electrons with four atoms of
hydrogen.
• Such bonds which are formed by the sharing
of an electron pair between two atoms are
known as covalent bonds.
• Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have
strong bonds within the molecule, but inter-
molecular forces are small. This gives rise to
the low melting and boiling points of these
compounds.
• Since the electrons are shared between atoms
and no charged particles are formed, such co-
valent compounds are generally poor conduc-
tors of electricity.
Allotropes of carbon
• The element carbon occurs in different forms in
nature with widely varying physical properties.
• Both diamond and graphite are formed by car-
bon atoms, the difference lies in the manner in
which the carbon atoms are bonded to one an-
other.
• In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four
other carbon atoms forming a rigid three-di-
mensional structure.
• In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to
three other carbon atoms in the same plane
giving a hexagonal array.
• One of these bonds is a double-bond, and thus
the valency of carbon is satisfied.
• Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal
arrays being placed in layers one above the
other.
• These two different structures result in diamond
and graphite having very different physical
properties even though their chemical prop-
erties are the same.
• Diamond is the hardest substance known
while graphite is smooth and slippery.
• Graphite is also a very good conductor of
electricity unlike other non-metals.
• Diamonds can be synthesised by subjecting pure
carbon to very high pressure and temperature.
• These synthetic diamonds are small but are oth-
48
erwise indistinguishable from natural diamonds.
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• Fullerenes form another class of carbon allo-
tropes.
• The first one to be identified was C-60 which has
carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a foot-
ball.
Versatile nature of carbon
• The numbers of carbon compounds whose for-
mulae are known was estimated to be about
three million!
• This outnumbers by a large margin the com-
pounds formed by all the other elements put to-
gether.
• The nature of the covalent bond enables car-
bon to form a large number of compounds.
Catenation
• Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with
other atoms of carbon, giving rise to large mole-
cules.
• This property is called catenation.
• These compounds may have long chains of car-
bon, branched chains of carbon or even carbon
atoms arranged in rings. In addition, carbon at-
oms may be linked by single, double or triple
bonds.
• Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only
single bonds between the carbon atoms are
called saturated compounds.
• Compounds of carbon having double or triple
bonds between their carbon atoms are called
unsaturated compounds.
• No other element exhibits the property of cate-
nation to the extent seen in carbon compounds.
• Silicon forms compounds with hydrogen which
have chains of upto seven or eight atoms, but
these compounds are very reactive.
• The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and
hence stable.
• This gives us the large number of compounds
with many carbon atoms linked to each other.
Tetravalency
• Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable
of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or
atoms of some other mono-valent element.
• Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine, etc. giving
rise to compounds with specific properties which
depend on the elements other than carbon pre-
sent in the molecule.
• Again, the bonds that carbon forms with most
other elements are very strong making these
compounds exceptionally stable.
• One reason for the formation of strong bonds
by carbon is its small size. This enables the nu-
cleus to hold on to the shared pairs of elec-
trons strongly.
• The bonds formed by elements having larger
atoms are much weaker.
Organic compounds
• The two characteristic features seen in carbon,
that is, tetravalency and catenation, put to-
gether give rise to a large number of com-
pounds.
• Many have the same non-carbon atom or group
of atoms attached to different carbon chains.
• These compounds were initially extracted from
natural substances and it was thought that these
carbon compounds or organic compounds could
only be formed within a living system.
• Friedrich Wöhler disproved this in 1828 by pre-
paring urea from ammonium cyanate.
• But carbon compounds, except for oxides of car-
bon, carbonate and hydrogen carbonate salts
continue to be studied under organic chemistry. 49
Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Com-
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pounds
• In order to arrive at the structure of simple car-
bon compounds, the first step is to link the car-
bon atoms together with a single bond and then
use the hydrogen atoms to satisfy the remaining
valencies of carbon.
• For example, the structure of ethane is arrived in
the following steps

• Figure 4.6 (a) Carbon atoms linked together with

a single bond Three valencies of each carbon
atom remain unsatisfied, so each is bonded to
three hydrogen atoms giving:

• Yet another compound of hydrogen and carbon

has the formula C2H2 and is called ethyne.

• You will see that the valencies of all the atoms

are satisfied by single bonds between them.
• Such carbon compounds are called saturated
compounds.
• These compounds are normally not very reac-
tive.
• However, another compound of carbon and hy-
drogen has the formula C2H4 and is called eth-
ene.
• How can this molecule be depicted? We follow
the same step-wise approach as above.
• Such compounds of carbon having double or
triple bonds between the carbon atoms are
known as unsaturated carbon compounds and
they are more reactive than the saturated car-
bon compounds.
Chains, Branches and Rings
50
• In the earlier section, we mentioned the carbon
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compounds methane, ethane and propane, con-

• Each carbon atom gets two hydrogen atoms to
taining respectively 1, 2 and 3 carbon atoms.
give – We see that one valency per carbon atom
• Such ‘chains’ of carbon atoms can contain tens
remains unsatisfied. This can be satisfied only if
of carbon atoms.
there is a double bond between the two carbons
• The names and structures of six of these are
giving us –
given in Table 4.2

• But, let us take another look at butane. If we
make the carbon ‘skeleton’ with four carbon at-
oms, we see that two different ‘skeletons’ are
possible –
• We see that both these structures have the same
formula C4H10.
• Such compounds with identical molecular for-
mula but different structures are called struc-
tural isomers.
• In addition to straight and branched carbon
chains, some compounds have carbon atoms ar-
ranged in the form of a ring. For example, cyclo-
hexane has the formula C6H12 and the following
structure –
• Straight chain, branched chain and cyclic carbon
compounds, all may be saturated or unsatu-
rated.
• For example, benzene, C6H6, has the following
structure –
• All these carbon compounds which contain
just carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocar-
bons.
 Among these, the saturated hydrocarbons are
called alkanes.
 The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain
one or more double bonds are called alkenes.
 Those containing one or more triple bonds are
called alkynes.
51
Functional groups
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• Carbon also forms bonds with other elements
such as halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
• In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydro-
gens can be replaced by these elements, such
that the valency of carbon remains satisfied.
• In such compounds, the element replacing hy-
drogen is referred to as a heteroatom.
• These heteroatoms confer specific properties to
the compound, regardless of the length and na-
ture of the carbon chain and hence are called
functional groups.
• Free valency or valencies of the group are shown
by the single line.
• The functional group is attached to the car-
bon chain through this valency by replacing
one hydrogen atom or atoms.
Homologous Series
• The presence of a functional group such as al-
cohol dictates the properties of the carbon
compound, regardless of the length of the car-
bon chain.
• For example, the chemical properties of CH3OH,
C2H5OH, C3H7OH and C4H9OH are all very similar.
• Hence, such a series of compounds in which the
same functional group substitutes for hydrogen
in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.
• Let us look at the homologous series that we saw
earlier in Table 4.2. If we look at the formulae of
successive compounds, say –
• The difference between the next pair – propane
and butane (C4H10) is also a –CH2–unit.
• Similarly, take the homologous series for alkenes.
The first member of the series is ethene.
• The succeeding members have the formula C3H6,
C4H8 and C5H10. These also differ by a –CH2–unit.
• Hence, the general formula for alkenes can be
written as CnH2n, where n = 2, 3, 4.
• Similarly, the general formula for alkanes and al-
kynes is CnH2n+2 and CnH2n-1, respectively.
• As the molecular mass increases in any homolo-
gous series, a gradation in physical properties
is seen.
• This is because the melting points and boiling
points increase with increasing molecular
mass.
• Other physical properties such as solubility in a
particular solvent also show a similar gradation.
• But the chemical properties, which are deter-
mined solely by the functional group, remain
similar in a homologous series.
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds 52
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• The names of compounds in a homologous se-
ries are based on the name of the basic carbon
chain modified by a “prefix” “phrase before” or
“suffix” “phrase after” indicating the nature of the
functional group.
• For example, the names of the alcohols are
methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol.
• Naming a carbon compound can be done by the
following method –
1. Identify the number of carbon atoms in the
compound. A compound having three car-
bon atoms would have the name propane.
2. In case a functional group is present, it is in-
dicated in the name of the compound with
either a prefix or a suffix (as given in Table
4.4).
3. If the name of the functional group is to be
given as a suffix, the name of the carbon
chain is modified by deleting the final ‘e’ and
adding the appropriate suffix. For example, a
three-carbon chain with a ketone group
would be named in the following manner –
Propane – ‘e’ = propan + ‘one’ = propanone.
4. If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the
final ‘ane’ in the name of the carbon chain is
substituted by ‘ene’ or ‘yne’ as given in Table
4.4. For example, a three-carbon chain with a
double bond would be called propene and if
it has a triple bond, it would be called
propyne.
Combustion of Carbon
• Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxy-
gen to give carbon dioxide along with the release
of heat and light.
• Most carbon compounds also release a large
amount of heat and light on burning.
• These are the oxidation reactions –
• Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a
clean flame while unsaturated carbon com-
pounds will give a yellow flame with lots of
black smoke. This results in a sooty deposit on
the metal plate.
• However, limiting the supply of air results in
incomplete combustion of even saturated hy-
drocarbons giving a sooty flame.
• The gas/kerosene stove used at home has inlets
for air so that a sufficiently oxygen-rich mixture
is burnt to give a clean blue flame.
• If you observe the bottoms of cooking vessels
getting blackened, it means that the air holes are
blocked and fuel is getting wasted.
• Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some
amount of nitrogen and sulphur in them.
• Their combustion results in the formation of ox-
ides of sulphur and nitrogen which are major
pollutants.
53
Why do substances burn with or without a flame?
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• A candle or the LPG in the gas stove burns with
a flame.
• However, coal or charcoal sometimes just
glows red and gives out heat without a flame.
• This is because a flame is only produced when
gaseous substances burn.
• When charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances
present vaporise and burn with a flame in the be-
ginning.
• A luminous flame is seen when the atoms of
the gaseous substance are heated and start to
glow.
• The colour produced by each element is a char-
acteristic property of that element.
Formation of coal and petroleum
• Coal and petroleum have been formed from bi-
omass which has been subjected to various bio-
logical and geological processes.
• Coal is the remains of trees, ferns, and other
plants that lived millions of years ago.
• These were crushed into the earth, perhaps by
earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
• They were pressed down by layers of earth and
rock. They slowly decayed into coal.
• Oil and gas are the remains of millions of tiny
plants and animals that lived in the sea.
• When they died, their bodies sank to the seabed
and were covered by silt.
• Bacteria attacked the dead remains, turning
them into oil and gas under the high pressures
they were being subjected to.
• Meanwhile, the silt was slowly compressed into
rock.
• The oil and gas seeped into the porous parts of
the rock and got trapped like water in a sponge.
Reactions in Carbon Compounds
Oxidation
• Carbon compounds can be easily oxidised on
combustion.
• In addition to complete oxidation, we have re-
actions in which alcohols are converted to car-
boxylic acids:
• We see that some substances are capable of
adding oxygen to others. These substances are
known as oxidising agents.
• Alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified
potassium dichromate are oxidising alcohols to
acids, that is, adding oxygen to the starting ma-
terial. Hence, they are known as oxidising agents.
Addition Reaction
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in
the presence of catalysts such as palladium or
nickel to give saturated hydrocarbons.
• Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction
to occur or proceed at a different rate without
the reaction itself being affected.
• This reaction is commonly used in the hydro-
genation of vegetable oils using a nickel cata-
lyst.
• Vegetable oils generally have long unsatu-
rated carbon chains while animal fats have
saturated carbon chains.
• You must have seen advertisements stating that
some vegetable oils are ‘healthy’.
• Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty
acids which are said to be harmful for health.
• Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should
be chosen for cooking.
Suggested Reading: 54
https://www.pmfias.com/fats-saturated-unsatu-
rated-trans-fat/
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Substitution Reaction
• Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and
are inert in the presence of most reagents.
• However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is
added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction.
• Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by
one.
• It is called a substitution reaction because one
type of atom or a group of atoms takes the place
of another.
• A number of products are usually formed with
the higher homologues of alkanes.
Some important carbon compounds – etha-
nol and ethanoic acid
• Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.
• Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the
active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
• In addition, because it is a good solvent, it is also
used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough
syrups, and many tonics.
• Ethanol is also soluble in water in all proportions.
• Consumption of small quantities of dilute etha-
nol causes drunkenness.
• However, intake of even a small quantity of pure
ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be le-
thal.
Reactions of Ethanol
Reaction with sodium –
• Alcohols react with sodium leading to the evolu-
tion of hydrogen.
• With ethanol, the other product is sodium ethox-
ide.
Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon
• Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concen-
trated sulphuric acid results in the dehydration
of ethanol to give ethene –
• The concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded
as a dehydrating agent which removes water
from ethanol.
How do alcohols affect living beings?
• When large quantities of ethanol are consumed,
it tends to slow metabolic processes and to de-
press the central nervous system.
• This results in lack of coordination, drowsiness,
lowering of the normal inhibitions, and finally
stupor.
• The individual may feel relaxed but does not re-
alise that his sense of judgement, sense of tim-
ing, and muscular coordination has been seri-
ously impaired.
• Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol in very
small quantities can cause death.
• Methanol is oxidised to methanal in the liver.
Methanal reacts rapidly with the components of
cells.
• It causes the protoplasm to get coagulated, in
much the same way an egg is coagulated by
cooking.
• Methanol also affects the optic nerve, causing
blindness.
• Ethanol is an important industrial solvent.
• To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for
industrial use, it is made unfit for drinking by
55
adding poisonous substances like methanol
to it.
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• Dyes are also added to colour the alcohol blue
so that it can be identified easily. This is called
denatured alcohol.
Alcohol as a fuel
• Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient
convertors of sunlight into chemical energy.
• Sugarcane juice can be used to prepare molasses
which is fermented to give alcohol (ethanol).
• Some countries now use alcohol as an additive in
petrol since it is a cleaner fuel which gives rise
to only carbon dioxide and water on burning
in sufficient air (oxygen).
Properties of Ethanoic Acid
• Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and
belongs to a group of acids called carboxylic ac-
ids.
• 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called
vinegar and is used widely as a preservative in
pickles.
• The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K
and hence it often freezes during winter in cold
climates.
• This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
• The group of organic compounds called carbox-
ylic acids are obviously characterised by a special
acidity.
• However, unlike mineral acids like HCl, which are
completely ionised, carboxylic acids are weak ac-
ids.
Reactions of ethanoic acid:
Esterification reaction
• Esters are most commonly formed by reaction
of an acid and an alcohol.
• Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute ethanol in the
presence of an acid catalyst to give an ester –
• Esters are sweet-smelling substances. These
are used in making perfumes and as flavouring
agents.
• Esters react in the presence of an acid or a base
to give back the alcohol and carboxylic acid.
This reaction is known as saponification be-
cause it is used in the preparation of soap.
Reaction with a base
• Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a
base such as sodium hydroxide to give a salt (so-
dium ethanoate or commonly called sodium ac-
etate) and water.
Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen car-
bonates:
• Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydro-
gen carbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon di-
oxide and water.
• The salt produced is commonly called sodium
acetate.
Soaps and detergents
• Most dirt is oily in nature and as you know, oil
does not dissolve in water.
• The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium
salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
• The ionic-end of soap dissolves in water while
the carbon chain dissolves in oil.
• The soap molecules, thus form structures called
micelles where one end of the molecules is to- 56
wards the oil droplet while the ionic-end
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faces outside. This forms an emulsion in water.
• The soap micelle thus helps in dissolving the dirt
in water and we can wash our clothes clean.
How soaps work?
• Soaps are molecules in which the two ends have
differing properties, one is hydrophilic, that is,
it dissolves in water, while the other end is hy-
drophobic, that is, it dissolves in hydrocar-
bons.
• When soap is at the surface of water, the hydro-
phobic ‘tail’ of soap will not be soluble in wa-
ter and the soap will align along the surface of
water with the ionic end in water and the hydro-
carbon ‘tail’ protruding out of water.
• Inside water these molecules have a unique ori-
entation that keeps the hydrocarbon portion out
of the water.
• This is achieved by forming clusters of molecules
in which the hydrophobic tails are in the inte-
rior of the cluster and the ionic ends are on the
surface of the cluster. This formation is called a
micelle.
• Soap is able to clean, since the oily dirt will be
collected in the centre of the micelle.
• The micelles stay in solution as a colloid and will
not come together to precipitate because of ion-
ion repulsion. Thus, the dirt suspended in the mi-
celles is also easily rinsed away.
• The soap micelles are large enough to scatter
light. Hence a soap solution appears cloudy.
Scum
• Have you ever observed while bathing that foam
is formed with difficulty and an insoluble sub-
stance (scum) remains after washing with water?
• This is caused by the reaction of soap with the
calcium and magnesium salts, which cause
the hardness of water.
• Hence you need to use a larger amount of soap.
• This problem is overcome by using another class
of compounds called detergents as cleansing
agents.
• Detergents are generally ammonium or sul-
phonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
• The charged ends of these compounds do not
form insoluble precipitates with the calcium
and magnesium ions in hard water. Thus, they
remain effective in hard water.
• Detergents are usually used to make shampoos
and products for cleaning clothes.
Summary
57
• Carbon is a versatile element that forms the basis
for all living organisms and many of the things
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we use.
• This large variety of compounds is formed by
carbon because of its tetravalency and the
property of catenation that it exhibits.
• Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of
electrons between two atoms so that both can
achieve a completely filled outermost shell.
• Carbon forms covalent bonds with itself and
other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, sul-
phur, nitrogen and chlorine.
• Carbon also forms compounds containing dou-
ble and triple bonds between carbon atoms.
These carbon chains may be in the form of
straight chains, branched chains or rings.
• The ability of carbon to form chains gives rise to
a homologous series of compounds in which the
same functional group is attached to carbon
chains of different lengths.
• The functional groups such as alcohols, alde-
hydes, ketones and carboxylic acids bestow
characteristic properties to the carbon com-
pounds that contain them.
• Carbon and its compounds are some of our ma-
jor sources of fuels.
• Ethanol and ethanoic acid are carbon com-
pounds of importance in our daily lives.
• The action of soaps and detergents is based on
the presence of both hydrophobic and hydro-
philic groups in the molecule and this helps to
emulsify the oily dirt and hence its removal.
8. Chemistry in everyday life
• Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses
(~100 – 500u) interact with macromolecular tar-
gets and produce a biological response.
• When the biological response is therapeutic and
useful, these chemicals are called medicines and
are used in diagnosis, prevention and treatment
of diseases.
• Use of chemicals for therapeutic effect is called
chemotherapy.
• If taken in doses higher than those recom-
mended, most of the drugs used as medicines
are potential poisons.
Questions
• Ethane, with the molecular formula C2H6 has (a)
6 covalent bonds. (b) 7 covalent bonds. (c) 8 co-
valent bonds. (d) 9 covalent bonds
• Butanone is a four-carbon compound with the
functional group (a) carboxylic acid. (b) aldehyde.
(c) ketone. (d) alcohol.
• While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is get-
ting blackened on the outside, it means that (a)
the food is not cooked completely. (b) the fuel is
not burning completely. (c) the fuel is wet. (d) the
fuel is burning completely
• What is an homologous series? Explain with an
example.
• How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differen-
tiated on the basis of their physical and chemical
properties?
• What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial ap-
plication?
• Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo
addition reactions: C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and
CH4?
• Barium Sulphate is insoluble and can be used as
an X-ray contrast medium.
• Barium Sulphite (or Sulphite) on the other
hand is water soluble and poisonous.
58
Classification of Drugs
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On the basis of pharmacological effect
• This classification is based on pharmacological
effect of the drugs.
• For example, analgesics have pain killing ef-
fect, antiseptics kill or arrest the growth of
microorganisms.
On the basis of drug action
• It is based on the action of a drug on a particular
biochemical process.
• E.g. All antihistamines inhibit the action of the
compound histamine which causes inflamma-
tion.
On the basis of chemical structure
• It is based on the chemical structure of the drug.
• Drugs classified in this way share common struc-
tural features and often have similar pharmaco-
logical activity.
On the basis of molecular targets
• Drugs usually interact with biomolecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
• These are called target molecules or drug tar-
gets.
• Drugs possessing some common structural fea-
tures may have the same mechanism of action
on targets.
• The classification based on molecular targets is
the most useful classification for medicinal
chemists.
Macromolecules of biological origin perform var-
ious functions in the body.
• For example, proteins which perform the role
of biological catalysts in the body are called
enzymes, those which are crucial to communica-
tion system in the body are called receptors.
• Carrier proteins carry polar molecules across the
cell membrane.
• Nucleic acids have coded genetic information for
the cell.
• Lipids and carbohydrates are structural parts of
the cell membrane.
Antacids
• Over production of acid in the stomach causes
irritation and pain.
• In severe cases, ulcers are developed in the
stomach.
• Until 1970, only treatment for acidity was admin-
istration of antacids, such as sodium hydrogen
carbonate or a mixture of aluminium and
magnesium hydroxide.
• However, excessive hydrogen carbonate can
make the stomach alkaline and trigger the pro-
duction of even more acid.
• Metal hydroxides are better alternatives be-
cause of being insoluble, these do not increase
the pH above neutrality.
• These treatments control only symptoms, and
not the cause.
• Therefore, with these metal salts, the patients
cannot be treated easily.
• In advanced stages, ulcers become life threaten-
ing and the affected part of the stomach needs
to be removed.
Antihistamines
• A major breakthrough in the treatment of hyper-
acidity came through the discovery according to
which a chemical, histamine, stimulates the se-
cretion of pepsin and hydrochloric acid in the
stomach.
• The drug cimetidine (Tegamet), was designed 59
to prevent the interaction of histamine with the
receptors present in the stomach wall. This re-
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
sulted in release of lesser amount of acid.
• The importance of the drug was so much that it
remained the largest selling drug in the world
until another drug, ranitidine (Zantac), was dis-
covered.
• Histamine is a potent vasodilator. It has various
functions.
• It contracts the smooth muscles in the bronchi
and gut and relaxes other muscles, such as those
in the walls of fine blood vessels.
• Histamine is also responsible for the nasal
congestion associated with common cold and
allergic response to pollen.
• Synthetic drugs, brompheniramine (Dimetapp)
and terfenadine (Seldane), act as antihistamines.
Neurologically Active Drugs: Tranquilizers
• Tranquilizers and analgesics are neurologically
active drugs.
• These affect the message transfer mechanism
from nerve to receptor.
• Tranquilizers are a class of chemical compounds
used for the treatment of stress, and mild or even
severe mental diseases.
• These relieve anxiety, stress, irritability or excite-
ment by inducing a sense of well-being.
• They form an essential component of sleeping
pills.
• There are various types of tranquilizers. They
function by different mechanisms.
• For example, noradrenaline is one of the neuro-
transmitters that plays a role in mood changes.
• If the level of noradrenaline is low for some rea-
son, then the signal-sending activity becomes
low, and the person suffers from depression.
• In such situations, antidepressant drugs are re-
quired.
• These drugs inhibit the enzymes which catalyse
the degradation of noradrenaline.
• If the enzyme is inhibited, this important neuro-
transmitter is slowly metabolised and can acti-
vate its receptor for longer periods of time, thus
counteracting the effect of depression.
• Iproniazid and phenelzine are two such drugs.
• Some tranquilizers namely, chlordiazepoxide
and meprobamate, are relatively mild tranquiliz-
ers suitable for relieving tension.
• Equanil is used in controlling depression and hy-
pertension.
• Derivatives of barbituric acid constitute an im-
portant class of tranquilizers.
• These derivatives are called barbiturates. Barbi-
turates are hypnotic, i.e., sleep producing agents.
Analgesics
• Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without
causing impairment of consciousness, mental
confusion, incoordination or paralysis or some
other disturbances of nervous system.
• These are classified as follows: (i) Non-narcotic
(non-addictive) analgesics (ii) Narcotic drugs
Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics
• Aspirin and paracetamol belong to the class of
non-narcotic analgesics.
• Aspirin is the most familiar example.
• Aspirin inhibits the synthesis of chemicals known
as prostaglandins which stimulate inflammation
in the tissue and cause pain.
• These drugs are effective in relieving skeletal
pain such as that due to arthritis.
• These drugs have many other effects such as re-
ducing fever (antipyretic) and preventing
platelet coagulation.
60
• Because of its anti-blood clotting action, aspi-
rin finds use in prevention of heart attacks.
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Narcotic analgesics
• Morphine and many of its homologues, when
administered in medicinal doses, relieve pain and
produce sleep. In poisonous doses, these
 produce stupor, coma, convulsions and ulti-
mately death.
• Morphine narcotics are sometimes referred to as
opiates, since they are obtained from the opium
poppy.
• These analgesics are chiefly used for the relief of
postoperative pain, cardiac pain and pains of ter-
minal cancer, and in childbirth.
Antimicrobials
• Diseases in human beings and animals may be
caused by a variety of microorganisms such as
bacteria, virus, fungi and other pathogens.
• An antimicrobial tends to destroy/prevent devel-
opment or inhibit the pathogenic action of mi-
crobes such as bacteria (antibacterial drugs),
fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral agents),
or other parasites (antiparasitic drugs) selec-
tively.
• Antibiotics, antiseptics and disinfectants are an-
timicrobial drug
Antibiotics
• An antibiotic now refers to a substance pro-
duced wholly or partly by chemical synthesis,
which in low concentrations inhibits the
growth or destroys microbes by intervening
in their metabolic processes.
• The real revolution in antibacterial therapy be-
gan with the discovery of Alexander Fleming in
1929, of the antibacterial properties of a Penicil-
lium fungus.
• Chloramphenicol, isolated in 1947, is a broad
spectrum antibiotic.
• It is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal
tract and hence can be given orally in case of ty-
phoid, dysentery, acute fever, certain form of uri-
nary infections, meningitis and pneumonia.
• Vancomycin and ofloxacin are the other im-
portant broad spectrum antibiotics.
• The antibiotic dysidazirine is supposed to be
toxic towards certain strains of cancer cells.
Antiseptics and disinfectants
• Antiseptics and disinfectants are also the chemi-
cals which either kill or prevent the growth of mi-
croorganisms.
• Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such
as wounds, cuts, ulcers and diseased skin sur-
faces.
• Examples are furacine, soframicine, etc. These are
not ingested like antibiotics.
• Commonly used antiseptic, Dettol is a mixture of
chloroxylenol and terpineol.
• Bithionol (the compound is also called bithional)
is added to soaps to impart antiseptic properties.
• Iodine is a powerful antiseptic. Its 2-3% solution
in alcohol water mixture is known as tincture of
iodine. 61
• It is applied on wounds. Iodoform is also used as
PMF IAS – Learn Smart

an antiseptic for wounds.

• Isolation and purification of active compound to
• Boric acid in dilute aqueous solution is weak an-
accumulate sufficient material for clinical trials
tiseptic for eyes.
took thirteen years.
• Disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects
• Antibiotics have either cidal (killing) effect or a
such as floors, drainage system, instruments, etc.
static (inhibitory) effect on microbes.
• Same substances can act as an antiseptic as well
• A few examples of the two types of antibiotics
as disinfectant by varying the concentration.
are as follows:
• For example, 0.2 per cent solution of phenol is an
antiseptic while its one percent solution is disin-
fectant.
• Chlorine in the concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 ppm
in aqueous solution and sulphur dioxide in very
low concentrations, are disinfectants.
Antifertility drugs
• Birth control pills essentially contain a mixture of
synthetic estrogen and progesterone deriva-
tives.
• Both of these compounds are hormones. It is
known that progesterone suppresses ovula-
tion.
• Synthetic progesterone derivatives are more po-
tent than progesterone.
• Norethindrone is an example of synthetic pro-
gesterone derivative most widely used as anti-
fertility drug.
• The estrogen derivative which is used in combi-
nation with progesterone derivative is
ethynylestradiol (novestrol).
Chemicals in Foods
• Chemicals are added to food for (i) their preser-
vation, (ii) enhancing their appeal, and (iii) add-
ing nutritive value in them.
• Main categories of food additives are as follows:
(i) Food colours (ii) Flavours and sweeteners (iii)
Fat emulsifiers and stabilising agents (iv) Flour
improvers - antistaling agents and bleaches (v)
Antioxidants (vi) Preservatives (vii) Nutritional
supplements such as minerals, vitamins and
amino acids.
Artificial Sweetening Agents
• Natural sweeteners, e.g., sucrose add to calorie
intake and therefore many people prefer to use
artificial sweeteners.
• Ortho-sulphobenzimide, also called saccharin, is
the first popular artificial sweetening agent.
• Aspartame is the most successful and widely
used artificial sweetener.
• It is roughly 100 times as sweet as cane sugar.
• Use of aspartame is limited to cold foods and
soft drinks because it is unstable at cooking
temperature.
• Alitame is high potency sweetener, although it is
more stable than aspartame, the control of
sweetness of food is difficult while using it.
• Sucrolose is trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its
appearance and taste are like sugar. It is stable at
cooking temperature. It does not provide calo-
ries.
Food Preservatives
• Food preservatives prevent spoilage of food due
to microbial growth.
• The most commonly used preservatives include
table salt, sugar, vegetable oils and sodium
benzoate.
• Sodium benzoate is used in limited quantities
and is metabolised in the body.
• Salts of sorbic acid and propanoic acid are also
used as preservatives.
Soaps and detergents 62
• Two types of detergents are used as cleansing
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
agents. These are soaps and synthetic deter-
gents.
• These improve cleansing properties of water.
These help in removal of fats which bind other
materials to the fabric or skin.
• Soaps are the detergents used since long. Soaps
used for cleaning purpose are sodium or
 potassium salts of long chain fatty acids, e.g.,
stearic, oleic and palmitic acids.
• Soaps containing sodium salts are formed by
heating fat with aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution. This reaction is known as saponifica-
tion.
• In this reaction, esters of fatty acids are hydro-
lysed and the soap obtained remains in colloidal
form.
• It is precipitated from the solution by adding so-
dium chloride.
• The solution left after removing the soap con-
tains glycerol, which can be recovered by frac-
tional distillation.
• Only sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in
water and are used for cleaning purposes.
• Generally, potassium soaps are soft to the skin
than sodium soaps.
Soaps
• Basically, all soaps are made by boiling fats or
oils with suitable soluble hydroxide.
• Variations are made by using different raw ma-
terials.
• Toilet soaps are prepared by using better grades
of fats and oils and care is taken to remove ex-
cess alkali.
• Colour and perfumes are added to make these
more attractive.
• Soaps that float in water are made by beating
tiny air bubbles before their hardening.
• Transparent soaps are made by dissolving the
soap in ethanol and then evaporating the ex-
cess solvent.
• In medicated soaps, substances of medicinal
value are added. In some soaps, deodorants are
added.
• Shaving soaps contain glycerol to prevent rapid
drying.
Why do soaps not work in hard water?
• Hard water contains calcium and magnesium
ions.
• These ions form insoluble calcium and magne-
sium soaps respectively when sodium or potas-
sium soaps are dissolved in hard water.
• These insoluble soaps separate as scum in water
and are useless as cleansing agent.
• In fact, these are hinderance to good washing,
because the precipitate adheres onto the fibre of
the cloth.
• Hair washed with hard water looks dull because
of this sticky precipitate.
• Dye does not absorb evenly on cloth washed
with soap using hard water, because of this
gummy mass.
Synthetic Detergents
• Synthetic detergents are cleansing agents which
have all the properties of soaps, but which actu-
ally do not contain any soap.
• These can be used both in soft and hard water as
they give foam even in hard water.
• Some of the detergents give foam even in ice
cold water.
• Synthetic detergents are mainly classified into
three categories:
1. Anionic detergents
2. Cationic detergents and
3. Non-ionic detergents 63
4. Anionic Detergents
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Anionic detergents
• Anionic detergents are sodium salts of sulpho-
nated long chain alcohols or hydrocarbons.
• In anionic detergents, the anionic part of the
molecule is involved in the cleansing action.
• Sodium salts of alkylbenzenesulphonates are an
important class of anionic detergents.
• They are mostly used for household work. Ani-
onic detergents are also used in toothpastes.
Cationic Detergents
• Cationic part possesses a long hydrocarbon
chain and a positive charge on nitrogen atom.
• Hence, these are called cationic detergents.
• Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide is a popular
cationic detergent and is used in hair condition-
ers.
• Cationic detergents have germicidal properties
and are expensive, therefore, these are of limited
use.
Non-ionic Detergents
• Non-ionic detergents do not contain any ion in
their constitution.
• One such detergent is formed when stearic acid
reacts with polyethyleneglycol.
9. Periodic Table
Mendeléev’s Periodic Table
• The main credit for classifying elements goes to
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev, a Russian chem-
ist.
• He was the most important contributor to the
early development of a Periodic Table of ele-
ments wherein the elements were arranged on
the basis of their fundamental property, the
atomic mass.
• Mendeléev formulated a Periodic Law, which
states that ‘the properties of elements are the
periodic function of their atomic masses’.
Achievements of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table
• Liquid dishwashing detergents are non-ionic
type.
• Mechanism of cleansing action of this type of de-
tergents is the same as that of soaps. These also
remove grease and oil by micelle formation.
• Main problem that appears in the use of deter-
gents is that if their hydrocarbon chain is highly
branched, then bacteria cannot degrade this eas-
ily.
• Slow degradation of detergents leads to their ac-
cumulation.
• Effluents containing such detergents reach the
rivers, ponds, etc. These persist in water even af-
ter sewage treatment and cause foaming in riv-
ers, ponds and streams and their water gets pol-
luted.
• These days the branching of the hydrocarbon
chain is controlled and kept to the minimum.
• Unbranched chains can be biodegraded more
easily and hence pollution is prevented.
• Mendeléev boldly predicted the existence of
some elements that had not been discovered at
that time.
• This provided convincing evidence for both the
correctness and usefulness of Mendeléev’s Peri-
odic Table.
• Noble gases like helium (He), neon (Ne) and ar- 64
gon (Ar) have been mentioned in many a context
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before this.
• These gases were discovered very late because
they are very inert and present in extremely low
concentrations in our atmosphere.
• One of the strengths of Mendeléev’s Periodic Ta-
ble was that, when these gases were discovered,
 they could be placed in a new group without dis- • Isotopes were discovered long after Mendeléev
turbing the existing order. had proposed his periodic classification of ele-
ments.
Limitations of Mendeléev’s Classification • Thus, isotopes of all elements posed a challenge
to Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.
• Electronic configuration of hydrogen resembles
that of alkali metals.
• Like alkali metals, hydrogen combines with halo-
gens, oxygen and sulphur to form compounds
having similar formulae, as shown in the exam-
ples here.
• On the other hand, just like halogens, hydrogen
also exists as diatomic molecules and it com-
bines with metals and non-metals to form cova-
lent compounds.
• Certainly, no fixed position can be given to hy-
drogen in the Periodic Table. This was the first
limitation of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.

65
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Modern Periodic Table
• In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic
number of an element is a more fundamental
property than its atomic mass as described be-
low.
• Accordingly, Mendeléev’s Periodic Law was
modified and atomic number was adopted as the
basis of Modern Periodic Table and the Modern
Periodic Law can be stated as follows: ‘Proper-
ties of elements are a periodic function of
their atomic number.’
• Let us recall that the atomic number gives us the
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and
this number increases by one in going from one
element to the next.
• Elements, when arranged in order of increasing
atomic number Z, lead us to the classification
known as the Modern Periodic Table (Table 5.6).
• Prediction of properties of elements could be
made with more precision when elements were
arranged on the basis of increasing atomic num-
ber
• Modern Periodic Table overcomes the limita-
tions of Mendléev’s Periodic Table.
Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic
Table
• The Modern Periodic Table has
1) 18 vertical columns known as ‘groups’ and
2) 7 horizontal rows known as ‘periods’.
• Elements present in any one group have the
same number of valence electrons.
• Hence, we can say that groups in the Periodic Ta-
ble signify an identical outershell electronic
configuration.
• On the other hand, the number of shells in-
creases as we go down the group.
• The number of valence shell electrons increases
by one unit, as the atomic number increases by
one unit on moving from left to right in a period.
• Or we can say that atoms of different elements
with the same number of occupied shells are
placed in the same period.
• Each period marks a new electronic shell getting
filled.
• The position of an element in the Periodic Table
tells us about its chemical reactivity. As you have
learnt, the valence electrons determine the kind
and number of bonds formed by an element.
Trends in the Modern Periodic Table
• Valency: As you know, the valency of an element
is determined by the number of valence elec-
trons present in the outermost shell of its atom.
• Atomic size: The term atomic size refers to the
radius of an atom. The atomic size may be visu-
alised as the distance between the centre of the
nucleus and the outermost shell of an isolated
atom.
• The atomic radius of hydrogen atom is 37 pm
(picometre, 1 pm = 10–12 m).
• You will see that the atomic radius decreases in
moving from left to right along a period.
• This is due to an increase in nuclear charge
which tends to pull the electrons closer to the
nucleus and reduces the size of the atom.
• You will see that the atomic size increases
down the group. 66
• This is because new shells are being added as we
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go down the group.
• This increases the distance between the outer-
most electrons and the nucleus so that the
atomic size increases in spite of the increase in
nuclear charge.
Metallic and Non-metallic Properties
• As we can see, the metals like Na and Mg are to-
wards the left-hand side of the Periodic Table
while the non-metals like sulphur and chlorine
are found on the right-hand side.
• In the middle, we have silicon, which is classified
as a semi-metal or metalloid because it exhibits
some properties of both metals and non-metals.
• In the Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line sep-
arates metals from non-metals.
• The borderline elements – boron, silicon, ger-
manium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and po-
lonium – are intermediate in properties and are
called metalloids or semi-metals.
• Metals tend to lose electrons while forming
bonds, that is, they are electropositive in nature.
• As the effective nuclear charge acting on the va-
lence shell electrons increases across a period,
the tendency to lose electrons will decrease.
• Down the group, the effective nuclear charge ex-
perienced by valence electrons is decreasing be-
cause the outermost electrons are farther away
from the nucleus.
• Therefore, these can be lost easily.
• Hence metallic character decreases across a
period and increases down a group.
• Non-metals, on the other hand, are electronega-
tive.
• They tend to form bonds by gaining electrons.
• As the trends in the electronegativity show, non-
metals are found on the right-hand side of the
Periodic Table towards the top.
• These trends also help us to predict the nature of
oxides formed by the elements because it is
basic and that of non-metals are acidic in gen-
eral.
Summary
• Mendeléev arranged the elements in increasing
order of their atomic masses and according to
their chemical properties.
• Mendeléev even predicted the existence of some
yet to be discovered elements on the basis of
gaps in his Periodic Table.
• Anomalies in arrangement of elements based on
increasing atomic mass could be removed when
the elements were arranged in order of increas-
ing atomic number, a fundamental property of
the element discovered by Moseley.
• Elements in the Modern Periodic Table are ar-
ranged in 18 vertical columns called groups
and 7 horizontal rows called periods.
• Elements thus arranged show periodicity of
properties including atomic size, valency or com-
bining capacity and metallic and non-metallic
character.
Questions
• Which of the following statements is not a cor-
rect statement about the trends when going
from left to right across the periods of periodic
Table?
a) The elements become less metallic in nature.
b) The number of valence electrons increases.
67
c) The atoms lose their electrons more easily.
d) The oxides become more acidic.
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known to you that the oxides of metals are

10. Misc. Topics

Combustion and flame • The lowest temperature at which a substance

catches fire is called its ignition temperature.
Ignition temperature
• We find that the gas burns rapidly. Such combus- Vapourisation and Flame
tion is known as rapid combustion.
• The substances which vaporize during burning,
Inflammable Substances give flames.
• For example, kerosene oil and molten wax rise
• The substances which have very low ignition
through the wick and are vaporized during burn-
temperature and can easily catch fire with a
ing and form flames.
flame are called inflammable substances.
• Charcoal, on the other hand, does not vapor-
• Examples of inflammable substances are petrol,
ize and so does not produce a flame.
alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), etc.

Spontaneous combustion Zones of Candle Flame

• There are substances like phosphorus which

burn in air at room temperature.
• The type of combustion in which a material sud-
denly bursts into flames, without the application
of any apparent cause is called spontaneous
combustion.
• Spontaneous combustion of coal dust has re-
sulted in many disastrous fires in coal mines.
• Spontaneous forest fires are sometimes due to
the heat of the sun or due to lightning strike. • There are three different zones of a flame – dark
zone, luminous zone and non-luminous zone.
Give reasons
• Non-luminous zone of the flame has a high tem-
• Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece perature. In fact, this part of the flame is the hot-
of paper wrapped around an aluminium pipe test part.
does not.
Matchstick
• The wrapped paper around an aluminium pipe
do not heat as quickly because heat is conducted • Matchstick is a mixture of
away. 1. antimony trisulphide
• Also, a free paper has more access to air (Oxy- 2. potassium chlorate
gen) to catches fire. 68
3. white phosphorus
• When struck against a rough surface, white
Incomplete combustion
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phosphorus ignites due to the heat of friction.

• Incomplete combustion of fuels gives carbon
monoxide gas. It is a very poisonous gas. It is
dangerous to burn coal in a closed room. The
carbon monoxide gas produced can kill persons
sleeping in that room.
This starts the combustion of the match.
• However, white phosphorus proved to be dan-
gerous both for the workers involved in the man-
ufacturing of matches and for the users.
• These days the head of the safety match contains • Another way to get CO2 is to release a lot of dry
only antimony trisulphide and potassium powder of chemicals like sodium bicarbonate
chlorate. (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate. Near
• The rubbing surface has powdered glass and a the fire, these chemicals give off CO2.
little red phosphorus (which is much less dan-
gerous). Calorific value
• When the match is struck against the rubbing
• The amount of heat energy produced on com-
surface, some red phosphorus gets converted
plete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its
into white phosphorus.
calorific value.
• This immediately reacts with potassium chlorate
• The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in a unit
in the matchstick head to produce enough heat
called kilojoule per kg(kJ/kg).
to ignite antimony trisulphide and start the com-
bustion.

Water vs Carbon Dioxide as fire extinguisher

• The most common fire extinguisher is water.

• But water works only when things like wood and
paper are on fire.
• If electrical equipment is on fire, water may con-
duct electricity and harm those trying to douse
the fire.
• Water is also not suitable for fires involving oil
and petrol.
• Water is heavier than oil. So, it sinks below the
oil, and oil keeps burning on top.
• For fires involving electrical equipment and in- Hydrogen > LPG > CNG, Methane > Petrol, Die-
flammable materials like petrol, carbon dioxide sel, Kerosene > Biogas > Coal > Wood > Cow
(CO2) is the best extinguisher. dung
• CO2, being heavier than oxygen, covers the fire
Fossil Fuels
like a blanket.
• Since the contact between the fuel and oxygen is 69
Coal
cut off, the fire is controlled.
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• The added advantage of CO2 is that in most cases
it does not harm the electrical equipment.
• When released from the cylinder, CO2 expands
enormously in volume and cools down.
• So, it not only forms a blanket around the fire, it
also brings down the temperature of the fuel.
• That is why it is an excellent fire extinguisher.
• About 300 million years ago the earth had dense
forests in low lying wetland areas.
• Due to natural processes, like flooding, these for-
ests got buried under the soil.
• As more soil deposited over them, they were
compressed.
• The temperature also rose as they sank deeper Petroleum
and deeper.
• Under high pressure and high temperature, dead • Petroleum was formed from organisms living in

plants got slowly converted to coal. the sea.

• As coal contains mainly carbon, the slow process • As these organisms died, their bodies settled at

of conversion of dead vegetation into coal is the bottom of the sea and got covered with lay-

called carbonization. ers of sand and clay.

• Since it was formed from the remains of vegeta- • Over millions of years, absence of air, high tem-

tion, coal is also called a fossil fuel. perature and high pressure transformed the

• Coal is processed in industry to get some useful dead organisms into petroleum and natural gas.

products such as coke, coal tar and coal gas. • The world’s first oil well was drilled in Pennsylva-
nia, USA, in 1859.
Coke • Eight years later, in 1867, oil was stuck at Makum
in Assam.
• It is a tough, porous and black substance. It is al-
• In India, oil is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai
most pure form of carbon.
High and in the river basins of Godavari and
• Coke is used in the manufacture of steel and in
Krishna.
the extraction of many metals.
• Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has an unpleas-
ant odour.
Coal tar
• It is a mixture of various constituents such as pe-
• It is a black, thick liquid with unpleasant smell. It troleum gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, paraf-
is a mixture of about 200 substances. fin wax, etc.
• Products obtained from coal tar are used as • The process of separating the various constitu-
starting materials for manufacturing various sub- ents is done by fractional distillation.
stances used in everyday life and in industry, like
synthetic dyes, explosives, perfumes, plastics,
paints, photographic materials, roofing materi-
als, etc.
• Interestingly, naphthalene balls used to repel
moths and other insects are also obtained from
coal tar.
70
• These days, bitumen, a petroleum product, is
used in place of coal-tar for metalling the roads.
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Coal gas

• Coal gas is obtained during the processing of

coal to get coke.
• It is used as a fuel in many industries situated
near the coal processing plants.
• Many useful substances are obtained from pe-
troleum and natural gas. These are termed as
‘Petrochemicals’.
• These are used in the manufacture of deter-
gents, fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.),
polythene and other man-made plastics.
• Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is
used in the production of fertilizers (urea).
• Due to its great commercial importance, petro-
leum is also called ‘black gold’.
Natural Gas
• Natural gas is a very important fossil fuel be-
cause it is easy to transport through pipes.
• Natural gas is stored under high pressure as
compressed natural gas (CNG). CNG is used for
power generation. It is now being used as a fuel
for transport vehicles because it is less polluting.
It is a cleaner fuel.
• The great advantage of CNG is that it can be
used directly for burning in homes and factories
where it can be supplied through pipes.
• Natural gas is also used as a starting material for
the manufacture of a number of chemicals and
fertilizers.
• India has vast reserves of natural gas. In our
country, natural gas has been found in Tripura,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and in the Krishna
Godavari delta.
Important alloys and their contents
• Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals and
cannot be separated into their components by
physical methods.
• But still, an alloy is considered as a mixture be-
cause it shows the properties of its constituents
and can have variable composition.
• For example, brass is a mixture of approximately
30% zinc and 70% copper.
Steel
Steel can be categorized into three groups;
1. "carbon steel" has limited amounts of carbon,
copper, manganese, phosphorus, silicon, and
sulfur, while
2. "alloy steel" has higher concentrations of these
additive metals and
3. "stainless steel" contains at least 10% chro-
mium.
Copper alloys
• Copper is widely used for electricity and thermal
conduction, though it is extremely soft in its pur-
est form, so alloys are created to help it retain its
shape.
• One of the oldest types of copper alloys is
bronze, which is made by adding tin (in most
cases), as well as phosphorus, lead, silicon, nickel,
and aluminum in varying concentrations.
• Also popular is brass, which is made mostly with
copper and zinc, but may also contain tin, lead,
manganese, and silicon in smaller concentra-
tions.
• Copper and other metals can either be melted
together or cold-worked to mix the metals.
Bronze = copper + aluminium + nickel + some
other metals
Brass = copper + zinc + tin + manganese + some
other metals 71
Gold and platinum alloys
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• Yellow gold contains cobalt, copper, silver,
and/or zinc, while
• White gold contains either nickel or palladium,
• Platinum is typically mixed with iridium, ruthe-
nium, or cobalt.
Aluminum alloys kitchen foil, but for applications requiring a
stronger metal, an aluminum alloy needs to be
• Pure aluminum is soft, resists corrosion, conducts created.
electricity well, so it is great for products like • Alloys and their contents

Name Composition Use

Brass Cu (60 to 80%), Zn (Zinc) (40 to 20%) For making household utensils
Bronze Cu (75 to 90%), Sn (Tin) (25 to 10%) For making coins, idols, utensils
German silver Cu (60%), Zn (25%), Ni (15%) For making utensils
Magnelium Mg (5%), Al (95%) For making aircraft frame
Rolled gold Cu (90%), Ni (10%) For making cheap ornaments
Bell metal Cu (80%), Sn (20%) For making bells
Gun metal Cu (85%), Zn (10%), Sn (5%) Used for engineering purposes
Solder Sn (50-75%), Pb (50-25%) Soldering of metals
Duralium Al (95%), Cu (4%), Mg (0.5%), Mn (0.5%) In aircraft manufacturing
Steel Fe (98%), C (2%) For making nails, screws, bridges
Stainless steel Fe (82%) Cr, Ni (18%) For making cooking utensils, knives

Synthetic materials Monomer ➔ a molecule that can be bonded to

other identical molecules to form a polymer.
• The fibres of some fabrics such as cotton, jute,
• Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, for exam-
silk and wool are obtained from plants and ani-
ple, is a polymer called cellulose.
mals. These are called natural fibres.
• Cellulose is made up of a large number of glu-
• For thousands of years natural fibres were the
cose units.
only ones available for making fabrics.
• All the synthetic fibres are prepared by a number
• In the last hundred years or so, fibres are also
of processes using raw materials of petroleum
made from chemical substances, which are not
origin, called petrochemicals.
obtained from plant or animal sources. These are
called synthetic fibres.
Some Generally Used Synthetic Fibres
• Some examples of synthetic fibres are polyester,
nylon and acrylic. • Synthetic fibres are more durable and affordable 72
• A synthetic fibre is a chain of small units joined which makes them more popular than natural fi-
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together. Each small unit is actually a chemical bres.

substance. Many such small units combine to • Major ones include Rayon, Nylon, Polyester,
form a large single unit called a polymer. Terylene, Acrylic etc.

Polymer ➔ a substance with a molecular structure Rayon

formed from many identical small molecules or other
units bonded together. • Scientists were successful in obtaining a fibre
having properties similar to that of silk.
• Such a fibre was obtained by chemical treatment
of wood pulp. This fibre was called rayon or ar-
tificial silk.
• Although rayon is obtained from a natural
source, wood pulp, yet it is a man-made fibre.
• It is cheaper than silk and can be woven like silk
fibres. It can also be dyed in a wide variety of col-
ours.
• Rayon is mixed with cotton to make bed sheets
or mixed with wool to make carpets.
Nylon
• Nylon was made without using any natural raw
material (from plant or animal).
• It was prepared from coal, water and air. It was
the first fully synthetic fibre.
• Nylon fibre was strong, elastic and light. It was
lustrous and easy to wash. So, it became very
popular for making clothes. A nylon thread is
actually stronger than a steel wire.
Polyester
• Fabric made from this fibre does not get wrinkled
easily. It remains crisp and is easy to wash.
• So, it is quite suitable for making dress material.
• PET is a very familiar form of polyester.
• It is used for making bottles, utensils, films, wires
and many other useful products.
• Polyester (Poly+ester) is actually made up of the
repeating units of a chemical called an ester. Es-
ters are the chemicals which give fruits their
smell.
Terylene
• Terylene is a popular polyester.
• It can be drawn into very fine fibres that can be
woven like any other yarn.
Acrylic
• We wear sweaters and use shawls or blankets in
the winter.
• Many of these are actually not made from natu-
ral wool, though they appear to resemble wool.
• These are prepared from another type of syn-
thetic fibre called Acrylic.
• The wool obtained from natural sources is quite
expensive, whereas clothes made from acrylic are
relatively cheap. They are available in a variety of
colours.
Mixing of fibers
• Fabrics are sold by names like polycot, polywool,
terrycot etc.
• As the name suggests, these are made by mixing
two types of fibres.
• Polycot is a mixture of polyester and cotton.
• Polywool is a mixture of polyester and wool.
Plastic
• Plastic is also a polymer like the synthetic fibre.
• All plastics do not have the same type of ar-
rangement of units. In some it is linear, whereas
in others it is cross-linked.
Polythene
• Polythene (Poly+ethene) is an example of a plas-
tic. It is used for making commonly used poly-
thene bags.
Thermoplastics vs Thermosetting Plastics
73
• Plastic which gets deformed easily on heating
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and can be bent easily are known as thermo-
plastics.
• Polythene and PVC (polyvinyl chloride) are some
of the examples of thermoplastics.
• These are used for manufacturing toys, combs
and various types of containers.
• On the other hand, there are some plastics which
when moulded once, cannot be softened by
heating. These are called thermosetting plas-
tics. Two examples are bakelite and melamine.
 Bakelite ➔ poor conductor of heat and electric-
ity. It is used for making electrical switches, han-
dles of various utensils, etc.
 Melamine ➔ It resists fire and can tolerate heat
better than other plastics. It is used for making
floor tiles, kitchenware and fabrics which resist
fire.
Fire-proof plastics
• Although synthetic fibre catches fire easily, it is
interesting to know that the uniforms of firemen
have coating of melamine plastic to make them
flame resistant.
• Special plastic cookware is used in microwave
ovens for cooking food. In microwave ovens, the
heat cooks the food but does not affect the plas-
tic vessel.
Teflon
• Teflon is a special plastic on which oil and water
do not stick.
• It is used for nonstick coating on cookwares.
Properties of a solution
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture.
• The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm
(10-9 metre) in diameter.
• So, they cannot be seen by naked eyes.
• Because of very small particle size, they do not
scatter a beam of light passing through the so-
lution.
• So, the path of light is not visible in a solution.
• The solute particles cannot be separated from
the mixture by the process of filtration.
• The solute particles do not settle down when left
undisturbed, that is, a solution is stable.
• When no more solute can be dissolved in a solu-
tion at a given temperature, it is called a satu-
rated solution.
• The amount of the solute present in the satu-
rated solution at this temperature is called its
solubility.
Non-homogeneous systems
• Solids are dispersed in liquids, are called suspen-
sions.
• A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in
which the solute particles do not dissolve but re-
main suspended throughout the bulk of the me-
dium. Particles of a suspension are visible to the
naked eye.
Properties of a suspension
• Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture
• The particles of a suspension can be seen by the
naked eye.
• The particles of a suspension scatter a beam
of light passing through it and make its path vis-
ible.
• The solute particles settle down when a suspen-
sion is left undisturbed, that is, a suspension is
unstable.
• They can be separated from the mixture by the
process of filtration.
What is a colloidal solution? 74
• The particles of a colloid are uniformly spread
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throughout the solution.
• Due to the relatively smaller size of particles, as
compared to that of a suspension, the mixture
appears to be homogeneous.
• But actually, a colloidal solution is a heteroge-
neous mixture, for example, milk.
• Because of the small size of colloidal particles, we
cannot see them with naked eyes.
• But these particles can easily scatter a beam of
visible light.
• This scattering of a beam of light is called the
Tyndall effect after the name of the scientist
who discovered this effect.
• But, a special technique of separation known as
centrifugation can be used to separate the col-
loidal particles.
• The components of a colloidal solution are the
dispersed phase and the dispersion medium.
• The solute-like component or the dispersed par-
ticles in a colloid form the dispersed phase, and
the component in which the dispersed phase is
suspended is known as the dispersing medium.
• Colloids are classified according to the state
(solid, liquid or gas) of the dispersing medium
and the dispersed phase.

• Tyndall effect can also be observed when a fine Questions

beam of light enters a room through a small
hole. Match the following:
• This happens due to the scattering of light by the
Column II
particles of dust and smoke in the air. Column I

• Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight 1. Polyester a) Prepared by using wood
pulp
passes through the canopy of a dense forest.
• In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of wa- 2. Teflon b) Used for making para-
ter, which act as particles of colloid dispersed chutes and stockings

in air. 3. Rayon c) Used to make nonstick

cookwares
Properties of a colloid
4. Nylon d) Fabrics do not wrinkle eas-
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture. ily 75
• The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be
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individually seen by naked eyes. Multiple Choice

• Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of
light passing through it and make its path visible.
• They do not settle down when left undisturbed,
that is, a colloid is quite stable.
• They cannot be separated from the mixture by
the process of filtration.
• Rayon is different from synthetic fibres because
(a) it has a silk like appearance (b) it is obtained
from wood pulp (c) its fibres can also be woven
like those of natural fibres.