Pharyngeal Arches

Pharyngeal or branchial arches begin to form distal to the frontonasal prominence early in
the fourth week. Humans have five pairs of arches, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 in a cranial to
caudal sequence (Fig. 2.3). Arch 5 does not develop in humans or even if initially present
regresses rapidly. They consist of visible layers of tissue outgrowth arising from underneath
the early brain and frontonasal prominence. These primitive embryonic structures
contribute greatly to the formation of the head and neck [8]. Congenital anomalies in these
regions may occur during the transformation of these structures into their adult derivatives.
For example, the first arch contributes to the development of the face. The second arch
forms the muscles of facial expression. The fourth and sixth arches contribute to the tongue
and larynx. Pharyngeal arches are derived from all three germ cell layers: endoderm,
mesoderm, and ectoderm. The neural crest cells also contribute to the formation of the
pharyngeal arches (Fig. 2.2).