REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the literature and studies which were found related to

the present study. It also provides a concise review of related studies and

literature that the researcher has thoughtfully gathered and purposely utilized to

be able to arrive with knowledge regarding Kalunay (Amaranthus Spinosus Linn)

as flavor booster in the development of muffin.

In an article entitled Exploring the potentials of underutilized grain amaranth

(Amaranthus spp.), Amaranthus species are ancient crops with excellent

nutritional and therapeutic value but their full potentials are yet to be optimally

exploited (Kwenin, Wolli, and Dzomeku 2011). Thus, incorporating Amaranth into

baked-by products will sort into new developments in the food production industry

and will create an impact on organoleptic properties of the finished products as

well as consumer acceptance. Stuart (2016), In the Philippines, Amaranths

kalunay (A. Spinosus L.) in particular is one of the many varieties that grows and

refer to as common weed (spiny amaranth) which can be found on roadsides and

wastelands, at low lands and low altitudes, gregarious and abundant along sand

bars and margins of streams(Distribution Section). Amaranth ( Amaranthus) is

considered a very nutritious leaf vegetable in the Philippines. The flowers are

also edible and when the seeds are formed, the seeds are ground to make a

healthy type of flour or eaten like a breakfast cereal (Maria, 2016).In fact, Dolly

(2011), kalunay is usually used, or cook as a veggie along with other vegetables

on a Philippine Ilokano recipe called denengdeng where vegetables are mixed

(Seafoods and Vegetables Section). In line with this nowadays, consumers are

10
interested in bread with health-promoting properties and there is a need to ensure

that plant-based food - products are used to produce acceptable organoleptic and

at the same time enhancing its nutritional properties (Birch and Bonwick 2018).

Several studies show that Amaranthus species are highly nutritious. The crop

has high levels of protein and minerals (Amare et al. 2015). Amaranth is declared

as one of the future promising crops to feed the global population (Mekonnen et al.

2018). Among the green leafy vegetable, amaranthus species are regarded as a

storehouse for vital vitamins such as vitamin C, B6, folate, and carotene (Musa et

al. 2011).

In addition to its nutritive value, Amaranths are rich in nutritional contents and

bioactive compounds with health-promoting effects; it has great relevance for

domestic and industrial applications through health purpose exploration. It is a

crop with a great prospect in addressing nutritional deficiency (Aderibigbe et al.

2020) thus, amaranth appears to be an economically viable underutilized crop

with great potential. and was considered as a superfood.

According to Borah (2018), Amaranth resembling spinach in appearance, its

leaves come in a few varieties ranging from purple and red to green or gold in

color. The author states that the seeds of the plant had gained much popularity for

their health benefiting properties because of which they were caped under the

superfood segment. Besides, the leaves too don’t fall behind in terms of nutritional

value. The juice extracted from amaranth leaves helps in treating diarrhea and

hemorrhage conditions. It is packed with carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and

vitamins, and regular consumption helps in easing digestion, excessive

11
menstruation, and weight management. Since it is high in iron content and dietary

fiber, it is good for anemic patients and reduces cholesterol and risks of

cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, the presence of essential amino acids

called lysine along with other elements is said to help fight against free radicals

that result in aging or the formation of malignant cells. Moreover, the leaves are

also deemed to be an effective measure against hair loss and premature greying

and they act as a natural astringent and work wonders for skin problems like

eczema and acne (Gluten-Free Amaranth: Why is it a Superfood?).

The relationship between humans and food is an extraordinary social and

cultural epic (Barilla Center For Food & Nutrition) and the demand for processed

baked products with long shelf life, satisfying taste, and high nutritional quality is

increasing throughout the world. A muffin is a type of semi-sweet cake or quick

bread that is baked in portions appropriate to one person. They are similar to

cupcakes, although they are usually less sweet and lack icing. Muffin gets its

characteristic rise from baking powder or sometimes baking soda instead of yeast.

Muffins are often eaten for breakfast, alternatively, they may be served for tea or

at other meals (David J. 2014).

Plant-based food by-products have low economic value as they are either

mostly fed to livestock (Wadhwa et al. 2013) or discarded in landfill sites

(Papargyropoulou, E et al. 2014). Yet, the large quantum of plant-based food

by-products generated by the food industry warrants the need for exploitation of

their potential use in new food product development including muffins.

12
 The incorporation of plant-based food by-products is a viable way of

enhancing the nutritional value of the baked products (Martins, Z.E. et al.2017)

which may reduce food waste and improve the nutritional status of consumers.

That notwithstanding, the addition of plant-based food by-products as functional

ingredients in baked products influences consumers' organoleptic perceptions

(Gomez, M.et al. 2018) and would contribute to its nutritional value (Martins, Z.E.

et al.2017). In this study, the incorporation of plant-based food by-product

Amaranth, the physical qualities, and sensory profiles of muffin containing

Amaranth is investigated through an experiment using three treatment.

Amaranthus Spinosus Linn

Kalunay (Amaranthus Spinosus Linn) is a genus of C4 dicotyledonous

herbaceous plants comprising approximately 70 species, with three subgenera,

which contains both cultivated and wild types, where cultivated ones are used for

food grains, leafy vegetables, potential forages, and ornamentals. Grain amaranth

is pseudocereals from three species domesticated in North and South America

and are notable for containing a high amount of protein and minerals and

balanced amino acid in their small seeds. (Thapa, Ranjita & Blair, Matthew W.

2018).

Global Information Hub on Integrated Medicine (2018), A. spinosus grows

annually as an erect, monoecious herb, up to 100-130cm tall, much branched;

stem terete or obtusely angular, glabrous or slightly pubescent, green or variably

suffused with purple. The leaves alternate and are simple without stipules; petiole

is approximately as long as the leaf-blade; The blade shape is ovate-lanceolate to

13
rhomboid, 3.5-11cm × 1-4.5cm, acute and often slightly decurrent at the base,

obtuse, rounded or slightly retuse and often short mucronate at apex, entire,

glabrous or slightly pubescent on veins when young. The inflorescence consists

of dense clusters, lower ones are axillary, higher ones often collected in an axillary

and terminal spike which is often branched in its lower part; axillary clusters are

usually armed with very sharp spines up to 2cm long. Its flowers are unisexual,

solitary in the axil of a bract, subtended by 2 bracteoles; bracts and bracteoles

scarious, mucronate from a broad base, shorter or as long as the perianth; male

flowers are usually arranged in a terminal spike above the base of the

inflorescence, green; tepals 5 or in male flowers often 3, free, subequal,

ovate-oblong to oblong-spatulate, up to 2.5mm long, very convex, membranous,

with transparent margins and green or purple median band; male flowers with 5

stamens about as long as tepals; female flowers with superior, oblong ovary,

1-celled, styles 2-3, ultimately recurved. The fruit is ovoid-shaped with a short

inflated neck below the style base, circumscissile a little below the middle, or

indehiscent. The seed is about 1mm in diameter, shiny, compressed, black, or

brownish-black in colour (General Description Section).

Geographical Source

Stuart, U. Jr. (2016), Amaranthus spinosus Linn. is an erect, spinosus annual

or perennial herb varying in colour from purple to green, is widely distributed

throughout the tropics and warm temperate regions of Asia from Japan to

Indonesia to India, the Pacific islands, native to tropical America and Australia as

a weed in cultivated as well as fallow lands 8-9. This common weed on roadsides

14
and wastelands is found throughout the Philippines at lowlands and low altitudes.

(Distribution Section).

It is also growing wild in all parts of Bangladesh. The plant is commonly found

throughout tropical, subtropical, and Himalayan regions and is distributed in lower

to middle hills (3000–5000 ft) of entire north eastern Himalayas 11-12. Most

scientists agree that the origin of diversity for amaranth is southwestern Mexico

near Oaxaca (Villarreal and Iturriaga, 2016).

Common names in the Philippines

Akum (Mag.) Kalunay (ilk.)

Alayon (If.) Kilitis (Tag., Bik.)

Ayantoto (Pamp.) Kolitis (Bis.)

Bawan (Bon.) Kuantung (Ilk.)

Bayambang (Tag.) Kulitis (P. Bis.)

Giting-giting (Aul.) Tadtad (Bon.)

Harum (Bis.) Tilitis (Bis.)

Kalitis (Hlg., S.B.) Uray (Tag.)

Other Vernacular Names

CHINESE: Ci xian, Le xian cai, Lei xian cai.

FINNISH: Piikkirevonhäntä.

FRENCH: épinard Cochon, épinard Malabre, Amarante épineuse,

Epinard Cochon, Epinard piquant, Pariétaire piquant.

GERMAN: Dorniger Fuchsschwanz, Malabarspinat.

HINDI: Chaulai Bhaji, Cholai, Kateli, Katemath.

15
HINDI: Chaulai Bhaji, Cholai, Kateli, Katemath.

INDIA: Katemath.

JAPANESE: Hari byu.

NEPAL: Ban lure, Dhuti ghans.

NORWEGIAN: Tornamarant.

PORTUGUESE: Bredo-bravo, Bredo-de-espinho, Carurú-de-espinho,

Caruru-bravo.

SANSKRIT: Tanduliya, Tanduliyah.

SPANISH: Bledo Espinoso, Espinaca De Malabar, Quelite Espinoso.

SWEDISH: Taggamarant.

TAMIL: Mullikkirai, Mullukkirai.

BRUNEI: bayam berduri (Malay) (Sundanese)

MALAYSIA: bayam duri, bayam hutan (general)

CAMBODIA: phti: bânla: (Pursat)

LAOS: hôm hna:m (general)

VIETNAM: rau dền gai (general), giền gai (Ha Nam Ninh).

INDONESIA: bayam duri (general), bayem eri (Javanese), senggang cucuk

THAILAND : mang-lang-du (Karen-Mae Hong Son), pa-tue (Khmer), phak

hom nam (peninsular)

Sources: Philippine Medicinal Plant. Uray (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://medicinalplantsdatabase.com/portfolio/uray/

R.H.M.J. Lemmens & N. Bunyapraphatsara (2016)

Medicinal Potential

Studies show significant contributions of Kalunay (Amaranthus Spinosus

16
Linn) in the field of medicine. Some of the studies presented are from Maurya,

Neelesh & Arya, Dr Pratibha. (2018), in their study, they focus on the nutritional

benefit of amaranthus grain and found out to have a higher amount of proteins

when compared to true cereals. It is a reasonably well-balanced food with

functional properties that have been shown to provide medicinal benefits. The

health benefits credited include decreasing plasma cholesterol levels, exerting an

antitumor activity, reducing blood glucose levels, and anemia. Amaranth has been

conducted in experimental animal models, there are compounds in the grain with

potentially beneficial medicinal properties present in the various fractions.

Because one of the basic principles of functional foods is the functionality of

bioactive substances through multiple metabolic paths, the beneficial health

effects of amaranth are likely due to the joint presence of all of them, as found in

the whole grain. Results of studies outlined in the study provide an in-depth

analysis of the health effects of extracts from different parts and concerning major

bioactive ingredients of Amaranthus spp.

Pharmacological studies on Kalunay (Amaranth Spinosus Linn) has been

investigated to find out what bioactive substances are present in the plant.

Medicinal plants have attracted considerable global interest in recent years.

Investigation of traditional medicine is very important for the welfare of rural and

tribal communities for the treatment of conventional illness. The extensive survey

literature reviewed that Amaranthus spinosus Linn. is an important medicinal plant

with a diverse pharmacological spectrum (Kumar, R.P. et al. 2014).

Pharmacologically, Amaranthus Spinosus contains medicinal properties like

17
antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-malarial, anti-tumor,

anti-peptic ulcer, anti-nociceptive, antibacterial, antihelmintic, anti-diabetic,

analgesic, spermatogenic, antifertility, anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, a

bronchodilator, and other activities. The plant also contains some of the

biologically active constituents which provide medicinal values to the plant hence

extensive survey literature on Amaranthus spinosus Linn validated its efficacy as

an important medicinal plant in traditional usage with a diverse pharmacological

spectrum. In the Indian traditional medicine system, the plant has been proved

to possess some pharmacological properties like anti-diabetic, antipyretic,

anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antimalarial, antibacterial,

antimicrobial, antidiuretic, antiviral, and in hepatic disorders. These properties are

mainly due to the presence of medicinally active constituents in whole plant parts

of Amaranthus spinosus Linn. Due to the presence of enormous traditional

usages in various treatments, the authors recommended investigating this plant

for the discovery of safe drugs (Asha, S. et al., 2016; Mitra et al., 2019). Similar

studies on pharmacology have been carried out with extract of the different parts

of the plant. The plant is widely used in the traditional medicinal system of India

and has been reported to possess antidiabetic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory,

antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antimalarial, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antidiuretic,

antiviral, and in hepatic disorders. The whole plant parts of the plant are known to

contain medicinally active constituents (Kumar, R.P. et al. 2014).

In another study administered by Nasir, Rabiu et al. (2020), the identification

of the constituents of Amaranthus spinosus was carried out using ethanol extract

18
of the dried leaf of the plant. Microbial detection of a zone of inhibition was also

carried out. The extract yield from the leaves was 17.40 g while phytochemical

screening indicated the presence of saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids,

and glycosides in the leaf extract. The antimicrobial assay indicated that

methanolic extract of the plant was slightly active against the test isolates with the

extract being more active against Staphylococcus aureus (15mm), Aspergillus

flavus (15mm), E. Coli. (13mm) and Mucor spp (10mm). Hence methanol extract

of this plant has potent medical values. In short, the demonstration of the activity

against the different categories of pathogenic bacteria and fungi by the leave of

Amaranthus spinosus is a scientific justification of the local application of the plant

as a healthy remedy and also can be used in the treatment of diarrhea and other

bacterial infections.

Orakwue, Foster (2019), in his study entitled Preliminary Phytochemical and

Antibacterial Analysis of Amaranthus spinosus, the result of the phytochemical

analysis confirmed that A. Spinosus contained different natural products such as

alkaloids saponins and flavonoids which are the basis for plant medicinal

importance and starting materials in the synthesis or production of new drugs. Its

antibacterial activity could be very much responsible for its application in the

treatments of toothache, ulcerated mouth, wounds, and diabetes. The presence of

elements on the leaves, especially calcium and magnesium helps in the case of

toothaches and broken bones.

Phytochemical investigations prove its importance as a valuable medicinal

plant. It is known as a rich source of alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolic

19
acids, steroids, amino acids, terpenoids, lipids, saponin, betalain, b-sitosterol,

stigmasterol, linoleic acid, rutin, catechuic tannins and carotenoids, alkaloids,

carotenoids. The studies on A. spinosus have been carried out by various

researchers and a wide spectrum of its pharmacological actions have been

explored which may include antidiabetic, antitumor, analgesic, antimicrobial,

anti-inflammatory, a spasmolytic, bronchodilator, hepato-protective,

spermatogenic, antifertility, antimalarial, antioxidant properties, etc (Kumar, R.P. et

al., 2014; Mitra et al., 2019 ).

A study has been carried out to verify the toxic effects of whole plant extract

against albino rats at the hematological level. The aqueous extract was

administered orally at 125, 250, 500, and 1000 mg kg. on the level of toxicity of

Amaranth Spinosus. Results of the study did not show any mortality in all

treatment groups and or any deleterious effects in the animals. The absence of

significant changes may suggest that the extract does not have toxic effects

( Wasu, Yogesh & Bhande, Satish. 2016).

Literature reports several medicinal properties of Kalunay (A. Spinosus L.)

and several countries including the Philippines are already using this traditional

system of medicine which has been scientifically substantiated by a group of

scientists. Stuart, U. Jr. (2016), In the Philippines, the decoction of roots has been

used for the treatment of gonorrhea. Roots were sun-dried, calcined, powdered,

and made into a pill – used for gonorrhea. Used for fever, bronchitis, snake bites,

bacillary dysentery, diarrhea, acute and chronic gastroenteritis, urinary tract

inflammation. Bruised leaves are used for eczema. Used as an antidote for

20
snake-poison; also, as lactagogue. The dosage is 30 to 60 gms of dried material

or 60 to 120 gms of fresh material, as infusion or decoction. For external

application, employ decoction of fresh material as a wash for ulcers and sores. A

decoction is also used as a gargle for sore throat. For bleeding hemorrhoids, uray

can be combined with Verbena officinalis and boiled into a decoction. To the

decoction, add a small amount of vinegar and drink. Bleeding should cease the

following day. A poultice of seeds used for broken bones. Like all amaranths, uray

is used for coughs. The plant used as an expectorant and to relieve breathing in

acute bronchitis. In Pakistan, roots are used for menorrhagia, gonorrhea, eczema,

colic, and as lactagogue. Leaves and roots are used as a laxative, on boils, and

as a poultice for abscesses. In the traditional medicine of Taiwan and China, used

for diabetes. In the Gold Coast, enema prepared from the plant used for piles. In

China, a poultice of seeds are used for broken bones; used internally for bleeding,

diarrhea, and menorrhagia. In Malaya, root decoction is used as a diuretic. In

Mauritius, root decoction is used as a diuretic. In India, infusion of roots used in

the treatment of eczema. Roots are also used for menorrhagia. In Nepal, used as

an abortifacient. Bruised leaves used as emollient; applied externally to

ulcerations in the mouth, eczema, burns, wounds, boils, earaches, and

hemorrhoids. Plant sap is used as an eyewash to treat ophthalmia and

convulsions in children. In Ayurveda, leaf infusion is used as a diuretic and for the

treatment of anemia. Root paste used in the treatment of gonorrhea. In Nigeria,

ashes from a burnt plant used for sores; juice from the plant used as an eyewash.

In Thai traditional medicine, A. spinosus is used to treat diarrhea. The root of the

21
plant is used for toothaches. In African traditional medicine leaves of A. spinous

are used in gastroenteritis, gall bladder inflammation, ulcerated mouths, colic

menorrhagia, burns, wounds, abscesses, arthritis, eczema, boils, earache, and

hemorrhoids and for the treatment of snakebites. A solution of plant ash is used to

wash sores. To treat ophthalmia and convulsion in children the plant sap is used.

In many parts of Africa, the plant is used in nutritional deficiency disorders and

various other diseases. In Malaysian traditional medicine, A. spinosus is used to

give relief to patients with acute bronchitis. In South-East Asia, the plant is used

as an antidote to snake poison, and as a galactagogue. In Chinese traditional

medicine, A. spinosus is used to treat diabetes. Seed and root of the plant are

considered effective in the treatment of broken bones and as a diuretic. In Indian

traditional medicine, tribals of Kerala use leaves of A. spinous to cure jaundice,

stomach problem, rheumatic pain and to prevent malaria. Tribals of Sikkim use

the plant leaf as a diuretic and in anemia as well as in stomach trouble, especially

in indigestion and peptic ulcer. The leaf is also used in curing piles and leprosy.

They believe that leaf poultice is helpful in burn-wound and abscess to discharge

the pus. The root of the plant is used by them in eczema, gonorrhea, and

menorrhea. In Manipur, cooked A. spinosus is eaten by patients suffering from

diabetes and high blood pressure (Folkloric Section).

These studies provide an in-depth analysis of the biological effects of major

bioactive components present in each specific part of Kalunay (A. Spinosus L.).

Current scientific opinion advocates consumption of the whole plant the way

nature prepared it with full compliments of naturally occurring synergistic

22
phytonutrients to attain holistic wellbeing (Kavita, Peter & Puneet ,G. 2017).

Nutritional Potential

Amaranthus species are a highly popular group of vegetables to which leaves,

shoots, tender stems, and grains are eaten as a potential herb in sauces or soups,

cooked with other vegetables, with the main dish, or by itself. It contains

carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fibers, minerals such as iron, calcium, manganese,

copper, and zinc revealing its nutritional potential. Incorporation of functional food

materials such as A. spinosus having both nutritional and medicinal values will

definitely keep human beings healthy. (Ganjare, A., & Raut, N.A. 2019).

Traditionally A. Spinosus is also known for its nutritional values and therefore

leaves and stems are cooked, steam or fried and then consumed. Other

nutritional uses of A.spinosus includes forage for livestock. Its vegetable and

seeds are known to be highly nutritious and therefore consumed by humans as

well as animals, as nearly all essential nutrients for humans are available in plants

(Jimoh MO, 2018; Mitra et al. 2019). They are a promising group of crops with

exclusive nutritional compositions that could enrich the biological value of

processed foods (Jimoh MO, 2018). Hence the genus Amaranthus has received

considerable attention in many countries because of the high nutritional value of

some species like A. Spinosus which are important sources of food, either as

vegetables or grain. The leaves encompass 17.5 to 38.3% dry matter as a protein

of which 5% is lysine. Vitamin A and C are also present at significant levels almost

three times as that of spinach (Srivastava R. 2011). The nutritional value of

amaranth has been extensively studied and along with chemical composition it is

23
depicted in Srivastava performed a comparative analysis of fresh leaves of four

species A. spinosus, A. Viridis, A. blitum, and A. tricolor for protein and

carbohydrate content whereas oven-dried leaves for Fe, Ca, K and Na contents.

Protein content was varied from 6.10-9.00g/100g of fresh leaves while the amount

of carbohydrate in fresh leaves of all four species was observed to be varied from

9.75 g-21.29 g. Among the species, A. spinosus was reported to contain the

highest amount of carbohydrates (21.29g) which is almost two folds higher than A.

tricolor (9.75g). The results of protein analysis also showed that A. spinosus

contains a higher amount of protein (9g/100g). A. spinosus is a good source of

manganese and molybdenum. In addition, Amaranthus leaves contribute from 2%

to 3% of the daily value of phosphorus (P) and zinc (Zn), and from 1 to 4 % of iron

(Fe) per serving (Aguilar et al. 2017).

In a study by Wong, Kaufui. (2017), Amaranth grain and greens give

significant health benefits. Amaranth seeds are used as cereals or as a cereal

component. Amaranth oil has been shown to be beneficial for health. Amaranth

flour is used in many food products. Since it does not contain gluten, its availability

is a good replacement for wheat (rye, barley which also has gluten) and wheat

products, as well as for the derived flour.

Amaranthus has received considerable attention in many countries because of

the high nutritional value of some species like A. Spinosus which are important

sources of food, either as vegetables or grain.

Nutritional Content of the Amaranthus spp. (usda 2010).

Nutrient Unit Value per 100 g

24
Water G 11.29

Energy Kcal 371

Energy kj 1554

Protein g 13.56

Total lipid(fat) g 7.02

Ash g 2.88

Carbohydrate, by difference g 65.25

Fiber, total dietary g 6.7

Sugars, total g 1.69

Starch g 57.27

Calcium, Ca mg 159

Phosphorus, P mg 557

Iron, Fe mg 7.61 2.87

Zinco, Zn mg 2.87

Magnesium, Mg mg 248

Zinco, Zn mg 2.87

Manganese, Mn mg 3.333

Thiamin mg 0.116

Riboflflavin mg 0.200

Niacin mg 0.923

Folate,total g 82

Vitamin Vitamin C,

totalascorbic acid mg 4.2

25
E(alpha-tocopherol) mg 1.19

Vitamin B6 mg 0.591

Fattyacids, totalsaturated g 1.459

Fattyacids, totalmonounsaturated g 1.685

Fattyacids, totalpolyunsaturated g 2.778

Fattyacids,18:3n-3 c,c,c (ALA) g 0.042

Phytosterols mg 24

Squalene in amaranth oila % 2.4 to 8.00

Source: a (Bruni and others, 2001;Rodas andBressani, 2009 ;Sousa and

Farfan,2012)

Amaranthus on Bakery Products

Amaranth can be used in many food applications like cooking, popping,

extrusion, fermentation, bread baking, or pasta. The main aim of adding amaranth

to such products is usually their nutritional enhancement. In a study conducted by

Gebreil, Seham et al. (2020), Amaranth has become an unconventional crop that

interesting to scientists and researchers due to its unique nutritional properties,

amaranth flour has been utilized in the preparation of high nutritional value bakery

products, crackers, and tortilla in substitution of cornflour (w/w) by 0%, 25%, 50%,

75% and 100% levels substitution. The prepared products were evaluated for

their chemical composition, minerals content, amino acids composition, fatty acid

composition, color analysis, biologically active compounds analysis, and sensory

evaluation. Results showed that substitution with amaranth flour increased protein,

fat, ash, and fiber. As for minerals and amino acid, it indicated that formula No. 3

26
(25% cornflour/75% amaranth flour) in crackers and formula No. 2 (50%

cornflour/50% amaranth flour) in tortilla contained a higher amount of minerals

such as iron, calcium, potassium, zinc, magnesium, manganese, copper and

phosphorus, and of the essential amino acids such as Leucine, Lysine, and valine.

On the other hand the formula No. 3 in crackers had the highest unsaturated fatty

acids content and lowest total saturated fatty acids content. While formula No. 2 in

tortilla had the highest saturated fatty acids content and lowest unsaturated fatty

acids content.

The results also showed that the incorporation of amaranth flour in the

preparation of the crackers and tortilla led to significantly decreased yellowness

and lightness compared with control. Also, results indicated that crackers and

tortilla which prepared with amaranth flour exhibited higher antioxidant activity

than control formulas. Concerning the sensory evaluation of crackers, results

showed a significant decrease in appearance, color, and overall acceptability

while, tortilla had a significant decrease in general appearance, color, and total

score at all formulas. Based on the results obtained here, amaranth is a rich

source of bioactive compounds and due to its nutritional benefits, it can be used in

the development and enhancement of functional foods. It can be concluded that

the use of amaranth flour improved chemical composition, physiochemical

properties, essential amino acids, essential unsaturated fatty acids, and minerals

which play an active role in improving the nutritional value of crackers and tortillas.

This is because it is an important source of protein, and minerals especially

calcium, magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, potassium, and phosphorus, and

27
contains many bioactive compounds, especially phytosterols, polyphenols.

A similar study has been taken by Dos, Andréa, et al. (2012) effects of

incorporating amaranth on the physical properties and nutritional value of cheese

bread. Amaranth flour was incorporated at 10, 15, and 20% proportions in

different formulations. The increasing amaranth levels darkened the product,

reduced specific volume, and increased compression force. Results showed that

the introduction of 10% amaranth in cheese bread proved successful, which is

evidenced by slight changes in physical properties and the absence of negative

effects on the sensory quality. The product presented higher amounts of protein,

fiber, and iron than those of the conventional formula thus increasing the

availability of gluten-free bakery products with added nutritional value.

Hypotheses:

1. There is no significant difference between the muffin using the controlled variable

and the muffin using the experimental variable.

2 There is no significant relationship between the over-all acceptability of muffins

and the Return of Investment (ROI) using three treatments.

28