Study Units 1.2, 2 & 3.

COU105e
Psychology of Personality Development
ⓒ

F2F Session 2
Personality Theories
By
Dr Koay Siew Luan
PhD (Psychology)

ⓒDr KoaySL-cou105
 Today’s Content Outline

1. F2F Session 1 Review

2. Key chapters to read in textbook for Session 2
3. Knowledge and skills learning outcomes
4. Clarifying Important aspects and bases for comparisons of:
• Topic 2 Psychoanalytic theory-Freud & Erikson
• Topic 3 Biological theory
• Topic 4 Behaviourist theory of operant conditioning -Skinner
& Bandura’s social-cognitive modeling theory
• Topic 5 Cognitive theory –Kelly, Piaget, Bruner, Gestalt
• Topic 6 Humanist theory-Rogers & Maslow
& Trait theory –MMPI, 16PF, MBTI, Big Five (OCEAN) etc.
• Student questions /discussion
15/2/21 2
 Review of F2F Session 1
1. What essential aspects do the scientific
definition of personality cover?
e.g. Personality is an enduring configuration of
characteristics and behavior that comproses an
individual’s unique adjustment to ife, including major
traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities
and emotional pattern –complex, dynamic integration
or totality shaped by many forces…
Reference:
American Psychological Association (2015). APA Dictionary of
Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Assoc.
15/2/21 3
 Review of F2F Session 1
1. What essential aspects do the scientific
definition of personality cover?
• Unique pattern or composition
• Enduring traits
• Inborn and acquired characteristics
• Individual differences in thoughts (cognitive), feelings
(affective), attitudes, motives & behaviour
• Determines a person’s consistent and predictable
behavior

15/2/21 4
 Review of F2F Session 1

• 2. What are the most important qualities of good test

and why?
• Validity= measurement accuracy (the extent to which a test
measures what it is supposed to be measuring)
• Reliability=consistency (consistency of scores that are expected
to be the same over time)
• Justification
• Validity-depends on purpose, relevance of content coverage and
appropriateness for audience. A valid test achieves its purpose.
• Reliability-r >.8 =stability and shows less measurement error.
Worthiness of test. Reliability alone not enough.
• These two technical properties of good test of a test indicate the
quality and usefulness of the test and determine the suitability
for its use.
15/2/21 5
 Review of F2F Session 1

3.1 Of the two essential qualities of test, which

is the most important quality & why?
• Validity –r >.21 to .35 beneficial & very likely to be useful-
measurement accuracy-depends on purpose, relevance of
content coverage and appropriateness for audience. Illustrate
with example or types of validity
• i.e. Validity will tell you how good a test is for a particular
situation;
• An invalid test no matter how high the reliability is a useless
test as it does not test what the test intends to test –
irrelevance renders results useless and no credible
judgement or valid conclusion can be made.
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 3.2 Of the two essential qualities of test, which is the
most important quality & why? (Contd.)

• Reliability-r >.8 =stability and less measurement error.

Worthiness of test. Reliability alone not enough. Illustrate
with example or types of reliability
• - reliability will tell you how trustworthy a score on that test
will be.
• Note:
• Cannot draw valid conclusions from a test score unless sure
that the test is reliable.
• Even when a test is reliable, it may not be valid.
• A good test must be both valid and reliable .

15/2/21 7
 Review of F2F Session 1
4. How is personality assessed? Give examples to support answer.
• Personality is assessed using different methods of assessment:
a) Objective assessment
– Measurement that relies on scores of tests and questionnaires with
rating scales
b) Subjective assessment
– Measurement that relies on interpretation of unstructured or ambiguous
tasks, situations or events

• Examples of Types of Personality Measures

a) Objective measures-self-report paper & pencil tests, biological
measures (EEG, MRI), behavioural observations, Q sort tests
b) Subjective- Projective tests (Draw-A Person test, Rorschach
Inkblot etc.) , structured interviews & unstructured interviews
15/2/21 8
 Review of F2F Session 1

5. What are the differences between objective

and subjective assessment?
• Quantification vs. interpretation
• speed vs. expert view of complex behaviour
(strength)
• inter-rater reliability, consistency in adm,
scoring & interpretation vs. judgment fallibility
(weakness)

15/2/21 9
 Review of F2F Session 1 Group
6. Of the two types of assessment, which is
more valid and why?
Defense of objective approach:
• More valid –dependent on theoretical
construct to design the dimensions/test
content, instructions and test items are clear
due to time for construction process and
refinement
• More reliable-uniformity in standardized
administration, objective scoring, re-test is
possible etc.
15/2/21 10
 Personality Assessment Samples

Objective Tests vs Subjective Tests

-compare their validity (theoretical
domains, dimension criteria) and
reliability (test-retest, length of items etc)
 Objective Assessment vs Subjective Assessment Methods
• Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer.
Objective data are observable and measurable data (”signs”} obtained through
observation, physical examination, and laboratory and diagnostic testing (quantitative
scores). Objective assessment refers to tests where the marking is objective as
there are clear right and wrong answers.
• Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one
correct answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer).
Subjective data are information from the client's point of view (“symptoms”),
including feelings, perceptions, and concerns obtained through interview
(qualitative information)
• There are various types
Objective of objective and subjective questions.
Assessment Subjective Assessment

Self-reports Interviews (unstructured, semi-

structured, structured)
Rating scale Checklist
Observation schedule Q-sort (can be subjective & objective)
Medical/ laboratory tests Projective tests
Life history, autobiography
Validity and Reliability : Objective vs Subjective Assessment
Validity
• Validity is the degree to which an instrument measures what it
intends to measure, and the degree to which the “thing” that the
instrument measures has meaning.
• Why is this important? If personality type is real (or rather, if it
reflects the real world with accuracy), then we should be able to use
the personality profile to understand and predict people's behavior
to some degree. The profile should help us differentiate the values,
attitudes, and behaviors of different people.
Reliability
• Reliability (when scores are treated as continuous scores, as in most
other psychological instruments) is as good as or better than other
personality instruments when on retest, people’s results are same
75% to 90% of the time (r=.75 -.90)
 Objective Assessment: Self-Reports
Self-report inventories are a kind of objective
test used to assess personality.
• They typically use multiple-choice items or
numbered scales, which represent a range
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree).
• They often are called Likert scales after their
developer, Rensis Likert (1932)

15/2/21 14
Objective Assessment Examples
Self-Report
 MMPI Clinical Scales. Nos. of Items

Scale 1 (Hs-Hypochondriasis ) - Measures a person's perception & 32

preoccupation with their health and health issues.
Scale 2 (D-Depression ) - Measures a person's depressive symptoms level. 57
Scale 3 (Hy- Hysteria ) – Measures emotionality, awareness & vulnerabilities. 60
Scale 4 (Pd-Psychopathic Deviate) - Measures a person's need for control 50
or their rebellion against control, conflict, anger, respect for society’s rules
Scale 5 (MF-Femininity/Masculinity) - Measures a stereotype of a person 56
and how they compare. Stereotypical masculine/feminine interests/behaviours
Scale 6 (Pa-Paranoia) - Measures a person's inability to trust, suspiciousness 40
Scale 7 (Pt- Psychasthenia) - Measures worry, anxiety, tension, obsessiveness 48
Scale 8 (Sc-Schizophrenia) - Measures a person's unusual/odd cognitive,
78 perceptual, & emotional experiences, odd thinking, social alienation
Scale 9 (Ma- Hypomania) - Measures a person's energy, excitability level. 46
Scale 0 (Si-Social Introversion ) - Measures whether people enjoy & 69
are comfortable being around other people, people orientation.
Total number of items=536
15/2/21 17
 16 PF : Reliabilty and Validity
• The 16 Personality Factor Test (16PF) Fifth Edition contains 185 multiple-
choice items which are written at a fifth-grade (Pri 5) reading level.
• Moderate to good reliability rating have been reported for the 16PF. Based on a
sample of 10,261 individuals, Internal consistency reliabilities are on average 0.76
for the primary scales and a range of 0.68 to 0.87 for all 16 scales.
• The test-reliabilities over a 2 week period showed scores of 0.69-0.87 for all scales
and a 2-month interval showed scores ranging from 0.56-0.79. This data can be
found and supported in the 16PF Fifth Edition Technical Manual by Conn & Rieke
(1994).
• Studies conducted have supported construct validity (Chernysheno, Stark, & Chan,
2001; Conn & Rieke, 1994; Catell & Krug, 1986; Gerbing & Tuley, 1991; Hofer,
Horn, & Eber, 1997). Translation into several languages – Italian, French, Japanese,
German – are available for the 16PF. The test’s applied validity to counseling,
career development, personality assessment and clinical problems has been
supported (Kelly, 1999; Krug & Johns, 1990; Schuerger & Watterson, 1998). The
16PF is an established instrument receiving thousands of publications and
qualified recommendations.
• 16 PF also has the validity (”lie”) scale to detect fakeability.
Self-
Report:

!6 PF
Test
16 PF
Sample
Items:
 16 PF Interpretation

15/2/21 21
 16 PF Profile

15/2/21 22
 MBTI_ Reliability and Validity
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) has 93 items.
Reliability:
Reliability (when scores are treated as continuous scores, as in most other
psychological instruments) on retest, shows that people come out with
three to four type preferences the same 75% to 90% of the time.
Validity
Validity is the degree to which an instrument measures what it intends to
measure, and the degree to which the “thing” that the instrument measures
has meaning.
Why is this important? If personality type is real (or rather, if it reflects the
real world with accuracy), then we should be able to use MBTI type to
understand and predict people's behavior to some degree. Type should
help us differentiate the values, attitudes, and behaviors of different people.

Many studies over the years have proven the validity of the MBTI
instrument in three categories:
1) the validity of the four separate preference scales;
2) the validity of the four preference pairs as dichotomies; and
3) the validity of whole types or particular combinations of preferences.
Many of these studies are discussed in the MBTI® Manual.
 Myer-Briggs Type Indicator
Self-
Report:

MBTI
 MBTI Types of Traits

15/2/21 25
 MBTI

15/2/21 26
 Example-Objective Assessment Method
Self-Report: Beck Anxiety Inventory
Below is a list of 21 common symptoms of inventory.
Please read carefully each item in the list. Indicate how
much you have been bothered by that symptom during the
past month, including today, by circling the number in the
corresponding space in the column next to each symptom.
1=Not at all 2=Mildly but it didn’t bother me much
3=Moderately-it wasn’t pleasant at times.-
4=Severely-it bothered me a lot.
1 2 3 4
1. Wobbliness in legs 1 2 3 4
2. Unable to relax 1 2 3 4
3. Fear of worst happening 1 2 3 4
4. Dizzy or lightheaded 1 2 3 4
5. Terrified or afraid 1 2 3 4
15/2/21 27
. Example-Objective Assessment Method
Self-Report: Beck Anxiety Inventory
1=Not at all 2=Mildly but it didn’t bother me much
3=Moderately-it wasn’t pleasant at times.-
4=Severely-it bothered me a lot.
1 2 3 4
1. Wobbliness in legs 1 2 3 4
2. Unable to relax 1 2 3 4
3. Fear of worst happening 1 2 3 4
4. Dizzy or lightheaded 1 2 3 4
5. Terrified or afraid 1 2 3 4
Scoring :
Total score is calculated by adding sum of 21 items.
Score of 0-21 =Low anxiety
Score of 22-35=Moderate anxiety
Score of 36 and above=Potentially concerning levels of
anxiety
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Big Five Scales

15/2/21 29
 Ten Item Test Inventory
Scoring for
the TIPI is as
follows:
Recode the
reverse-
scored items (i.e.,
recode a 7 with a
1, a 6 with a 2, a 5
with a 3, etc.).
The reverse-
scored items are
numbers 2, 4, 6, 8,
and 10. 2.
Take the average
of the two items
(the standard item
and the recoded,
reverse-
scored item) that
make up each
scale (five scales
15/2/21 or dimensions. 30
 Ten Item Test Inventory
Responses
DS, DM….AM…AS

Scores
Items 1,3,5,7,9
DS = 1
DM =2. Responses Scores
AM =6
AS =7
= + 1,2,3,4,5,6,7

Scores for Reversed-

Scored Items
Items 2, 4, 6,
8,10
DS =7
Total of 2
DM=6 items. per
AM=2 scale
AS =1 divided by 2
15/2/21 31
 TMA-Q1c- Appendix Not acceptable

15/2/21 32
 TMA-Q1c- Appendix Not acceptable

These are
scores,
Not
Responses

Allign the
DM, AM, AL scores.
There are Correct score
response for Item 2=6
15/2/21 33
 TMA-Q1c- Appendix Not acceptable

• Not accepted as Appendix –

not done on actual TITI test
Even though
Responses correct,
Not accepted:
Scoring for Items 1,3,5,7,9 correct & Not done on
reverse scoring correct, actual TITI
5 scales correct. test.
Where are the
responses?
15/2/21 34
 Other types of
Objective Assessments

15/2/21 35
Performance Rating Scale
Anchored
Rating
Scale
 Subjective AssessmentL
Clinical Interview
• The clinical interview-most common assessment method
of psychopathology.
• Clinical interviews vary along as many dimensions as there are
interviewers. For example, some clinicians use a highly
directive, structured format, whereas others prefer a more
unstructured, free-flowing approach.
• Regardless of style, there are typically three goals of the clinical
interview when working with persons with anxiety:
1) establishing rapport,
2) accurate diagnosis, and
3) assessment of symptom patterns, phobic stimuli, and
impairment in functioning.
• Types of questions:
– open-ended questions (Unstructured interview)
– Closed-ended questions (Structured interview)
The Clinical Interview 2. The Referral
• Assessment important for • Who?
psychologists • Parent
• Competency of a defendant’ • Teacher
• How? Tests, interviews, • Psychiatrist
observations • Judge
• Neurological disorder vs mental • Psychologist
disorder? • Poses a question
• Unique contribution of
psychologists 3. The Referral Question
• Sometimes needs rephrasing
1.What does the clinical interview • Is this patient capable of
involve? murder?
• Evaluation of strengths and • Why is this patient having
weaknesses trouble in school? At work?
• Conceptualisation of the problem With the law?
• Thoughts about etiology? 4. Assessment
• Thoughts about alleviating the • Standardised set of tests or not
problem completely standardised set of
• A one time slot? No……ongoing procedures?
• Example case • Describe the client in a useful way
 Unstructured Interview
Unstructured interviews
• are free-flowing, and are generally guided by the client. The interviewer
does not prepare a list of set questions in advance, but rather begins
with a general question and allows the client to determine the content of
the interview, and then uses probes to gather more information on
certain topics.
• usually involves open-ended conversations, documented either by tape
recording and transcription or by note taking, followed by writing up
field notes after each session.
Strength
• gain from the interview process information with richness and depth.
• adapt to changing topics
Weakness
• time taken to gather and analyze information
• ideas are expressed in many ways, not relying on the specific terms or
phrases - getting distracted during the interview
• difficulty in ascertaining reliability and validity of judgements -
misjudging the interviewee –questions vary and difficult to compare
candidates
 Example of Unstructured Interview

Counselor: Everybody has a life story. Why don’t

you tell me a little about your life?

Client: Well there’s not much. I worked in a

telephone company as a telephone operator
before I was married. After I got married, I
moved to Singapore and had two boys …
Unstructured
Interview
 Semi-Structured Interview
• Semi-structured interviews are structured, in that they provide a
set list of questions; however, the client’s responses to the
questions will lead the interview in different directions.
• Example
• If a client responds ‘no’ to questions about the two key diagnostic criteria for
depression, the interviewer may discontinue assessing for depression and
proceed to ask questions about the next diagnosis under investigation
• mental status exams is good example of semi-structured
interview.
Strength
• permit the development of rapport between interviewer and
interviewee
Weakness
• interviewer biases (like focusing on one piece of information and
inferring from it without adequate enquiry) may affect the
direction of the interview and the interpretation of the results.
 Examples-Subjective Assessment Method
Demographic Information for Psychological Report
Name: IC No:
Address: Birthdate: Age:

Phone: Gender: Race:

Education: Language spoken:
Examiner: Date:

Referral Question:

Assessment Procedures:
Tests Taken/Date:

Interviews with:
15/2/21 46
 Gathering Information in Clinical Interviews
A. Chief complaint
B. History of current and past suicidal /fear/ anxiety
ideation
C. History of presenting problem(s)
D. Current and past history of victimization (e.g.,
domestic violence, child abuse, traumas etc)
E. Precipitating factors
F. History of psychiatric problems, including
treatment and response
G. Symptoms
H. Social and developmental history
I. Affective Family psychiatric and social history
J. Cognitive Mental history
K. Physical Medical history Substance use and abuse
Changes in role and social functioning
15/2/21 47
 Structured Interviews
C.History of Presenting Problem:
a).Onset/course:
(1) When did the problems begin?
(2) Was there a time when the client felt worse or
better?
(3) Was there any particular pattern?

b)Severity:
(4) Do the problems interfere with the client's life in
terms of work, relationships, and leisure pursuits
and/or lead to suffering or distress?
c) Stressor:
(5) Does the client believe that some external event
brought on the problems?
(6) Have there been any stressful life events
associated with the problem? (Elaborate.)
15/2/21 48
 Structured Interview:
F.Assessment of Suicidal Intent on First Interview
1. How badly have you been feeling?
2. Have you thought of hurting yourself?
3. Have you wanted to die?
4. Have you thought of killing yourself?
5. Have you tried?
6. How, when, and what led up to your attempt?
7. If you have not tried, what led you to hold
back?
8. Do you feel safe to go home?
9. What arrangements can be made to increase
your safety and to decrease your risk of
acting on suicidal feelings?
15/2/21 49
 Unstructured Interview:
I. Relationship History: Fear
1. How many close friends do you have (aside from your
spouse/partner)?
2. Describe problems, if any, that you think you have in
developing and keeping friendships.
3. Are you in an intimate relationship or married?
If yes, for how long?
4. Tell me about your previous relationship. How long did
it last? What happened?
5. Describe problems, if any, that you think you have in
developing and keeping intimate relationships.
6. Has there ever been any violence in your current
intimate relationship?
7. Have you ever experienced violence in your past
intimate relationships?
15/2/21 50
 Some Interviewing Guidelines:
1. For first part of the initial interview, follow the patient’s train
of thought.
2. Provide structure to help patients who have trouble
ordering their thoughts or to finish obtaining specific data.
3. Phrase questions to invite the patient to talk (e.g., open
ended, nonleading questions).
4. Use the patient’s words.
5. Be alert to early signs of loss of behavioral control (e.g.,
standing up to pace).
6. Identify the patient’s strengths as well as problem areas.
7. Avoid jargon and questions that begin with “why.”
8. Avoid premature reassurance.
9. Do not allow patients to act inappropriately (e.g., break or
throw an object).
10. Set limits on any threatening behavior, & summon help if
necessary.
15/2/21 51
 If you’d like to see a short video-
clip Mental Status Examination or
MSE example,

you can go
to: http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=1lu50uciF5Y

15/2/21 52
Deep Brain Stimulation Impairment
Scale
Administration. Semi-structured Interview.
Items are rated for frequency over the last 4
weeks on a 5-point scale (never – rarely –
sometimes – often – always applies).

Factor 2 Cognitive Impairment

6. Difficulties concentrating on one topic (e.g.
on TV).
7. Difficulties remembering things, for
instance what I had planned to do next.
 Structured Interview
Structured interviews
• consist of a precise set of questions, with specific wording.
• the interviewer follows a script and takes responsibility for
guiding the interview in order to obtain the specific requested
information.
Strengths
• Structured interviews greatly reduce the rates of false-
negative judgments
• Structured interviews function as a template
– to guide the interviewer's questions and
– make decision rules explicit (can compare candidates), thereby greatly
– enhancing the validity and reliability of assessment information
Weakness
• the interview process is seen as awkward and rigid
The
Structured
Clinical
Interview for
DSM-5
Internet
Gaming
Disorder
 Depression, Hopelessness, and Suicide Screening Form: Critical Item Checklist
Instructions to administrators: Structured Interview using Checklist :
Interviewer indicates the responses of client in a true–false format.
Items
I have been diagnosed as being depressed by a psychiatrist or
psychologist in the past
I have close friends or family members who have killed themselves
Suicide is not an option for me *
I have had serious thoughts of suicide in the past
I have intentionally hurt myself
If circumstances get too bad, suicide is always an option
In the past my suicidal thoughts have led to a suicide attempt
I have attempted suicide more than once in the past
I have attempted suicide in the past two years
I have recently had thoughts of hurting myself
Life is not worth living
I have a plan to hurt myself
* Negatively keyed; other items were positively keyed.
 Standardised Assessment of Personality--Abbreviated Scale:
Adolescent Version SAPAS-AV
Instructions to administrators: Structured Interview
Only circle Y (yes) (or N (no) on item 3) if the respondent confirms the follow-up
question that the description applies most of the time and in most situations.
3. In general, do you trust other people?................................................. Y / N
(yes = 0, no = 1)
4. Do you normally loose your temper easily?..........................................Y / N
(yes = 1, no = 0)
5. Are you normally an impulsive sort of person, who generally acts
before thinking?........................................................................................Y / N
(yes = 1, no = 0)
6. Are you normally a worrier?..................................................................Y / N
(yes = 1, no = 0)
 Stressful Life Event Checklist
Checklist: Respondents are asked to indicate whether a given
life event has happened to them in the last 3 years using a checklist
format. Tick if Yes.

4. Had trouble with boss.

5. Demoted at work.
6. Found out that I was not going to be promoted at work.
9. Had significant success at work.
32. Assaulted.
33. Robbed.
34. Got involved in a court case.
72. Divorce.
75. Marital infidelity.
76. Trouble with in-laws.
77. Spouse died.
 California Child Q-Set--"Common Language" Version
Instructions:Q-Sort-100 items; scored with a forced, nine-category distribution
Rate fromCalifornia Child Q-Set--"Common
extremely uncharacteristic Language"
or negatively salient (1) to Version
extremely characteristic or salient (9) of the child judged.
Instructions:Q-Sort-100 items; scored with a forced, nine-category distribution
Rate from extremely uncharacteristic or negatively salient (1) to
extremely characteristic or salient (9) of the child judged.
10 His friendships don't last long; he changes friends a lot.
11 His
10 He tries to blamedon't
friendships otherlast
people
long;forhe
things he hasfriends
changes done. a lot.
13 He
11 He tries
tries to
tosee whatother
blame and how muchfor
people he things
can gethe
away
haswith.
done.He usually pushes
limits
13 He and
triestries to stretch
to see what the
andrules.
how much he can get away with. He
usually pushes
15 He shows limitsabout
concern and tries
what'storight
stretch the rules.
and what's wrong.
15
18 He
He shows concern
lets other about
kids know what's
it when he'sright
upsetand what's
or angry. Hewrong.
doesn't hold back his
feelings
18 He letswhen he feels
other kids upset
knoworit angry
whenwith he'sthem.
upset or angry. He doesn't
hold
19 Heback his and
is open feelings when he feels upset or angry with them.
straightforward.
19
20 He
He is open
tries andadvantage
to take straightforward.
of other people.
20 He tries to take advantage of other people.
Q-sort is the systematic study of perspectives of participants who
represent different stances on an issue, by having participants rank
and sort a series of statements. It can be quantitative and qualitative
method.
 Riverside Situational Q-Sort--Revised Version
Instructions: Q-sort.Responses for the 94 items are on a
9-point, Likert-type scale
Rate 1 to 9 with 1 = extremely uncharacteristic, 9 =
extremely characteristic.

9 You were being criticized, directly or indirectly.

10 Things were happening quickly (a low rating implies
things were happening slowly).
11 Someone (you or someone else) was unhappy or
suffering.
12 A reassuring other person was present.
13 You were being blamed for something.
16 The situation called for self-restraint.
17 Other people were present who needed or wanted
reassurance.
18 The situation was frustrating.
 F2F1 Types of Tests and Assessments:
Homework : Reflection
1. Identify and list down the and state when (under
names of the tests that are what conditions) you will
objective tests and those use each type of test.
that are subjective tests. 4. Compare the two types
2. Give reasons for your of assessment and judge
classification. which tests are more valid
3. Describe one usefulness of and more reliable and
objective tests u have rank the tests in order of
examined and one validity and reliability.
usefulness of subjective 5. Explain and justify your
test and ranking.
15/2/21 61
 F2F2
Study Guide 2
Personality Theory Comparisons

15/2/21 62
 Knowledge and Skills Learning Outcomes:
Objectives of F2F Session 2
1) Analyse components of the psychoanalytic approach to
personality.
2) Illustrate with situations the use of ego-defence mechanisms.
3) Explain the impact of childhood events on personality
development-Erikson’s theory.
4) Explain biological factors that influence personality development,
5) Relate environmental influences to temperament.
6)Explain personality development from the behaviourist approach,
7) identify key principles of operant conditioning & shaping behavior
8) Describe the components of the social learning approach to
personality development & essential processes for gd modelling
9) Define cognitive & humanistic processes associated with
personality development & impt. processes responsible for
decision-making
15/2/21 63
Key Questions to Ask in Theory Comparisons
1. Which approach should I use?
• systematic themes’ , approach (assumptions, key ideas,
personality structure, development, change, assessment
tools, usefulness)?
• personality Issues’ approach (free will vs. no free will,
stability vs. modifiability, genes vs. nurture etc)?
2. Which theories are best to compare?
• Are they very similar or very different?
• Can I comprehensively compare the key ideas or is one theory too
limited to justify comparison?

15/2/21 64
 KEY TO GOOD Theory Comparisons
1. COMPARE AND CONTRAST
- differences and Similarities
- In same paragraph, compare the differences of two theories on
the same ONE idea. Use a second paragraph for next idea ro
compare. Use on theh other hand, conversely, whereas …
Example 1:
- Correct comparison -Free will vs no free will
- Incorrect- free will in 1 theory vs unconscious effort in another
theory
Example 2:
-Correct – genetic determinant of behaviour vs environmental
determinant of behaviour
-Incorrect – genetic determinant of behaviour vs defence
mechanisms
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 F2F Session 2-Personality Theories
Personality is an enduring configuration of characteristics and
behavior …–complex, dynamic integration or totality shaped by
many forces including
• hereditary and constitutional tendencies;
• physical maturation;
• early training;
• identification with significant indivduals & groups;
• culturally conditioned values & roles;
• critical experiences and relationships (APA, 2015).
All theories explain the structure and development of
personality in different ways BUT all agree that
personality helps determine behavior.

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 Maladaptive Behaviour
APA Dictionary of Psychology (2015) defines
Maladaptive behaviour as a condition in which biological
traits or behaviour patterns are detrimental,
counterproductive, or otherwise interfere with optimal
functioning in various domains, such as successful
interaction with the environment and effectual coping with
the challenges and stresses of life.
i.e.
Types of behaviours that inhibit a person’s ability to adjust
to particular situations. Such behaviour is often used to
reduce one’s anxiety but the result is dysfunctional and
non-productive.
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 Group Discussion2
1. Peer coach on the theory assigned to you (10 mins) per theory
on the following aspects:
(a) Key assumptions or key beliefs of the theory
(b) Key concepts pertaining to that theory
(c) Forces impacting the personality development of individuals
(what factors and processes contribute to i) normal personality
development and ii) maladaptive or dysfunctional personality
development stated or implied by the theory?)
(d) What can alter personality -from unhealthy
(negative/maladaptive) personality to healthy personality growth?
What are the processes that bring about personality change?
(e) What type of assessments are prescribed by each theory & why?
(f) How can each theory contribute to the helping profession? (Its
usefulness)
• 68
 Group Discussion
1. Identify the key elements of one personality theory assigned:
Part 1 (Half an Hour)
a) Assumptions –what causes or directs behavior?
b) Components or structure of personality –what makes up personality?
c) Factors for development of personality-what contributes to moulding of
personality?
d) Personality change –What can alter personality or how can personality be
changed?
e) Assessment methods
f) Usefulness of theory
Part 2 (Half an hour)
2. Together with another group, draw the similarities and compare
the differences between two personality theories assigned.
3. Which theory recommends highly structured treatment plan?

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 TMA-Drawing Concept Maps
1.Use no more than 2or 3 words to describe
each pair of comparisons or similarities
2. Make sure that the concept map is upright
and the words are visible to the eye of the
reader.
If I cannot read, I cannot make out the words, I
am sorry, no mark will be awarded.
3. Use black ink. Blue ink is not visible once yu
take a photo of your concept map and paste it
into your essay after the Appendices 1-5.
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 Sample Concept maps

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15/2/21 72
Concept Map on Personality Theories
 Behaviorist Theory

Behaviourism &
Personality Modification

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 Cognitive Theory of Personality

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 5 Tier Model of Human Needs

Becoming/
Usefulness

Reputation

Trust

Freedom

Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment,

seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become
everything
15/2/21
one is capable of becoming”(Maslow, 1987, p. 64). 75
 Altruistic Goals :Fulfillment & Change
Pursuit of Values Beyond Personal Self

Personal Growth & Discovery

-Peak Experiences of Joy & Wonder
Appreciation for Beauty

Curiosity, Need for Meaning

Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

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 Example :Social-Cognitive Theory (Bandura)
a) Assumptions –what causes or directs behavior?
- one’s self system or the set of cognitive responses by which a
person perceives, evaluates a regulates his or her own
behaviour directs one’s behaviour so that behaviour is
functionally efficient and appropriate. New behaviours are
acquired through observational learning (vicarious learning and
modelling)
b) Components or structure of personality
- Factors that influence modelling (Outcome expectancy or
positive outcome beliefs, competence & status of model, simple
& salient behaviour characteristics, observer attributes like self-
esteem, dependence, self-efficacy, cognitive development)
c) Factors for development of personality & change
- attention, retention, motor reproduction & motivational
processes that underlie observational learning, past failures and
successes and forgetting
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 Humanistic Theory: Characteristics of Self-Actualised Individuals
1. Realistic and can tolerate uncertainty;
2. Accept themselves and others for what they are;
3. Spontaneous in thought and action;
4. Problem-centered (not self-centered);
5. Unusual sense of humor;
6. Able to look at life objectively;
7. Highly creative;
8. Detached from culture that the are immersed in;
9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity;
10. Deep appreciation of basic life-experience;
11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few
people;
12. Peak experiences;
13. Need for privacy- identify own defences & courage to give them
up;
14. Democratic attitudes;
15. Strong moral/ethical standards.
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 References
American Psychological Association (2015). APA Dictionary of
Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Assoc.
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Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of personality. In D.
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