LESSON 2

Development of a Storm

pressure gradient - indicates the direction and change of the atmospheric

pressure in a certain area
riptide - strong sea current formed by the strong winds that pushes the water
toward the shore
storm surge - fast uprising of sea level due to strong winds that pushes the water
to the coast and the suction created by the low pressure

STORM

Why does the Philippines experience numerous typhoons in a year? How

and when do storms develop?
Storms are very destructive weather phenomena and considered as one
of the most powerful natural hazards to people. Storm brings heavy rainfall,
strong winds, rip tides, storm surges, and even tornadoes. The impact of these
violent weather disturbances can damage infrastructures, destroy livelihood,
and economy of a certain area.
In maritime industry, if the ship is caught in the area of the storm, it might
cause partial or complete destruction to the ship, cargo loss, and delays that
prompts huge amount of money. For these reasons, mariners have to be
equipped with the knowledge on how these turbulences are formed. The
mariners have to foresee the different signs of a developing storm in the area
they are navigating so that they can prepare and maneuver the ship to avoid it.
The tropical revolving storm is the maritime term for a tropical cyclone.
A tropical cyclone is used by meteorologists to describe a rotating organized
system of clouds and thunderstorms that occurs in tropical (0° to 23°27' N/S)
or subtropical (23°27' to 40°00' N/S) waters and has a closed low-level
circulation. A tropical cyclone is named depending on where it is formed:
Hurricanes - North Atlantic Ocean and Eastern and Western parts of
Northern Pacific Ocean
Cyclone - Southwestern Pacific Ocean, Southwestern and Southeastern
Indian Ocean, Northern Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal)
Typhoon - North Western Pacific

TROPICAL CYCLONE FORMATION

The development of a tropical cyclone requires environmental condition
called cyclogenesis. It occurs mostly between 5° to 20° N/S wherein an
atmospheric low pressure system (tropical disturbance) is created in the
ITCZ. It is also influenced by the force turned by the Coriolis effect, which
creates a rotating mass of thunderstorms. If the Coriolis effect is too weak to
cause a rotation between 5° N/S and the equator, a tropical cyclone will not
form in this area.
When a rotating thunderstorm passes over warm water (about 27°C or
80°F), the convection process and rainfall are enhanced. After summer or dry
season, cyclones are normally developing because the sea has not yet cooled
off (the absorbed summertime heat has not totally released by water due to
its properties). Thus, the surface temperature is warmest in this time of the
year.
As the warm air rises, less air is left near the surface of the water causing
lower pressure. Meanwhile, the higher air pressure that moves below
becomes warm and moist. This warm moist air cools down forming clouds.
This process is continuously fed by the heat of the ocean and water vapor,
making faster wind swirls and more clouds. Thus, stronger and bigger wind
and cloud formations create a tropical depression.

A tropical depression can be fueled by a cyclonic environment to turn it

into more intense stage by attaining a specified wind speed, creating a fully
formed tropical cyclone. Some affected countries specifically categorized the
strength of the cyclone above Beaufort speed scale 12.
Tropical Depression - wind speed less than 33 knots (Beaufort scale 7)
Tropical Storm - wind speed 34-47 knots (Beaufort scale 8-9)
Severe Tropical Storm - wind speed 48-63 knots (Beaufort scale 10-11)
Typhoon - wind speed greater than 64 knots (Beaufort scale 12)

Decay
When a tropical cyclone crosses over land or moves at higher latitudes
with lesser water surface temperature, it begins to reduce its strength. The
energy derived from the warm moist air is lessened and dissolved rapidly.
The friction, caused by land mass and terrain, hinders the rapid air circulation
and dumps large amount of moisture through rain. If it subsequently moves
offshore and curves to higher latitude that has no cyclonic environment, it will
die eventually. The lack of warm sea surface weakens a tropical cyclone, thus
causes its decay.

Storm Characteristics and Structure

A fully developed tropical cyclone has an average diameter of 300 nautical
miles or more, average height of 15 nautical miles, and average atmospheric
pressure of 960 mbar at mean sea level with a very steep pressure gradient.
These values may differ during the cyclone lifespan.

It consists of a vortex or an eye (about 20-40 nm in diameter), which is the

center of the system. It is generally free of clouds as within the air subsides and
warm adiabatically resulting in a relatively calm environment. The eyewall,a
ring of cumulonimbus clouds formed due to ascending air, is the immediate
area around the eye that experiences the most adverse and violent activity
(heaviest rainfall and strongest wind). On top of it, most of the air is driven
outward, enhancing the upward motion of the air. However, some of the air is
moving inward and goes down to the surface into the eye creating a cloud-free
area. The rainbands are areas with heavy convective showers spiraling inward
toward the center.

LESSON 3
Ship Actions in Avoiding a Storm

horizontal pressure gradient - change of pressure over unit distance at right

angles to the isobars
isobar - line that connects the points of the same atmospheric pressure

BUYS BALLOT'S LAW

As we have already learned, the wind moves from higher to lower pressure
causing the air particles to be deflected to the right from its line of motion
in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Simultaneously, the Coriolis effect always moves at right angles. The pressure
gradient and Coriolis effect generate the gradient wind necessary for
cyclotrophic force that makes the air particles to curve and rotate around the
system. The table below shows the gradient wind created in each hemisphere:

In 1857, a Dutch meteorologist named Christophorus Buys Ballot

described the relationship between wind movement and pressure distribution
(horizontal pressure gradient). The Buys Ballot's Law, also known as the
Baric Wind Law, states that when a person faces the wind in the Northern
Hemisphere, the center of the low pressure area is on his or her right, while
the center of the high pressure area is on his or her left.

The system is reversed or the total opposite in the Southern Hemisphere

wherein the center of the high pressure area will be on the right and the center
of the low pressure area will be on the left. However, the right angle can only
be attained in the free atmosphere--near the surface of the earth where the
angle will be less than 90° due to the friction between the air and the ground.
In areas near the equator, the law will not be applicable due to weak Coriolis
force or effect.
Signs of a Developing Storm
Low pressure and a storm bring extreme and turbulent weather that
ends life and causes huge financial loss for the shipping company. The wind
condition that can be encountered by the ship varies significantly from its
surroundings toward the center of the storm. In addition, the strong winds
created by the low atmospheric pressure amplifies the height of the storm
waves, which makes them mountainous. The thick and dense clouds bring rain
showers, which increase its frequency and intensity as the ship approaches
the periphery of the storm's center or boundary. It can be confusing because
at the eye, the wind is light and calm. This happens because the Coriolis force
deflects the wind away from the center.
Knowing the principles of pressure systems, wind circulation, and Buys
Ballot's law, a mariner can determine and locate the center of the low pressure
or developing storm in an area. The following are the common indications of
a developing storm:
Swell. It depends on the extent of open ocean. It becomes prominent
with long wavelength and low wave height due to strong constant
winds blowing within the area. It can be observed at about 600 nm
from the center of the storm.

Skies. When the storm center is about 500-1,000 nm, the sky is
relatively clear. As it comes near about 300 to 600 nm, some presence
of a white, fibrous "mares tails" (cirrus) clouds converge in the
direction of the approaching storm, which resembles brightly colored
sunrises and sunsets. The cloud sequence subsequently lowers with
rain showers in the outer areas of the system. These clouds become
thicker, denser, and darker with a rapid increase of wind speed and
gushing rainfalls as the storm moves closer around 100 nm or less.

Atmospheric pressure. Normally, a significant decrease from the mean

pressure indicates an approach of tropical cyclone. When a storm is
about 500 nm-1,000 nm, the barometer will have restless readings-
pumping up and down few hundredths of an inch. The pressure starts
a long and slow fall and becomes more gradual, then goes a steady fall
as the storm and approaches. At about 100 nm-200 hm, the barometer
readings fall precipitously to its lowest point as the eye of the storm
passes.

Wind. As the atmospheric pressure falls, the strength of the wind also
increases with frequent gustiness. The increase in wind speed and
the change of its direction are the best indicators of an approaching
storm. The movement and direction of the wind can locate the vessel's
position relative to the eye of the storm. In the Northern Hemisphere,
a backing wind is changing counterclockwise, (e.g., East through North
to West), and a veering wind is changing clockwise, (e.g., East through
South to West), while in the Southern Hemisphere, it is the reverse.

Movement of a Storm

At early stage, the initial path of a tropical cyclone is normally from east
to west in lower latitudes that is driven by the easterly tropospheric wind
in which it is situated. It moves about 10 knots that can curve a little toward
the pole-~-West North West (WNW) in the Northern Hemisphere and West
South West (WSW) in the Southern Hemisphere below the area of the high
pressure subtropical anticyclone. As it moves toward the western edge of
the anticyclone (high pressure), it turns definitely and follows a Northward
(Northern Hemisphere) and Southward path (Southern Hemisphere). Its
speed slows down and becomes stationary for a period. Then, it regains a
speed of advance reaching to 20 knots or more that is turning to northeasterly
in the Northern Hemisphere and southeasterly in the Southern Hemisphere.
Afterward, it leaves the tropical region and is now directed by westerly winds
of the midlatitudes.

NAVIGABLE AND DANGEROUS SEMICIRCLE

The crucial task of the mariners is to predict the movement of the stor
so that they could identify the routes of safe passage. The changes in the wind
direction and speed could significantly indicate the vessel's position relating
to the storm. Constantly monitoring of the atmospheric pressure below mea
and consequently consulting other meteorological data sources, (i.e., applying
the Buys Ballot's law), establish the approximate route or track and position
of the storm.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the region to the right of the storm towarf
the direction of its track is called the dangerous semicircle because of faste
wind speed due to pressure gradient amplified by the forward motion of the
storm, and the wind circulation (veering) will force the vessel into the path of
the storm.
On the other hand, the region to the left of the storm track or the navigable
semicircle is less dangerous as the wind is decreased by the forward motion of
the storm, and the wind circulation (backing) will force the vessel away from
the path of the storm.
The seas are higher in the dangerous semicircle than in the navigable
semicircle because of greater wind force. In the Southern Hemisphere, the
dangerous semicircle will be on the left of the storm path, and the navigable
semicircle will be on the right side.

MANEUVERING AND ACTIONS TO AVOID

THE STORM CENTER
The signs of approaching storm should be clearly observed by the mariner
as it is the safest method for the ship not to be caught on the dangerous
semicircle or toward the path of the storm. It is essential to predict, take early
avoiding actions, and navigate away from the storm path as early as possible
for the vessel to be at a safe distance from the extreme situation brought by
the storm. If needed, the safest action is to stop the vessel and observe the
fluctuations in atmospheric pressure and wind direction. Table 12 shows
the approximate position of the vessel in relation to the observed wind and
atmospheric pressure.

However, this is not alwavs the case. If the ship is caught within the area
of the storm, a mariner should take evasive maneuver with reference to the
ship's position relative to the storm center and the path of the storm. The
table below shows the evasive action that can increase the distance of the
ship's position from the eye of the storm as fast as possible.