CE 321

PRICIPLES OF STEEL DESIGN

John Eduard D. Gallego, CE

Instructor
College of Engineering and Technology
Digos City
 2.1 Types of Bolted and Riveted Connections

High – Strength Bolts

High strength bolts have replaced rivets as means of making nonwelded structural
connections. There are two basic types of high strength bolts used. The ASTM A325
and ASTM A490. The material properties of these bolts are given in Table 2 – 1. High
strength bolts are usually tightened to develop a specified tensile stress in them,
which results in a predictable clamping force on the joint. Therefore, the actual
transfer of service load through a joint is due to the friction developed in the pieces
being joined. Joints containing high-strength bolts are designed either as slip-
critical or friction type, where high slip resistance at service load is desired, or
bearing-type, where high slip resistance at service load is unnecessary.
Rivets
Installation of rivets requires heating the rivets to a light cherry-red color. Inserting
it into a hole and then applying pressure to the preformed head while at the same
time squeezing the plain end of the rivet to form a rounded head. During this
process, the shank of the rivet completely or nearly fills the hole into which it had
been inserted. Upon cooling, the rivet shrinks, thereby providing a clamping force.
However, the amount of clamping force produced by cooling of the rivet varies from
rivet to rivet and therefore cannot be counted on in design calculations.
 2.2 Minimum Spacing of Fastener Holes
According to section 510.4.8, the distance between centers of standard, oversized, or slotted fastener holes shall
2
not be less than 2 3 times the nominal diameter of the fastener nor less than that required by the following
paragraph, as applicable.

Along a line of transmitted forces, the distance between centers of holes s shall be not less than 3d when 𝐹𝑝 is
determine by equation Eq. 2.3 and Eq. 2.4. Otherwise, the distance between the holes shall not be less than the
following:

(a) For Standard holes

2𝑃 𝑑
𝑠≥ + Eq. 2.1
𝐹𝑢 𝑡 2

Where
P = force transmitted by one fastener to the critical connected part, kN
𝐹𝑢 = specified minimum tensile strength of the critical connected part, Mpa
t = Thickness of the critical connected part, mm
d = nominal diameter of the fastener
b.) For oversized and slotted holes, the distance required by standard holes in paragraph a plus the applicable
increment 𝐶1 from Table 2-3, but the clear distance between holes shall not be less than one bolt diameter.
 2.3 Minimum Edge Distance

The distance form the center of a standard hole to an edge of a connected part shall not be less than the
applicable value from Table 2-4 nor the value from Eq. 2.2, as applicable.

(a) Along a line of transmitted forces, in the direction of the force, the distance between centers of a standard
hole to the edge of the connected part 𝐿𝑒 shall not be less than 1.5d when 𝐹𝑝 is determine by equation Eq. 2.3
and Eq. 2.4. Otherwise, the edge distance shall not be less than:

2𝑃
𝐿𝑒 ≥ Eq. 2.2
𝐹𝑢 𝑡

(b) The distance from the center of an oversized or slotted hole to an edge of a connected part shall be not less
than that required for standard hole given in paragraph (a) plus the applicable increment 𝐶2 from Table 2-5.
2.4 Allowable Bearing Stress on Plates at Bolt Holes
(Section 510.4.7)
On projected area of bolts and rivets in shear connections with end distance in the line of force not less than
1.5d and the distance center-to-center of bolts not less than 3d, the allowable bearing stress 𝐹𝑝 are as follows:

1. In standard or short-slotted holes with two or more bolts in the line of force, when deformation around the
hole is of concern,
𝐹𝑝 = 1.20𝐹𝑢 Eq. 2.3
2. In long slotted holes with the axis of the slot perpendicular to the direction of load and with two or more bolts
in the line of force,
𝐹𝑝 = 1.00𝐹𝑢 Eq. 2.4
On the projected area of bolt or rivet closest to the edge in standard or short-slotted holes with the edge
distance less than 1.5d and in all connections with single bolt in the line of force:

𝐿𝑒 𝐹𝑢
𝐹𝑝 = 2𝑑
≤ 1.20𝐹𝑢 Eq. 2.5

Where :
𝐿𝑒 = distance from the free edge to center of the bolt in mm
𝑑 = bolt diameter in mm
If deformation around the hole is not a design consideration and adequate spacing and edge distance is as
required by the Code, the following equation is permitted in lieu of Eq. 2.3:

𝐹𝑝 = 1.50𝐹𝑢 Eq. 2.6

And the limit in Eq. 2.5 shall be increased to 1.50𝐹𝑢 .

 2.5 Combined Shear and Tension

The allowable shear stress for members subjected to combined shearing and tensile force is as given in Table 2-1.
However, its tensile strength is reduced from its maximum value by virtue of the simultaneously acting shear. The
allowable tensile stress for fasteners in bearing-type connection in the presence of shear stress 𝑓𝑣 is given in
Table 2-8.
 2.6 Allowable Tensile Stress on
Plates
The allowable tensile stress in plates is based on the following modes of failure of the member: Excessive
elongation (or yielding) and fracture. Section 504.2 of NSCP states the following allowable tensile stress on
plates:
Except on pin connected members:
Allowable stress on gross area (yielding)
𝐹𝑡 = 0.60𝐹𝑦 Eq. 2.7
Allowable stress on net area (fracture)
𝐹𝑡 = 0.50𝐹𝑢 Eq. 2.8
For pin-connected members:

Allowable stress on net area of pinhole:

𝐹𝑡 = 0.45𝐹𝑦 Eq. 2.9
Allowable stress on the body area of eyebars
𝐹𝑡 = 0.6𝐹𝑦 Eq. 2.10
 2.7 Slenderness Ratio

Since tension members do not buckle, there is no slenderness ratio limitation. In order to prevent the
undesirable lateral movement and vibration, however, it is recommended that the slenderness ratio L/r of
tension members, except rods, should preferably (but not required) not exceed 300.
 2.8 Gross and Net Area

Gross Area (Section 502.2)

The gross area 𝐴𝑔 of a member at any point shall be determined by summing the products
of the thickness and the gross width of each element as measure normal to the axis of the
member.

For angles, the gross width shall be the sum of the widths of the legs less the
thickness.

Net Area (Section 502.3)

When tension members are connected by welding, the total cross-sectional area is available
for transferring the tension. When the connection is done by bolting (or riveting), holes
must be made in the member. These holes evidently reduce the cross-sectional area
available for transferring the tension. The net area 𝐴𝑛 of a member is the sum of the
products of the thickness and the net width of each element computed as follows:

Net Width, 𝑾𝒏
The width of a rivet or bolt hole shall be taken as 1.6 mm greater than the nominal
diameter of the hole.
Staggered Holes

Holes are sometimes staggered, as shown in Figure 2-4 Staggering of the holes increases the net
area of the section According to Section 502.3, for a chain of holes extending across a part in any
diagonal or zigzag line, the net width of the part shall be obtained by deducting from the gross
width the sum of the diameters or slot dimensions of all holes in the chain, and adding for each
gage space in the chain the quantity.

𝑠2
Eq. 2.11
4𝑔
𝑠2
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − σ 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 + σ Eq. 2.12
4𝑔

𝑠2
Or 𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − σ 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝑡 + σ 4𝑔 𝑡 Eq. 2.13

Where:
s = longitudinal center-to-center spacing (Pitch) of any two consecutive holes.
g = transverse center-to-center spacing (gage) between fasteners gage lines, mm
Angles
For angles, the gage for holes in opposite legs shall be the sum of the gages from the back of the
angle less the thickness.

𝑠 = 100
𝑔 = 90 + 80 − 10 = 160
The critical net area 𝐴𝑛 of the part is obtained from that chain which give the least net width.

In determining the net area across plug or slots weld, the weld metal shall not be considered as
adding to the net area.

Where the number of holes

is not the same in all rows
as in figure 2-5, both paths
ABCDE and ABDE must be
checked.
 2.9 Load Transfer at Axially
Loaded Connections

The holes in tension members are normally for rivets or bolts to transfer load from one
tension member into another. The assumption is that each equal size fasteners transfers
equal share of the load when they are arranged symmetrically with respect to the
centroidal axis of a tension member. If connectors in a tension lap splice are arranged in
two or more unstaggered rows and if the rows have unequal number of fasteners, each
fracture line should be checked for tension capacity assuming that the previous fracture
lines have absorbed a proportionate share of the load.
If tearing occurs along the first row as shown in Figure 2 - 6 (a), the full tensile force P acts on the net
area, and thus, 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑡 𝐴′ 𝑛, where 𝐴′ 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛 .

If tearing occurs along succeeding rows as shown in Figure 2 - 6 (b), less than 100% of P acts on the net
area, since part of that force will have already been transferred to the other plate. From the figure, only
P - P/5 = 0.8P or 80% of P now acts across the second row. For this case, 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑡 𝐴′𝑛 where 𝐴′𝑛 is given by:

𝐴𝑛
𝐴′𝑛 = 𝑛 Eq. 2.14
1−𝑁

Where
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ≤ 85%𝐴𝑔
𝑁 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑.
 2.10 Effective Net Area, 𝐴𝑒

When a tension member frames into a supporting member, some of the load carrying ability will be
lost unless all connectors are in the same plane and all elements of the tension member are
connected to the support. For example, in the case of an angle, only one leg may be connected to
the joint. A reduction coefficient, U, is therefore used to calculate the effective net area. U can be
taken as 1.0 if all cross-sectional elements are connected to the support. When the load is
transmitted by bolts through only some of the cross-sectional elements of the member, the effective
net area, 𝐴𝑒 , is calculated by using the following formula (Section 502.4.3)

𝐴𝑒 = 𝑈𝐴𝑛 Eq. 2.15

where
𝐴𝑛 = net area of the member
𝑈 = a reduction coefficient

Unless a large coefficient can be justified by test or other recognized criteria, the following values of
𝑈 shown in Table 2-9 shall be used in computations:
2.11 Allowable Shear Stress on Plates

According to Section 510.5, at beam end connections where the top flange is coped, and in similar
situations where failure might occur by shear along a plane through the fasteners, or by a
combination of shear along a plane through the fasteners plus tension along perpendicular plane:

On the net shear area, 𝐴𝑣 :

𝐹𝑣 = 0.30𝐹𝑢 Eq. 2.17

On the net tension area 𝐴𝑡 :

𝐹𝑣 = 0.50𝐹𝑢 Eq. 2.18
 2.12 Analysis of Axially Loaded
Bolted or Riveted Connection
The following stresses must be investigated in the design or analysis of axially loaded tension
connections:

Gross area, 𝐴𝑔 = 𝑊 𝑥 𝑡
Net Area, 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑊𝑔 − σ ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 + 1.6 𝑡 ≤ 85%𝐴𝑔

1. Tension on Gross Area:

𝑃
Actual stress,𝑓𝑡 = 𝐴
𝑔
Allowable stress,𝐹𝑡 = 0.60𝐹𝑦 (Yielding)
2. Tension on Effective Area:
𝑃
Actual stress,𝑓𝑡 = 𝐴
𝑒
Allowable stress,𝐹𝑡 = 0.50𝐹𝑢 (Fracture)

3. Shear in bolts
𝑃
Actual stress,𝑓𝑣 = 𝐴
𝑣
𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐴𝑣 = 2𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
4. Bearing on the projected area between the
bolt and the plate:
𝑃
Actual stress,𝑓𝑝 = 𝐴
𝑝
𝐴𝑝 = σ 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
Allowable stress, 𝐹𝑝 = 1.2𝐹𝑢

5. Combine shearing and tearing (Shear rapture

or block shear)

𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑡 𝐹𝑡
Allowable shearing stress, 𝐹𝑣 = 0.30𝐹𝑢
Allowable Tearing stress, 𝐹𝑡 = 0.50𝐹𝑢
Problem 2 - 1
The single 200 mm x 10 mm steel plate is connected to a 12-mm thick steel plate by four 16 mm
diameter rivets as shown in Figure 2 - 8. The rivets used are A502, Grade 2, hot driven rivets. The Steel
is ASTM A36 with Fy = 248 MPa and Fu = 400 MPa. Determine the value of P in all possible modes of
failure and the safe value of P that the connection can resist.
𝑅𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 16𝑚𝑚
𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 16𝑚𝑚 + 1.6𝑚𝑚 = 17.6𝑚𝑚
Tension on gross area:
𝐹𝑇 = 0.60𝐹𝑦 = 0.60 248𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 148.8𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑔 = 200𝑚𝑚 𝑥 10𝑚𝑚 = 2,000𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐴𝑔 = 148.8𝑀𝑃𝑎 2,000𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 = 297.6𝑘𝑁

Tension on net area:

𝐹𝑇 = 0.50𝐹𝑢 = 0.50 400𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 200𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑒 = 200 − 2 17.6 10𝑚𝑚 = 1,648𝑚𝑚2
85%𝐴𝑔 = 0.85 2,000𝑚𝑚2 = 1700𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝑒 ≤ 85%𝐴𝑔
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐴𝑒 = 200𝑀𝑃𝑎 1,648𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 = 329.6𝑘𝑁

Bearing on projected area:

𝐹𝑝 = 1.20𝐹𝑢 = 1.20 400𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 480𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑝 = ෍ 𝑑𝑡 = 16𝑚𝑚𝑥10𝑚𝑚𝑥4 = 640𝑚𝑚2

𝑃 = 𝐹𝑝 𝐴𝑝 = 480𝑀𝑃𝑎 640𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 = 307.2𝑘𝑁
Shear on rivets (From table 2-1):
𝐹𝑣 = 152𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝞹 𝞹
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑁 = 16 2 𝑥 4 = 804.25𝑚𝑚2
4 4
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 𝐴𝑣 = 152𝑀𝑃𝑎 804.25𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 = 122.246𝑘𝑁

Shear Rupture (Block Shear):

𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑡 𝐹𝑡
Allowable shearing stress, 𝐹𝑣 = 0.30𝐹𝑢
Allowable Tearing stress, 𝐹𝑡 = 0.50𝐹𝑢
𝐹𝑣 = 0.30 400𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 120𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑡 = 0.50 400𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 200𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑣 = 2 135 − 1.5 17.6 x 10mm = 2,172𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝑡 = 100 − 17.6 𝑥 10𝑚𝑚 = 824𝑚𝑚2

𝑃 = 120𝑀𝑃𝑎 2,172𝑚𝑚2 + 200𝑀𝑃𝑎 824𝑚𝑚2

𝑃 = 425,440𝑁
𝑃 = 425.44𝑘𝑁

:.Use the safe load 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝟔𝒌𝑵 governed by shear on

rivets
Problem 2 – 10
A plate with width of 400mm and thickness of 12 millimeters is to be connected to a plate of the same
width and thickness by 34mm diameter bolts, as shown in figure 2-20. The holes are 2mm larger than the
bolt diameter. The plate is A36 steel with yield strength 𝐹𝑦 = 248 𝑀𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠. Assume allowable tensile
stress on the net area is 0.60𝐹𝑦 . It is required to determine the value of b such that the net width along
bolts 1-2-3-4 is equal to the net width along bolts 1-2-4.

a) Calculate the value of b in millimeters.

b) Calculate the value of the net area for tension in plates in square millimeters.
c) Calculate the value of P so that the allowable tensile stress on the net area will not be exceeded.
a) Calculate the value of b in millimeters.

Solution:

𝑑ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 34 + 2 = 36𝑚𝑚
602 𝑏2 150 2 𝑏2
𝑾𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟒 = 400 − 4 36 + + + = 321.25 +
4 100 4 100 4 100 4 100

602 150 − 𝑏 2
150 − 𝑏 2
𝑾𝟏𝟐𝟒 = 400 − 3 36 + + = 301 +
4 100 4 200 800

𝑾𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟒 = 𝑾𝟏𝟐𝟒

𝑏2 150 − 𝑏 2
321.25 + = 301 +
4 100 800

𝒃 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟕𝟏𝒎𝒎
b.) Calculate the value of the net area for tension in plates in square millimeters.

Solution:
𝑏2 19.712
𝑨𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟒 = 𝑨𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝑥 𝑡 = 321.25 + 𝑡 = 321.25 + 𝑥 12𝑚𝑚 = 3,866.65𝑚𝑚2
4 100 4 100

2 2
150 − 𝑏 150 − 19.71
𝑨𝟏𝟐𝟒 = 301 + t = 301 + x 12mm = 3,866.63𝑚𝑚2
800 800

602 19.712
𝐴123 = 400 − 3 36 + 4 100
+ 4 100
𝑥 12𝑚𝑚 = 3,623.65𝑚𝑚2

:. Use 𝑨𝟏𝟐𝟑 = 3,623.65𝑚𝑚2

c.) Calculate the value of P so that the allowable tensile stress on the
net area will not be exceeded.

𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 0.60𝐹𝑦 = 0.60 248𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 148.8𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑃 = 0.60𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑛 = 148.8𝑀𝑃𝑎 3,623.65𝑚𝑚2

𝑷 = 𝟓𝟑𝟗. 𝟐𝒌𝑵
 Problem 2 – 12
Calculate the service tensile load capacity for an L150 x 90 x 12 A53 steel connected with 22-mm
diameter A490 bolts in standard holes as shown in figure 2-22.

Relevant Properties of L150 x 90 x 12

𝐴 = 2,751𝑚𝑚2
𝐵 = 90𝑚𝑚
𝐻 = 150𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = 12𝑚𝑚

Bolt Diameter = 22mm

Nominal Hole Diameter = 24mm (Table 2-2)
Use hole diameter = 24 mm + 1.6mm = 25.6mm

For A53 steel: (Table 2 – 8)

𝐹𝑦 = 241𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑢 = 414𝑀𝑃𝑎
Shear on bolts (8bolts in single shear)
From Table 2-1 – Allowable stress on Fasteners
𝐹𝑣 = 276𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝞹
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 𝐴𝑣 = 276𝑀𝑃𝑎 8 𝑥 22 2
4
𝑃 = 839.33𝑘𝑁

Bearing on projected area:

𝐹𝑝 = 1.2𝐹𝑢 = 1.20 414𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 496.8𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑝 = 8 𝑥 22𝑚𝑚 12𝑚𝑚 = 2,112𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑝 𝐴𝑝 = 496.8𝑀𝑃𝑎 2,112𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 = 1,049.24𝑘𝑁

Tension on gross area:

𝐹𝑡 = 0.60𝐹𝑦 = 0.60 241𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 144.6𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑡 = 2,751𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 144.6𝑀𝑃𝑎 2,751𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 = 397.79𝑘𝑁
Tension on net area:
𝐹𝑡 = 0.50𝐹𝑢 = 0.50 414𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 207𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑡 𝐴𝑒

𝐴𝑒 = 𝑈𝐴𝑛

For path abd:

𝐴𝑛 = 2,751𝑚𝑚2 − 1 25.6𝑚𝑚𝑥 12𝑚𝑚 = 2,443.8𝑚𝑚2

For path abce:

2 502
𝐴𝑛 = 2,751𝑚𝑚 − 2 25.6𝑚𝑚𝑥 12𝑚𝑚 + 𝑥12 = 2,257.6𝑚𝑚2
4 62

use 𝐴𝑛 = 2,257.6𝑚𝑚2

*the tension connection is not made in a manner that results in the

attachment of all parts of the section. Section 502.4.2 of NSCP. 𝑈 =
0.85 (Table 2 – 9)

𝑃 = 207𝑀𝑃𝑎 0.85 𝑥2,257.6𝑚𝑚2

𝑃 = 397.22kN

:. Use P = 397.22kN governed by the tension on net area along abce.