85021b - Bolted Joints Subjected To Tension Forces

85021
ANALYSIS OF PRETENSIONED BOLTED JOINTS SUBJECT TO TENSILE

(SEPARATING) FORCES
This Data Item provides a method for the analysis of bolted joints in which the bolt is pretensioned and is
subject to further tensile load as a consequence of load passing through the joint. The analysis is designed
to allow selection of bolt pretension such that, under the application of a known load, the limiting situations
of bolt yielding or joint separation do not occur. Several diagrams are included that illustrate the influence
of the many variables on the pretension for the limiting situations together with a description of the effect
of pretension on the fatigue loading acting on the bolt.
ESDU product issue: 2004-01. For current status, contact ESDU. Observe Copyright.
The Data Item is provided in two sections. Section 1 describes the theory and sets out two methods, one
for joints with relatively thin feet and one for joints with relatively thick feet. The methods are presented
so that hand calculations may be performed and two fully worked example calculations are provided. The
methods of Section 1 have been programmed and Section 2 describes the use of the program. The program
is available in two formats: (a) a Fortran source code with example input and output files, and (b) an
executable program for PCs. Both versions can be found on the Compact Disc and on disk in the Sub-series
Software Volume.
1. THEORY
1.1 Introduction
This Item describes methods of analysis of bolted joints in which the bolt is pretensioned and is subject to
further tensile load as a consequence of the load passing through the joint. The analysis is designed to
allow selection of the bolt pretension such that, under the application of a known load, the limiting situations
of bolt yielding or joint separation do not occur.
In such joints applied loads enter the assembly via the joined members, usually offset from the bolt, see,
for example, Sketch 1.1. The way in which the joined members introduce the load into the joint, coupled
with the stiffnesses and geometry of the components of the joint assembly and its pretension, governs the
distribution of the load among the component parts of the joint. Because of this it is necessary to analyse
the load distribution within a joint before its strength or performance can be determined. Some of the
stiffnesses involved in such an analysis can only be estimated, mainly because the associated areas of their
influence are imprecise quantities. Accordingly, analysis should be used to investigate and improve
joint design rather than to obtain precise solutions of stresses and deflections within the joint. It
should be noted that the entire analysis is carried out in terms of the load on a single bolt but guidance is
provided for the case of multi-bolted joints.
This section of the Data Item explains the derivation of the analysis used in ESDUpac A8521 and Section
1.14 gives examples of the variation in the pretension required to prevent yield and separation for a typical
bolted joint assembly having thin feet. For joints with thick feet the variation of pretension required to
prevent separation is shown graphically.
1.2 Notation
The notation shows both SI and British units. All the figures are non-dimensional so that any coherent
system of units may be used. Section 1.16 provides two worked example calculations, one in SI units and
the other in British units.
Issued August 1985

With Amendments A and B, August 1995
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The following notation is illustrated by the joints shown in Sketches 1.1, 1.6 and 1.8. The component parts
of the joints will be referred to using the names given in the labels on those sketches. The term ‘foot’,
illustrated in Sketch 1.1, is used throughout this Item, although for many joints it may be part of a flange
or plate or some other member.
1.2.1 General Symbols
A effective cross-sectional area of component m2 in2

a distance from bolt centre-line to hinge point (see m in

Sketches 1.5a and 1.5b)
b distance from bolt centre-line to load line (see m in

Sketch 1.1)
c effective diameter of nut or bolt head and associated m in

washer assembly (see Section 1.6.3 and, for an
example, Section 1.16.1.1)
Df outer diameter of practical working area of foot (see m in

Section 1.6.3)
d diameter m in
db nominal diameter of bolt (see Sketch 1.1) m in
E modulus of elasticity of material of component N/m2 lbf/in2
g effective length of foot (see Sketch 1.8) m in
h thickness m in
I effective second moment of area of foot-print (see m4 in4

Section 1.7 and Sketch 1.8)
i height of bow of slightly arched foot (see Sketch m in

1.9)
j distance from heel of joint to neutral axis of bending m in

of effective area of foot (see Section 1.7 and Sketch
1.8)
K axial stiffness of joint N/m lbf/in
k axial stiffness of joint component N/m lbf/in
l length of component m in
m distance from bolt centre-line to heel (see Sketches m in

1.1 and 1.8 and Section 1.7)
n cb , n cf program control integers, see Table 2.2
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n pb , n pf number of plates, see Table 2.2
TYPE program control integer, see Table 2.2
P load N lbf
P , P , P , see Section 2.5.4.2 N lbf

tA tAu t A um
P tum , P tuex
p thread pitch m in
R reaction in region of toe in rigid foot after N lbf

separation
T temperature °C °C
TEM P program control integer, see Table 2.2 m in
w width of foot (see Sketch 1.1) m in
x coefficient correcting actual or reference value to

effective value
α coefficient of linear thermal expansion (m/m)/°C (in/in)/°C
γ non-dimensional stiffness parameter,

see Equation (1.9)
δ axial deflection of component m in
ε strain
1.2.2 Suffixes, Prefixes and Primes
The following are attached to the symbols above as required.
A at assembly conditions (temperature)
a externally applied (load or deflection)
as externally applied load at separation
b bolt
bs separation below bolt
c relates to an additional component
e relates to conditions with non-flat components
f foot
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hs separation at heel
i inner
lw at lower working temperature
n number of component parts in a stiffness calculation
( nu ) loaded threaded portion of nut
o outer
p plate
( pt ) relates to thread pitch
( sh ) shank of bolt
t pretension value
t( T) pretension value at temperature T
( th ) loaded threaded portion of bolt
uw at upper working temperature
w washer
y yield
∆ change of quantity from assembly conditions
' prime indicates an effective value (when both real and effective values are used)
These subscripts are also used as labels, together with numbers, when more than one component of the
same type is present; see, for example, Sketch 1.6 which shows two plates, labelled p1 and p2 , one above
and one between two feet labelled fl and f2 .
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Sketch 1.1 Illustration of notational terms in a simple joint
1.3 Load Path Through an Idealised Joint With a Pretensioned Bolt
In order to describe the paths taken by an applied load through a bolted joint it is convenient to consider
an idealised joint loaded axisymmetrically with respect to the bolt centre-line, see Sketch 1.2. This is then
extended, to cover offset loaded idealised joints. Later sections use these simplified analyses to explain
the behaviour of practical joints.
The analyses considered apply to a joint containing only a single bolt. However, they may be extended to
multi-bolted joints, such as those at
(i) a straight row of bolts,

(ii) pressurised lids
and (iii) circular flanges.
In each of the cases (i) to (iii) the joint is tightened using more than one bolt. Thus, the joint must be divided
into equivalent sections containing only a single bolt carrying its proportion of the load. From this the
overall joint behaviour can be assessed. It should be noted that for circular joints, circumferential effects
are neglected, which leads to a conservative analysis. Gaskets may be included in the analysis, provided
that they extend across the full width of the joint and that they behave linearly across the range of extension
of the joint assembly.
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1.3.1 Linear analysis of load paths through axisymmetrically loaded idealised joints
Sketch 1.2 illustrates an idealised joint in which a single bolt is pretensioned on assembly, so that the bolt
and feet loads are Pt , and the opposed loads Pa are applied to the plates. The behaviour of the joint is
simplified by assuming that the applied load Pa acts at the interface between the feet and bolt assembly, as
shown on Sketch 1.2b. In addition, the nut and the bolt head are assumed to be rigid, with the bolt shank
having only extensional stiffness and the feet having only compressive stiffness. The joint can then be
idealised as an assembly of springs, as shown in Sketch 1.2c, with the load applied axially to the rigid blocks
at each end, which represent the nut and bolt head. The outer springs represent the feet, having combined
stiffness kf , and the inner spring, of stiffness kb , represents the bolt. The basis of the analysis is to calculate
kf and kb and from these and the external load to calculate the load in the bolt and in the feet.
Sketch 1.3 shows a graphical presentation of the load deflection behaviour of the idealised joint assembly
with tensile loads and deflections shown positive and compressive loads and deflections negative. The line
A-B represents the bolt behaviour and has a slope of kb so that
k b = P b /δ b . (1.1)
Similarly, the line C-D represents the behaviour of the feet and has a slope of kf so that
k f = P f /δ f . (1.2)
Note that both kb and kf are positive values.
Sketch 1.4a shows a diagram similar to that of Sketch 1.3 but with the datum taken to be at the pretensioned
unloaded condition and all loads and deflections as positive quantities. Thus, the lines A-B and C-D on
Sketch 1.3 are translated onto Sketch 1.4a as shown. Note that kf is positive, despite the apparent negative
slope of the line C-D in Sketch 1.4a. This sketch shows that as the bolt load is increased so, because the
bolt extends, the compressive load in the feet reduces. The load is therefore carried across the interface
X-X of Sketch 1.2c as the increased Pb and reduced Pf , or
Pa = Pb – Pf . (1.3)
Thus, the line E-F on Sketch 1.4a also represents Pa since it is the difference between Pb and Pf . The joint
therefore transmits the applied load by increasing the bolt load and simultaneously reducing the joint
interface pressure. Note that the increase in Pb as a result of the applied load, that is Pb – Pt , is much less
than Pa . Sketch 1.4a shows that when the applied load is sufficiently large Pa has the value D-G. At this
point the interface load becomes zero and the bolt load equals the applied load.
P a = P as = k b δ bs + P t , (1.4)
where
δ bs = δ ft = P t /k f (1.5)
so that
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Sketch 1.2 Idealised joint
Sketch 1.3 Load deflection plot for idealised joint of Sketch 1.2c. (Tensile loads and deflections
positive, compressive loads and deflections negative)
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8
Sketch 1.4 Axisymmetrically loaded idealised pretensioned joints
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P as = P t ( k b /k f + 1 ) . (1.6)
Beyond Pas the bolt load still equals the applied load, thus,

Pb = Pa 
 where P a > P as . (1.7)
Pf = 0 

This change in behaviour at Pa = Ps is accompanied by a change in the total joint stiffness K. Thus,

K = kb + kf for P a < P as 

and  (1.8)

K = kb for P a > P as . 

The diagram of Sketch 1.4b is similar to that of Sketch 1.4a but with the abscissa representing the applied
load. Diagrams of this type are usually more convenient for design since, as will be shown in later sections,
they can illustrate the effect of prising action. Because the applied load is plotted in both the ordinate and
abscissa, a line of unit slope represents the case where all the load is taken by the bolt. For this diagram
the slopes of the lines, γb and γ f , are given by the simple equations
γb = 1/ ( 1 + kf /kb ) 

and  (1.9)

γf = 1/ ( 1 + k b /kf ) . 
From which it follows that
γb + γf = 1
and that Equation (1.6) may be expressed as
P as = P t /γ f . (1.10)
Also, the bolt load before separation is simply given as
P b = P t + P a γ b = P t + P a [ 1/ ( 1 + k f / k b ) ] (1.11)
and after separation Pb = Pa .
The load in the feet is given, from Equation (1.3), as
P f = P b – P a = P t + P a γ b – P a = P t – γ f P a = P t – P a [ 1/ ( 1 + k b /k f ) ] . (1.12)
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Thus the assembly pretension associated with bolt yield is given by
P ty = P y – γ b P a . (1.13)
Note that γ b , γf , kb and k f are all positive quantities but that γ f has negative slope, as does k f on Sketch 1.4.
The simple Equations (1.1) to (1.12) can be applied to more complex arrangements of axisymmetric joints
provided that the stiffnesses k b and k f include the appropriate elements. This is described in detail in
Section 1.4.
1.4 Load Path Through Practical Joints
The vast majority of joints have loads offset from the bolt centre-line. In a typical joint with relatively thin
feet, the load exerts a prising action, see Sketches 1.5a and 1.5b. In such joints each foot may be treated
as a beam of length g and thickness hf1 (or hf2 ) and the separation under the bolt estimated. In joints with
very thick feet, ( h f1 + hf2 ) > g , see Sketch 1.8, separation at the heel may be estimated by treating the
combined feet as a beam of length ( hf1 + hf2 ) and thickness g. Thus, the two methods differ in their
calculation of foot stiffness and hence in the calculation of the separation load and provide the separation
load for different locations. However, the calculation of bolt yielding depends only on bolt stiffness and
is therefore independent of feet thickness.
There is no set geometry at which one analysis takes over from the other. In any particular case in which
the total feet thickness ( h f1 + h f2 ) is close to g the location of the effective hinge point (see Section 1.5.1)
can control which analysis gives the lowest pretension for bolt yield and/or separation. In such cases both
analyses should be carried out.
Calculations of the separation load using the two methods described above are identified separately in the
following sections. It is important to note that some of the geometric properties and stiffnesses described
are relevant to both methods and that others are particular to only one of the methods.
1.5 LOAD PATHS THROUGH JOINTS WITH THIN FEET
In a typical bolted joint with thin feet, an offset load exerts a prising action, as shown in Sketches 1.5a and
1.5b, that bends the feet and increases the load on the bolt. This can lead to partial separation in the region
under the bolt head that further loads the bolt. By taking moments for the joint shown in Sketch 1.5a, the
following simplified relationship between the bolt load, Pb , the reaction R at the effective hinge point Q
and the applied load, Pa , are obtained.
Pb = Pa ( 1 + b/a ) (1.14)
and
R = Pa ( b/a ) . (1.15)
These equations represent the limiting case where the load is sufficiently high to cause separation under
the bolt and the joint interface pressure becomes a point or line contact at Q. A line representing Equations
(1.14) and (1.15) can be superimposed on Sketch 1.4b type diagrams. This is illustrated in the diagram of
Sketch 1.5a which shows that the line for Pb rises linearly, as in Sketch 1.4b, then meets the line of
Equation (1.14). The feet load line, for the region immediately under the bolt, falls linearly from Pt and
then, when the prising action causes separation, the reaction is transferred to Q at the toe and the load under
the bolt drops to zero. Sketch 1.5a shows an applied load in the region where the prising action has caused
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separation. Increasing the pretension delays separation until a higher load is applied. This is true whether
or not prising action is present. From Equation (1.14) it follows that it is desirable to minimise b/a since
this reduces Pb and also increases the load at which separation occurs, see Sketch 1.5a.
1.5.1 Analysis of practical joints with thin feet
Diagrams of the type shown in Sketches 1.5 can be used to investigate and improve the design of practical
joints. Their application to practical joints is complicated primarily by lack of knowledge of two interlinked
factors. These are the value of dimension a and the effective areas of the feet. These two parameters are
interlinked because prising action causes separation to commence at the heel first and this reduces the
effective area of the feet (see Sections 1.14.1 and 1.14.6).
Sketch 1.5a Simplified prising action (joints with thin feet)
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Sketch 1.5b Actual prising action (joints with thin feet)
Because of this action, separation is a gradual process that modifies the curves of Sketch 1.5a as shown in
Sketch 1.5b. Throughout the region of gradual separation the bolt is subject to increasing bending. After
separation under the bolt has occurred, the bolt is subject to further bending which increases with increasing
load. The bending stresses generated are additional to the direct stresses in the bolt and can contribute
significantly to its yielding and ultimate failure.
1.6 Estimation Of Stiffnesses kb and kf
In order to construct diagrams of the type illustrated in Sketches 1.5a and 1.5b for joints with thin feet or
to analyse joints with thick feet it is necessary to estimate kb and kf . In their simplest form for
axisymmetrically loaded joints these are given by
kb = E b A b /lb′ 

and  (1.16)

kf = E f Af /hf′ . 
Where the stiffness of part of a joint assembly is determined by idealising it into several (n) separate
stiffnesses these are combined into one stiffness using the following relationship,
–1 –1 –1 –1
k = k1 + k2 ........ kn . (1.17)
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Sketch 1.6 Joint with a plate that acts with the feet and a plate that acts with the bolt
In practice the calculation of kb and kf must take careful account of those parts of the assembly that are
acting with the bolt and those parts acting with the feet. The nut and bolt head and their associated washers
and locking washers act with the bolt. Also, any additional unloaded plates sandwiched between either the
nut or bolt head and the loaded feet act with the bolt, whereas unloaded plates sandwiched between the feet
act with the feet. Since the load enters the joint via the loaded feet, that portion of the load that goes to
increase the bolt load causes increased compression in the small layer of foot material immediately under
the bolt head. Such layers of the feet therefore also act with the bolt. This is illustrated in the following
equations for kf and kb which relate to the joint of Sketch 1.6. In this, the load is assumed to act in the feet
at layers that are at distances (3/4)hf1* and (4/5)hf2* from their innermost surfaces. Thus,

–1
kf = [ kf1 ( h = ( 3/4 )hf1 ) ]
–1 –1
+ [ kf2 ( h = ( 4/5 ) hf 2 ) ] + kp2
–1 

–1 
and
–1
kb = kb ( th )
–1
+ kb ( sh )
–1
+ kw1
–1
+ kw2
–1
+ kp1  (1.18)


+ [ k f1 ( h = ( 1/4 )hf1) ] –1 + [ k f 2 ( h = ( 1/5 )hf 2 ) ]–1 . 

1.6.1 Estimation of bolt stiffness kb (joints with thick or thin feet)
The bolt stiffness can be estimated from the stiffness of the plain shank, the loaded threaded portion of the
shank, the load-transmitting threads, the nut and bolt head, associated washers, and regions of the feet that
act with the bolt. For the purposes of the computation these have been separated into the following elements.
(a) The bolt head.

(b) The bolt shank.
(c) That part of the threaded portion of the bolt between the nut face and the plain shank.
(d) That part of the bolt thread engaged with the nut.
(e) The nut body.
(f) Washers.
Note that when calculating γb for bolts subject to fatigue Section 1.13 recommends that γb should be
overestimated rather than underestimated.
*
These factors are quoted to illustrate that different portions of hf can be effective for each foot in a joint. These values are typical for the
geometries illustrated in Sketch 1.6; they are not recommended values for all joints.
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1.6.1.1 The bolt head and the shank
The stiffness of the bolt head and the diffusion of the load into it from the shank are represented by an
increase in the bolt shank length over its actual length. The increase in shank length is expressed as a
coefficient x(sh) , which is used in the calculation or input into the program, and which is applied to the bolt
head thickness hb . Thus, the effective shank length is given by:
l′( sh ) = l ( sh ) + x ( sh ) × h b . (1.19)
Typically the load in the shank is diffused into the bolt head over a short distance and the influence of this
can be allowed for in kb(sh) by extending l(sh) by 10 or 15 percent of the shank diameter. The stiffness of
the standard bolt head can also be allowed for in kb(sh) by adding a further extension to l(sh) of about 15 to
20 per cent of the head thickness. In the case of special bolt heads this should be adjusted appropriately.
For thicker than standard bold heads the allowance reduces to a value below that for the standard bolt.
1.6.1.2 Bolt thread area
The area of the threaded portion of the bolt is treated as having an effective diameter that is larger than the
core diameter to account for the influence of the threads. The increase over the core diameter is expressed
as a coefficient, x(th) , which is used in the calculation or input into the program, and which is applied to
the depth of the threads. The effective diameter used in the calculation of the threaded portion of the bolt
is thus:
d′( th ) = d core + x ( th ) × ( d b – d core ) . (1.20)
Typically x(th) is about 0.3.
1.6.1.3 Load transfer to the nut and nut stiffness
The threads transferring load between the bolt and nut deform elastically and so contribute to the flexibility
of the bolt assembly. To allow for this the length of the threaded portion of the bolt is taken to extend into
the threads engaged with the nut. The extension beyond the nut face into the nut is expressed as a coefficient,
x(pt) , which is used in the calculation or input into the program, and which is applied to the thread pitch,
p. The value x(pt) × p is the distance into the nut from the nut face at which half of the load has been
transferred from the bolt to the nut.
The nut body also deforms elastically and contributes to the flexibility of the bolt assembly. Nut flexibility
is allowed for by further increasing the length of the threaded portion of the bolt. This extension is expressed
as a coefficient, x(nu) , which is used in the calculation or input into the program, and which is applied to
the nominal diameter of the bolt, db . Thus, the total effective length of bolt thread is:
l′( th ) = l ( th ) + x ( pt ) × p + x ( nu ) × d b . (1.21)
Note that the effective length l'(th) is used together with d'(th) when calculating the stiffness of the threaded
portion of the bolt and the nut.
A few limited tests have been conducted that indicate that the combined effect of x(pt) and x(nu) is equivalent
to the extension of l(th) by about 1½db to 3db. It follows that when l(th) plus l(sh) is small in relation to db ,
the deflection of the load transmitting threads dominates kb. The factor of 3 is more likely to apply to the
softer nut and bolt materials with coarse wide tolerance threads. The factor of 1½ is more likely to apply
to high strength materials and fine close tolerance threads.
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The value of x(pt) is a function of nut design and can vary as indicated in Table 1.1. There are many
proprietary nut designs available and the likely distribution of the load along the engaged threads should
be estimated in each case. Note that in many self locking nuts some of the engaged thread may not be
carrying a significant fraction of the load and such portions of the thread therefore make no contribution
to l(th) .
TABLE 1.1 ALLOWANCE FOR LOADED THREADS WITHIN THE NUT
Distribution of load along

Example of nut design Suggested value of x(pt)
engaged threads
Standard nut Load taken mainly on first 1 One complete thread pitch,
or 2 complete thread pitches. x(pt) = 1. (The minimum
allowance.)
Special thin-walled nut Load taken approximately Number of pitches equal to
uniformly over all engaged half the total length of the
threads. (This is rarely engaged threads. (This is
achieved in practice.) the theoretical maximum
additional and is rarely
achieved in practice.)
Where the above guidance on values for x(pt) and x(nu) is not sufficient, and particularly in short bolts, it is
recommended that extreme values should be used and their influence on the computation determined.
1.6.1.4 Washers
All washers and pad washers, on either the nut or head end, work with the bolt through an effective diameter
c and their stiffnesses should be determined. The effective diameter for a standard case is about the mean
of the across-corners and across-flats dimensions of the nut or bolt hexagon.
1.6.2 Estimation of stiffness kf for thin feet
This is carried out using Equation (1.18). The value of Af is required and the value of this is calculated in
the same way for both thick and thin feet as set out in Section 1.6.3.
In joints where gaskets are placed between the plates the stiffness of the gasket must be included in the
calculation of kf . This can only be done if the gasket material remains elastic throughout and if the gasket
covers the full area of contact between the feet.
In the equations given in Sections 1.6.3 and 1.7 the hole accommodating the bolt is represented as being
of the same diameter as the bolt. For most bolt holes this approximation produces negligible error. However,
if a large clearance hole is used then the actual hole diameter should be used.
1.6.3 Estimation of effective area of feet (both thick and thin feet)
The estimation of kf is complicated by uncertainty concerning the effective area, Af . Close to the bolt head
or nut, an area similar to the area underneath the nut or head is effective. If the feet are thick the load can
diffuse out to involve a larger area in the centre of the feet, thus increasing kf . Equation (1.22), taken from
Derivation 2, may be used to calculate the effective area, Af , when both feet have the same modulus and
the value of c is the same at both ends of the bolt. The equation is empirical. Figure 1 gives curves of the
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left hand side of Equation (1.19) plotted against l'/c for various values of Df /c for the case where c/db = 1.5.
Af 0.5 ( D f /c – 1 ) [ l′/5c – ( l′/10c ) 2 ]

-------------------------------------- = 1 + -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- . (1.22)
2
( π/4 ) [ c 2 – d b ] 1 – ( d b /c )2
When c is not the same at both ends of the bolt an average value should be used. It is suggested that l'
should be taken as the total actual distance between the bolt head and the nut.
Sketch 1.7 Estimates of the effective area of the feet, Df
To use Equation (1.22) the practical outside diameter of the feet, Df , must be estimated using the following
values.
(i) The width of the foot, w.

(ii) The distance from the heel to the toe, g.
(iii) Twice the distance to the toe from the bolt centre, 2(g – m).
(iv) Twice the distance to the heel from the bolt centre, 2m.
In practice Df is often taken to be rather more than the minimum of the four values of Df listed above.
(Sketch 1.7 and Examples 1.16.1 and 1.16.2 show estimates of Df .) Sketch 1.24 shows that for thin feet
the variation of Df has a relatively small influence on the pretension required.
1.7 Analysis of Joints With Thick Feet
For bolt yielding the analysis of Section 1.3 may be applied to joints with thick feet ( hf1 + hf2 ) > g .
However, separation is treated differently and deals only with separation at the heel, as described below.
If the sum of the thicknesses of the feet is significantly larger than their total effective length, g, the value
of kf may be estimated by treating the feet as a beam parallel to the bolt axis (Derivation 2). This is shown
schematically in Sketch 1.8. It is assumed that the feet stresses and the interface pressures are everywhere
compressive and the bolt flexural stiffness is neglected. In applying simple theory of bending it is assumed
that the stresses and interface pressure vary linearly across the feet (see Sketch 1.8). From these assumptions
it follows, using Equation (1.16)*, that Pa divided by the deflection of the foot at the bolt centre-line can
*
If a calculated value of kf is negative then the assumption of interface pressure being everywhere compressive is invalid and the analysis
cannot be used. This is not likely to be the case in practical joints.
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give kf as follows.
Ef Af
k f = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1.23)
( Σ h f ) [ 1 – ( A f /I f ) ( j – m + b ) ( m – j ) ]
where Af is obtained as described in Section 1.6.3 and converted into a rectangular area, containing the bolt
hole, of dimensions g × w'. Thus, as g is known,
w′ = ( A f + πd b2 /4)/g . (1.24)
The neutral axis of the area Af (that is, area g × w' less the bolt hole area) fixes j and If , its second moment
of area. Thus,
2 2
j = ( w′g /2 – πd b m/4 )/A f (1.25)
and
 2
 d 2 2  2 2
πd b2   m  π2 db g
4 2
 w′g     w′g   m
 b
I f = w′g 3 --- – -------------   ---- +  ------  + ------ –  ------------  ---- .

1
 ------------ m
 – ---------------------  2g (1.26)
3 4w′g  g 4g  4A f  πd 2   πd 2   g 
     b     b  
 
This estimate of kf is applied up to separation that occurs at one edge. This happens at a lower load than
does separation under the bolt. It is conveniently expressed as
P a P ahs I f /A f – ( m – j )j
------ ≡ ----------- = ------------------------------------------------------------------
-. (1.27)
Pt Pt γ f [ I f /A f – ( m – j )j + bj ]
Note that if m = j the bolt centre-line and axis of bending coincide and Equation (1.27) reduces to
P a hs I f /A f
----------- = ------------------------------------ . (1.28)
Pt ( γ f I f /A f ) + bj
Figure 2 provides a graphical presentation of Equation (1.26) for rapid estimation of If . Figure 3 provides
a graphical presentation of Equation (1.27). Note that If /(Af m2) is the major parameter governing Pahs/Pt .
17
85021
Sketch 1.8
1.8 Effect of Tolerances
The previous statements regarding calculation of kf and kb relate to joints in which all the mating surfaces
are perfectly flat and parallel. In practice, manufacturing tolerances will cause the bolt head and nut seatings
to be slightly out of parallel leading to some bending of the bolt. Data Item No. 67034* provides a method
of estimating the effect of inclined nut seatings on the fatigue strength of the bolt thread. Note also that if
the surface of a component is curved it can alter the stiffness of the bolt thread. Note also that if the surface
of a component is curved it can alter the stiffness of the foot or bolt that it acts with.
*
Data Item No. 67034 “Effect of inclined nut seatings on the fatigue strength of screw threads (tentative)”. (In Stress and Strength
Sub-series.)
18
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Sketch 1.9 Illustration of thin arched foot and the change to γfe and γbe
1.8.1 Effect of curved or wavy surfaces in joints with thin feet
The manufacturing tolerances may be such as to allow the components to have slightly curved or waved
surfaces. Where such surfaces are not pressed flat by the pretension, and/or subsequent loading, they can
modify the values of kf and/or kb. Sketch 1.8 shows the extreme case of a relatively thin arched foot. The
bolt pretension necessary to flatten the foot is
E f h f 3 w ( a + m )i
P te = ------------------------------------------
-. (1.29)
4a 2 m 2
Normally Pte is less than Pt but, on applying load, the value of Pt can fall below Pte , in which case the
spring stiffness of the arched foot is introduced into kf . The spring stiffness of the foot is given by
Ef hf3 w ( a + m )
k fe = ---------------------------------------
2
-, (1.30)
4a 2 m
which is combined with the stiffnesses described in Section 1.6, using Equation (1.17), to give a reduced
kf . Hence, from Equations (1.9), γb is increased and γ f decreased when Pf falls below Pte. Sketch 1.9
shows how this modifies Sketches 1.5a and 1.5b for cases where Pte is only just below Pt .
From the foregoing it follows that if, for example, the washers are dished and are not flattened by Pt , kb is
reduced so that γb is reduced and γf is increased. The bolt tension required to flatten a washer may be
calculated by treating the washer as a coned disc spring (or Belleville washer); see Data Item No. 78043*.
*
Data Item No. 78043 “Single disc springs – elastic deflections, stresses, stiffnesses and resiliences”. (In the Stress and Strength Sub-series.)
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1.9 Effect of Level of Pretension
As noted in Section 1.3.1, increasing the pretensioning delays separation to a higher applied load. Because
of this benefit, and the fact that Pt can often be easily altered during design without repercussions and can
also be altered after manufacture, it is the variable most likely to be adjusted to improve an unsatisfactory
joint. In initial design and manufacture obtaining a desired value of the pretension can however be
expensive, and simple methods are used in all but the most critical joints. Pretensioning is often controlled
by setting a torque tightening value and Data Item No. 86014* provides information on this technique.
Sketch 1.10 Effect of pretension exceeding design value sufficiently to cause yielding of the bolt
and effect of low pretension under repeated load applications
*
Data Item No. 86014 “Applying, measuring and maintaining pretension in bolts”.
20
85021
Setting the pretension too high, either as a result of errors in control on assembly or by later adjustment to
avoid separation, can cause gross yielding of the bolt. Sketch 1.10 shows the result of bolt yielding in a
joint with thin feet. The net effect, under repeated loadings, is the relaxation of the pretension back towards
the intended value. Thus, increasing Pt to avoid separation is not possible if bolt yielding intervenes.
Conversely under-tensioning, also shown in Sketch 1.9, can lead to separation before the design load is
reached. This is undesirable and it is therefore usually necessary to ensure that the bolt tension is such that
separation does not occur. It should be noted that it is common practice to set the design of pretension such
that it does not cause yielding of the bolt cross section. The value chosen should be suitable to the component
being designed and is normally an appropriate factor of the bolt material yield stress.
1.10 Effect of Temperature

Where the expansion of the bolt with changing temperature differs from that of the feet, service operation
at temperatures above or below the assembly temperature will alter the required pretension. The following
methods of analysis assume steady state end conditions and uniform temperature throughout the joint.
For transient conditions it may be possible to approximate extreme conditions within the joint by using a
false value for a coefficient of expansion. For example, an exterior bolt on a hot engine casing could, for
start-up conditions, be assumed to have α b = 0 whereas αf could take its correct value. This extreme case
model would suppress change in the bolt length with temperature but would allow the appropriate change
in the feet length.
1.10.1 Analysis assuming constant material properties
Equation (1.31) expresses the pretension after temperature change ∆T (positive ∆T for increasing
temperature) as a fraction of Pt at assembly temperature. It is assumed that the joint behaves elastically,
that the values of kb and kf are unaltered by the change in temperature and that all components of the feet
have the same value α f .
Pt( T ) ( α b l b – α f h f )∆ T
------------ = 1 – --------------------------------------------- , (1.31)
Pt ( 1 + k b /k f )ε t l b
or since,
 
P t  l sh /A sh + l th /A th 
ε t = ε tb = ------  -------------------------------------------  , (1.32)
Eb  l sh + l th 
 
Equation (1.31) can be rewritten as
∆T ( α b l b – α f h f ) E b
P t ( T ) = P t – ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ . (1.33)
( 1 + k b /k f ) [ l sh /A sh + l th /A th ]
The level of pretension does not alter the effect of temperature, which here depends only on ∆T , αb , αf
and the term included in the stiffness equations of the bolt and foot assemblies. Note that lb and hf in
Equations (1.31) and (1.33) are actual lengths and are therefore nominally equal, see, for example, Section
1.16.1.3. They do not include allowances for load transfer as do values of lb and lf used in stiffness
calculations.
Equation (1.31) assumes a simple assembly, such as that of Sketch 1.1 or 1.8, with no gaskets or additional
21
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stiffnesses and with a single value of α f that relates to both feet and εt is the bolt strain over a length equal
to the combined thicknesses of the feet. Except for special high temperature heat resisting steels the value
of αb – α f for steel bolts in steel feet is unlikely to exceed 5 × 10–6/°C. For steel bolts in aluminium alloy
feet α b – α f is typically –15 × 10–6/°C, for steel bolts in titanium alloy feet it is about 4 × 10–6/°C and for
steel bolts in cast iron it is about 1 × 10–6/°C. For long steel bolts, kb/kf is usually small and if the bolts are
pretensioned to give ε t in the region of 0.003 a ∆T of 100°C can increase Pt(T) for aluminium alloy feet
to about 1.5Pt , with consequent dangers of bolt yielding, and for titanium alloy feet Pt(T) can reduce to
about 85 per cent of its assembly value. A major design hazard is therefore temperature cycling. For
example, with steel bolts in aluminium alloy feet, a high, positive ∆T can cause yielding, and thus a reduced
Pt on return to the assembly temperature. If a negative ∆T follows then the pretension is reduced even
further. In joints where temperature effects become critical the simplest solution is to select bolt and feet
materials with similar expansion properties.
1.10.2 Analysis accounting for changes in material properties
Where the temperature change is such that it becomes necessary to take account of changes of Eb , Ef and
the allowable yield stress it is necessary to carry out two complete analyses. This is only practical using
the computer program of Section 2 and is explained in Section 2.4.4.
1.11 Selection of Bolt Size
In order to minimise the increase in bolt load as the joint is loaded, bolts with the smallest acceptable
diameter, and consequently the lowest stiffness, are required. This is because with low kb the value of γ b
is also low, and ∆P b is therefore small. However, in joints with thin feet, where separation resulting from
prising action is possible, it will normally be found advantageous to employ a larger diameter bolt so that
separation can be avoided by increasing Pt .
Where the joint is subject to temperature changes the notes in Section 1.10 should be consulted. Sections
1.12 and 1.13 deal with creep and fatigue respectively. In all cases the environment and corrosive effects
should be considered.
1.12 Creep
Any creep that occurs will lead to a reduction in the pretension. Thus, the materials of the joint assembly
should be chosen such that creep is negligible under the service environment (that is, combination of load
and temperature). This is particularly important in the choice of materials for gaskets and for soft shims
in structural joints.
1.13 Design Against Fatigue Failure
The majority of joints are subject to repeated fluctuations in load so that metal fatigue, usually of the bolt
in the thread or under the head, is a common mode of failure. Fatigue is governed primarily by the alternating
stresses, the average or mean stress level having a relatively minor influence on the fatigue strength. From
this it follows that the fatigue endurance can be increased by reducing the alternating stress, even at the
expense of incurring a big increase in the mean stress. As has been shown in previous sections,
pretensioning a joint leads to increases in bolt load that are much less than the applied load. It follows that
fluctuating applied loads lead to very much smaller fluctuations (alternations) in the bolt load. It is therefore
possible, with careful selection of the joint dimensions and bolt pretension, to ensure that the bolt alternating
stresses are low, thereby considerably increasing the bolt’s fatigue endurance. This applies to joints with
both thick or thin feet. Sketch 1.11 illustrates this for a joint with thin feet that is similar to Sketch 1.5b
but shows three loading cycles that fluctuate from 0 to Pa1 , 0 to Pa2 and 0 to Pa3. In all three cases the
minimum load in the bolt equals Pt . The load cycle 0 to Pa1 is on the linear part of the curve and the
22
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resulting bolt load alternates between Pt and Pb1 ; a load cycle that is much less than that applied. Thus,
in this case, the alternating bolt load is
∆ P b1 γ b P a1
------------- = --------------- (1.34)
2 2
and the mean load is
∆P b1 γ b P a1
P t + ------------- = P t + --------------- . (1.35)
2
In the second case the load cycle, from 0 to Pa2 , approaches the curve for Pb in the region of growing
separation. The resulting alternating load on the bolt is a larger proportion of the applied alternating loading
than that of Case 1. In Case 3 separation has occurred, and the load cycle 0 to Pa3 produces a bolt load
cycle of approximately the same magnitude as the applied load cycle. These three examples show that a
beneficial reduction in alternating load on the bolt is possible but only if separation is avoided. This is
further emphasised by noting that if there was no prising action, the bolt load cycle of Case 3 would be
much reduced as shown on the right-hand side of Sketch 1.11. Alternatively, the bolt load of Case 3 could
be reduced by increasing the pretension as shown towards the top of Sketch 1.10.
Increasing the pretension should only be done to the point where the reduced alternating load on the bolt
is obtained. Excessive pretensioning will unnecessarily increase the mean stress which, though having a
relatively small effect on fatigue strength, will nevertheless decrease the fatigue strength. Particular
attention should be paid to this when designing for limit loads that occur only very few times during service.
Pretensioning to prevent separation under these relatively rare events may or may not be crucial depending
upon joint function.
During cyclic loading of a pretensioned bolt joint fretting can occur which may lead to relaxation of the
pretension load. Fretting can initiate a crack that may subsequently grow by fatigue to cause component
failure (see Data Item No. 90031*).
Two of the techniques that can be used to pretension a bolt are hydraulic jacking and torque tensioning.
Hydraulic jacking is far the more accurate method of these. Torque tensioning results in some residual
torsional stresses remaining in the bolt, decreases the yield load and also the fatigue performance of the
bolt (see Data Item No. 86014).
High bolt pretensions in combination with certain loading regimes may cause local resonance in parts of a
structure. For example, combustion or impact loading contain several excitation frequencies that, though
often transitory in nature, can induce local vibrations that lead to premature bolt failure. This problem is
dealt with at the design or prototype stage by making a theoretical or experimental assessment to ensure
that either adequate damping is present or that the critical frequencies are not excited.
*
Data Item No. 90031 “Fretting fatigue”.
23
85021
Sketch 1.11 Illustration of relationships between fluctuations in the applied load and those
occurring in the bolt.
Sketch 1.11 and Equation (1.34) show that the alternating component of a fatigue load on the bolt is
controlled by the slope γb so that, ideally, γb should be as low as possible. This is obtained by reducing
kb and increasing kf .
Non-flat surfaces on the feet and washer and damped plates can, under certain circumstances, influence γ b
and γf as described in Section 1.8 and Sketch 1.9. When these circumstances apply, non-flat feet can
increase γb , so increasing the alternating load on the bolt and reducing its endurance; conversely non-flat
washers can reduce γb , so leading to a reduction in the bolt alternating load and an increase in its endurance.
In the course of determining γb for calculation of bolt fatigue strength estimated quantities should err on
the side of overestimating γb so that conservative bolt loads result.
1.14 Effect of Variation of Component Geometry and Material Properties (Joints With Thin Feet)
In the design of a pretensioned bolted joint the designer is usually free to select the bolt size, feet thickness,
plate thickness and washer sizes. The following sections illustrate the influence of these by example, using
the thin feet bolted joint assembly of Example 1, Section 1.16.1 (see Sketches 1.12 to 1.24). Note that the
bolt size and material and the b/a ratio are the major influences and that the effect of alteration of thicknesses
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of feet or washers et cetera. is dependent on whether or not the component acts with the bolt assembly.
1.14.1 Effect of bolt size and hinge point position
The dominating component of the bolted joint is the bolt itself and its influence is demonstrated in Sketch
1.12. This sketch shows that the limits on pretension required to prevent separation and avoid bolt yielding
are greatly affected by bolt size (diameter) and that the limits are widened by increasing bolt diameter. The
hinge point position is also varied in this sketch. It can be seen that for the larger size of bolts knowledge
of the exact hinge point position is less important. The right hand side of Sketch 1.12 is limited by the
requirement that the bolt head and nut can be turned. In practice the dimension b may have to be increased
to accommodate the larger diameter bolts.
Sketch 1.12 is essentially a graphical representation of a design procedure, which may be undertaken in
order to select the bolt size. The intersection of the curves for the pretension values required to prevent
yield and separation provides the minimum bolt size for the bolted joint assembly.
Then, by establishing the most probable hinge point position and the degree of latitude required between
the design value of pretension and the yield and separation values respectively, the size of bolt and the
pretension may be selected.
Sketch 1.13 shows the value of pretension required to prevent separation for a range of hinge point positions,
a, between the edge of the hole and the end of the feet. It should be noted that the pretension required to
prevent bolt yielding does not vary with hinge point position. When the distance between the bolt centre-
line and the hinge point position, a, is small, small changes in the hinge point position can make significant
changes to the required pretension. Guidance on the correct value is difficult to provide. For a very stiff
foot the hinge point position will be nearer to the end of the foot, while for a more flexible foot the hinge
point position will tend to be nearer to the edge of the hole. However, as demonstrated by Sketch 1.13 for
practical bolted joints, determining the absolute location of the hinge point position may not be as significant
as at first it seems. Sketch 1.12 shows that for the particular example joint chosen the wide range of hinge
point positions indicated result in a minimum bolt size in the range of M6-M7 ISO metric bolts.
1.14.2 Effect of component material changes
Four of the most commonly used engineering materials, steel, cast iron, titanium alloy and aluminium, have
moduli of elasticity of, approximately, 200 000 N/mm2, 120 000 N/mm2, 110 000 N/mm2 and 70 000
N/mm2 respectively. Thus, the effect of a component material change can be assessed by changing the
component modulus of elasticity. In the case of the bolt, the yield stress of the material is very important.
Sketch 1.14 shows the effect of yield stress for titanium alloy and steel bolts. It is clear that the yield stress
of the bolt is more critical than the modulus. The effect of the change in modulus of elasticity on the
pretension required to prevent yield for a given yield stress for a titanium alloy and steel bolt is only 1 per
cent. This assumes the same yield stress for both materials; in practice the yield stresses will differ.
Table 1.2 shows the effects of modulus of elasticity changes from an all steel assembly to one containing
a component of the material stated for a bolted joint of the geometry of Example 1. It can be seen that the
change in pretension values is very small. For components acting with the bolt assembly an increase in the
modulus of elasticity results in a decrease in the pretension required to prevent separation and also the
pretension required to cause yield. For components acting with the foot assembly, increasing the modulus
of elasticity has the opposite effect and the pretension values increase.
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TABLE 1.2
Steel component Percentage change in Percentage change

Component
changed to separation pretension in yield pretension
Bolt Titanium* 2.37 1.08
Feet Cast iron 1.63 0.75
Titanium 1.97 0.91
Aluminium 4.10 1.89
Plates Cast iron 1.50 0.70

Titanium 1.83 0.84
Aluminium 3.87 1.78
Washers Cast iron 0.11 0.04
Titanium 0.13 0.05
Aluminium 0.28 0.13
*
Material yield stress assumed unchanged.
1.14.3 Effect of component thickness
Increasing the thickness of one or more of the components of a bolted joint, other than the bolt, has two
principal effects. First it lowers the stiffness of the component, and secondly a longer bolt is required,
which therefore also has a lower stiffness. Thus, increasing the thickness of any component of the bolted
joint always lowers the stiffness of the bolt assembly. This reduces γ b and, as Sketch 1.10 shows, this is
beneficial in reducing the fatigue load on the bolt.
Sketch 1.15 shows that increasing the thickness of components acting with the bolt assembly increases
the separation pretension value. This is because if, for example, the washer thickness is increased so
reducing the total stiffness of the bolt assembly, kb , then the bolt assembly becomes easier to extend. Thus,
to prevent separation under a given load a higher pretension is required. The reverse is true if the thickness
is reduced. For components acting with the foot assembly increasing their thickness results in a reduced
pretension required to prevent separation (see Sketches 1.16 and 1.17). This is because an increase in
thickness leads to an increase in compression due to the pretension load, and so on application of the applied
load the foot assembly components have further to deflect back to their equilibrium position. This obviously
delays separation, so the pretension required to prevent separation is decreased.
With reference to bolt yielding, Sketches 1.18 to 1.20 show that increasing the thickness of components
acting with the bolt assembly requires an increase in the pretension required to prevent bolt yielding, while
increasing the thickness of components acting with the foot assembly decreases the required pretension to
prevent bolt yielding. When the thickness of a component acting with the bolt assembly is increased, the
stiffness of the component and the bolt assembly itself is decreased, which results in a more flexible bolt
assembly. Hence, the resulting increase in the pretension required to prevent bolt yielding is observed. If
the thickness of a component acting with the foot assembly is increased then the opposite is true.
1.14.4 Maximum applicable load
Sketch 1.21 shows that as the applied load is increased the pretension required to prevent separation
increases and the pretension required to prevent yield decreases. Therefore, the point of intersection of the
curves in Sketch 1.21 determines the maximum load that can be applied to the bolted joint, to avoid both
yielding and separation.
26
85021
1.14.5 Effect of b/a ratio
Sketch 1.22 shows the effect of varying the ratio of the distance from the bolt centre-line to the hinge point
to the distance from the bolt centre-line to the load line, b/a, on the pretension required to prevent separation.
It is a relatively large effect, and clearly demonstrates that to reduce the pretension required to prevent
separation the distance from the bolt centre-line to the load line should be decreased. The pretension
required to prevent yielding is not affected by this ratio.
1.14.6 Effect of outer diameter of practical working area of foot, Df
It is difficult to make a good estimation for the value of the outer diameter of the practical working area of
the foot. For joints where the feet are thin this parameter has little effect on the pretensions required to
prevent separation and yield (see Sketches 1.23 and 1.24). It can be seen that for the wide range shown,
the effect on the pretension values is less than 1.5 per cent. For thicker feet the effect of Df is more significant
and some study of the sensitivity of the design to alterations in the estimate of Df is recommended.
(inches)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

70000
Assumed
hinge 15000
points
60000 for
separation
curves Bolt
50000 a = d /2 yield
b Separation
Pretension curves curve
Bolt size 10000
value, limited by
40000
Pt Region of interference
a = (c+db)/4 Example 1 between nut
(N)
(see Section 1.16.1) and angle. Pt
30000
a = c/2 Pretension value (lbf)
MUST be below
a = dwo/2
the bolt yield 5000
20000 curve and above
the appropriate
separation curve
10000
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
ISO Metric Bolt Number (nominal bolt diameter (mm))
Sketch 1.12 Effect of bolt size on yield and separation pretension values
27
85021
a (inches)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

15000
Edge Edge Edge
Bolt of of of
14000 centre-line bolt washer foot
head 3000
13000
Separation 12000
Yield pretension
pretension value does not

value, 11000 vary with hinge
2500
Pts point position Pts
10000 Pty = 19590 N
(N) (lbf)
9000 2000
8000
7000
1500
Edge Example 1 case
6000
of (see Section 1.16.1)
hole
5000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance from bolt centre-line to hinge point, a (mm)
Sketch 1.13 Effect of hinge point position on yield and separation pretension values
lbf/in2
5 5 5 5
0.8 x 10 1.0 x 10 1.2 x 10 1.4 x 10
30000
Titanium alloy bolt 1.4
2
Eb = 110 000 N/mm
25000
Yield
1.2
pretension
value, Pty Steel bolt
20000 2 Bolt pretension
(N) Eb = 200 000 N/mm 1.0
Example 1 value
15000 0.8
Example 1 case
(see Section 1.16.1)
0.6
10000
500 600 700 800 900 1000
2
Bolt material yield stress (N/mm )
Sketch 1.14 Effect of bolt material yield stress on yield pretension value
28
85021
hw (inches)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

9000 1.05
8900 1.04
Separation 1.03
pretension 8800 Bolt pretension
Example 1 value
value, Pts 1.02

(N) 8700
1.01
8600
Example 1 case 1.00
8500
0 2 4 6 8
Individual washer thickness, hw (mm)
Sketch 1.15 Effect of washer thickness on separation pretension value
hp (inches)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

8900
1.03
8800
1.02
Separation 8700
pretension 1.01
Bolt pretension
value, Pts 8600 Example 1 value
1.00
(N)
8500 0.99
8400 0.98
Example 1 case
(see Section 1.16.1) 0.97
8300
0 2 4 6 8 10
Individual plate thickness, hp (mm)
Sketch 1.16 Effect of feet thickness on separation pretension value
29
85021
hp (inches)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
8900
1.03
8800
Separation 1.02
pretension 8700
value, Pts 1.01
(N) 8600 Bolt pretension
1.00 Example 1 value
8500 0.99
8400 Example 1 case 0.98

8300 0.97
0 2 4 6 8 10
Sketch 1.17 Effect of plate thickness on separation pretension value
hw (inches)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

19800
19700
Yield
pretension 1.01
19600
value, Pty Bolt pretension
(N) Example 1 value
19500
1.00
19400
Example 1 case
19300
0 2 4 6 8
Individual washer thickness, hw (mm)
Sketch 1.18 Effect of washer thickness on yield pretension value
30
85021
hf (inches)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

19700
19600
Yield 1.01
pretension
19500
(N) Example 1 value

1.00
19400
Example 1 case
0.99
19300
0 2 4 6 8 10
Individual plate thickness, hf (mm)
Sketch 1.19 Effect of feet thickness on yield pretension value
hp (inches)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

19800
19700
Yield 19600 1.01

pretension
19500 Example 1 value
(N)
1.00
19400
19300
Example 1 case
(see Section 1.16.1) 0.99
19200
0 2 4 6 8 10
Sketch 1.20 Effect of plate thickness on yield pretension value
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85021
Pa (lbf)
0 500 1000 1500 2000

25000
Yield
5000
pretension
20000
4000
Pretension
value, Pt 15000
maximum 3000
(N) applied Pt
10000 load
2000 (lbf)
Separation
pretension
5000 1000
Example 1 case
0 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Applied load, Pa (N)
Sketch 1.21 Effect of applied load on pretension values
13000 1.5
Example 1 case (see Section 1.16.1)
12000 minimum b/a ratio case 1.4
11000 1.3
Separation 1.2 Bolt pretension
pretension 10000 Example 1 value
value, Pts 1.1
9000
(N) 1.0
8000
0.9
7000 0.8
6000 0.7
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
b/a ratio
Sketch 1.22 Effect of b/a ratio on separation pretension value
32
85021
Df (inches)
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1

8700
8650 1.01
Separation
pretension 8600
value, Pts
1.00 Bolt pretension

(N) 8550 Example 1 value
Example 1 case
8500 (see Section 1.16.1) 0.99
8450
15 20 25 30
Df (mm)
Sketch 1.23 Effect of Df on separation pretension value
Df (inches)
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1

19550
1.005
19500
Yield
pretension 19450
value, Pty
1.000 Bolt pretension
(N) Example 1 value
19400
19350 Example 1 case

(see Section 1.16.1) 0.995
19300
15 20 25 30
Df (mm)
Sketch 1.24 Effect of Df on yield pretension value
33
85021
1.15 Derivation
This section lists selected sources that have assisted in the preparation of this Item.
1. HUNT, H. The behaviour of bolt assemblies. The Manchester Association of

Engineers, Session No. 2, 1972-73.
2. JUNKER, G.H. Principle of the calculation of high-duty bolted joints. Interpretation of
directive VDI 2230. Technical thesis published by Unbrako Ltd,
Coventry, UK.
3. JUNKER, G.H. The bolted joint: economy of design through improved analysis and
WALLACE, P.W. assembly methods. Proceeding of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Vol. 198 B, No. 14, July 1984.
1.16 Worked Examples
Two example calculations are provided. The first deals with a joint with thin feet clamped across two plates
and is worked in SI units. The second example deals with a joint with very thick feet and is worked in
pounds-force and inch units.
1.16.1 Example 1: joint with thin feet
It is required to prevent separation under the bolt of the joint shown in Sketch 1.25 under an applied load
of 3500 N. The working environment is not expected to lead to temperature changes outside of the range
20 ± 30°C .
Using the definition of Section 1.4 the feet are thin. Thus, the methods of Section 1.5 will be used.
The stiffnesses of the bolt assembly and of the feet will be calculated first and then γ b and γ f will be
calculated. The load diagram is then constructed and suitable values of pretension determined.
Sketch 1.25 Joint with thin feet (all dimensions in millimetres)
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Bolt assembly details (including nut):
8 mm bolt, 1.4 mm pitch, 6.2 mm core diameter.
Unthreaded length 15 mm.
Material properties:
E = 204 GN/m2 , α = 10.8 × 10–6/°C.
Allowable yield stress* = 684 MN/m2 .
Washers have same values of E and α as bolt.
Clamped 4 mm plates:
E = 66 GN/m2 , α = 23 × 10–6/°C
Feet:
E = 72 GN/m2 , α = 23 × 10–6/°C
w = 25.4 mm.
*
This is the material proof stresss appropriately factored (see Section 1.9).
1.16.1.1Calculation of stiffnesses
The Bolt Assembly
This is composed of four elements, the bolt shank, the loaded threaded portion of the bolt (with allowances
for bolt head and nut), the washers and those parts of the feet working with the bolt.
For the shank l(sh) = 15 mm. Introducing a value of x(sh) = 0.2 to account for bolt head flexibility (see
Section 1.6.1.1) Equation (1.19) gives
l′( sh ) = 15 + 0.2 × 6.7 = 16.34 mm .
Then, from Equation (1.16),
2
204 × 10 9 × π × ( 8 × 10 – 3 ) /4
k′b ( sh ) = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 627.5 × 10 6 N/m .
16.34 × 10 – 3
For the thread
l ( th ) = 20.4 – 15 = 5.4 mm .
Introducing x(pt) = 1 and x(nu) = 2 to account for load transferring threads and nut flexibility (see Section
1.6.1.3) Equation (1.21) gives
l′( th ) = 5.4 + 1.0 × 1.4 + 2 × 8.0 = 22.8 mm .
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Taking the value of x(th) to be 0.3 (see Section 1.6.1.2) Equation (1.20) gives
d′ ( th ) = 6.2 + 0.3 ( 8 – 6.2 ) = 6.74 mm

2
giving A ( th ) = ( π/4 ) ( 6.74 × 10 – 3 ) = 35.68 × 10 – 6 m2 .
Then, from Equation (1.16),
204 × 10 9 × 35.68 × 10 – 6
k′b ( th ) = ------------------------------------------------------------------ = 319.2 × 10 6 N/m .
22.8 × 10 – 3
The two identical washers can be treated together. Their effective outer diameter will be taken to be equal
to the average of the outer diameter of the washer and the across flats dimension of the nut and bolt head,
that is,
c = ( 12.6 + 15.0 )/2 = 13.8 mm .

2 2
204 × 10 9 × ( π/4 ) [ ( 13.8 × 10 – 3 ) – ( 8 × 10 – 3 ) ]
Thus, k w′ = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 8.44 × 10 9 N/m .
2 × 1.2 × 10 – 3
The first 0.5 mm of the feet will arbitrarily be assumed* to act with the bolt assembly. Their stiffness is thus
2 2
72 × 10 9 × ( π/4 ) [ ( 13.8 × 10 – 3 ) – ( 8 × 10 – 3 ) ]
k f′ = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = 7.15 × 10 9 N/m .
2 × 0.5 × 10 – 3
The total bolt assembly effective stiffness is then, from Equation (1.17),
–1 –1 –1 –1
k b′ – 1 = ( 627.5 × 10 6 ) + ( 319.2 × 10 6 ) + ( 8.44 × 10 9 ) + ( 7.15 × 10 9 )
giving k b′ = 200.6 × 10 6 N/m .
The Assembly of Feet and Plates
It is first necessary to estimate the effective areas of the combined feet and plates. This is done using Figure
1 for which l'f will include the actual thickness of the washers, thus
l′f = 18 + 2 × 1.2 = 20.4 mm .
As in the previous section the value of c will be taken to be the average of the across flats dimension of the
nut and the washer outer diameter, that is, 13.8 mm. The effective diameter of the practical working area,
*
This dimension can be varied in the input of the program of Section 2 and its influence on the calculated values and their sensitivity to
its value can be easily determined.
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Df , will be taken as twice the distance to the edge nearest to the bolt centre-line (see Section 1.6.3), that is,
D f = 2 × 11.5 = 23 mm .
Df 23
Then, ------ = ---------- = 1.667
c 13.8
l′ 20.4
and --- = ---------- = 1.478
c 13.8
giving, from Figure 1*,

2 2
A f = 1.14 ( π/4 ) [ ( 13.8 × 10 – 3 ) – ( 8 × 10 – 3 ) ] = 0.113 × 10 – 3 m 2 .
Thus, for the feet, using their actual thickness, less the 0.5 mm attributed to the bolt assembly,
72 × 10 9 × 0.113 × 10 – 3
′ 2
k f1, = --------------------------------------------------------------- = 904 × 10 6 N/m .
2 ( 5 – 0.5 ) × 10 – 3
Similarly, for the inner pair of plates,
66 × 10 9 × 0.113 × 10 – 5
′ 2
k p1, = --------------------------------------------------------------- = 932 × 10 6 N/m .
2 × 4 × 10 – 3
Combining the above stiffnesses using Equation (1.17) gives
–1 –1
k f′ – 1 = ( 904 × 10 6 ) + ( 932 × 10 6 )
giving k f′ = 458.9 × 10 6 N/m .
1.16.1.2 Construction of load diagram, Sketch 1.26
The stiffness parameters are, from Equations (1.9),
γ b = 1/ ( 1 + 458.9 × 10 6 /200.6 × 10 6 ) = 0.3042

and γ f = 1 – 0.3042 = 0.6958 .
Owing to prising action Equations (1.14) and (1.15) apply. For these b is 13.5 mm and a is somewhat less
than 11.5 mm. The conservative assumption that a equals the washer radius of 7.5 mm will be taken initially.
Thus,
P b = P a ( 1 + 13.5 /7.5 ) = 2.8P a

and R = P a ( 13.5/7.5 ) = 1.8 P a .
*
Note that Figure 1 is strictly for c/db = 1.5 and that here c/db = 1.725. However, because l'/c is low the error arising from using Figure
1 in this instance is negligible.
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Sketch 1.26 shows lines for these relationships and also a horizontal line at the load at which the bolt core
area yields:
2
684 × 10 6 × π ( 6.2 × 10 – 3 ) /4 = 20.65 kN .
The upper and lower limiting pretensions are also shown on the sketch. The upper pretension is associated
with bolt yielding and is, from Equation (1.13),
20.65 – 0.3042 × 3.5 = 19.59 kN .

The lower pretension is associated with separation under the bolt, see Sketch 1.5a, and is
3.5 × 2.8 – 0.3042 × 3.5 = 8.735 kN .
Sketch 1.26 Load diagram for Example 1.
1.16.1.3Effect of temperature fluctuations
Setting the pretension at temperature to the yield pretension of 19.59 kN Equation (1.33) becomes, when
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∆T = +30°C (note that lp = hf = 20.4 mm as noted in Section 1.10.1),
19 950 = P t ( T ) =
30 × ( 10.8 × 10 – 6 × 20.4 × 10 – 3 – 23 × 10 – 6 × 20.4 × 10 – 3 ) × 204 × 10 9

P ty – ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6
15 × 10 – 3 × 4 5.4 × 10 – 3 × 4
6 ----------------------------------------- + --------------------------------------
( 1 + 200.6 × 10 /458.9 × 10 ) 2 2
π × ( 8 × 10 – 3 ) π ( 6.4 × 10 – 3 )
giving
19 590 = P ty + 2220.5 or P ty = 17 370 N .
Similarly, with ∆T at – 30 °C, P ty = 21 810 N .
This is above the bolt yield load of 20 650 N and therefore cannot be applied. If the bolt is at yield under
load at ∆T = –30°C then removal of the load and returning to assembly temperature will reduce the bolt
load to
20 650 – 0.3042 × 3500 – 2220.5 = 17 360 N .
This is the same as the value calculated above for ∆T = +30°C.
Repeating the calculation for separation gives, at ∆T = +30°C,
8735 = P t ( T ) = P tbs + 2220.5 or P tbs = 6514 N

and, at ∆T = – 30°C , P tbs = 10 960 N .
Hence, the required pretension at assembly is calculated as being between 10 960 and 17 370 N.
1.16.2 Example 2: joint with thick feet
It is required to ensure that a joint clamping together two halves of a circular ring subject to hoop tension
does not separate at the heel under a load of 900 lbf. Sketch 1.27 shows the joint and information on the
material and the bolt assembly are given below. The joint is assembled in a factory environment, at 20°C,
and is required to operate over temperature fluctuations between –55°C and 80°C. The bolt pretension is
10 000 lbf ± 1000 lbf.
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Sketch 1.27 Joint with thin feet (all dimensions in inches)
Bolts:
3/8 in × 24 UNF-1A × 3.625 in long.
Major diameter 0.368 in.
Minor diameter 0.318 in.
Unthreaded length 2.75 in.
Pitch 0.042 in.
Head: 0.6 in across flats,
0.693 in across corners
and 0.310 in thick.
Material properties:
E = 30.7 × 106 lbf/in2,
α = 10.8 × 10–6/°C.
Yield stress = 140 000 lbf/in2 .
Washer:
Dimensions:
0.064 in thick.
0.392 in internal diameter.
0.655 in external diameter.
Material modulus:
E = 28 × 106 lbf/in2 .
Ring Material (feet):

E = 29.1 × 106 lbf/in2 ,
α = 11.4 × 10–6/°C.
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The clamped components are long in relation to their width and so the method of analysis used will be that
of Section 1.7. The bolt stiffness will first be calculated followed by the feet stiffnesses using Equation
(1.16). This will allow calculation of γf , γb , the bolt load at yield and then, via Equation (1.27), the
separation load can be estimated.
1.16.2.1Calculation of stiffnesses
The Bolt Stiffness
For the unthreaded shank of the bolt l(sh) = 2.75 in. Introducing x(sh) = 0.2 to account for bolt head stiffness
(see Section 1.6.1.1) Equation (1.19) gives
l (′sh ) = 2.75 + 0.2 × 0.31 = 2.812 in .
Hence, from Equation (1.16),
307 × 10 6 × π × 0.375 2 /4
k (′sh ) = ------------------------------------------------------------------ = 1.206 × 10 6 lbf/in .
2.812
The effective area of the threaded portion will be calculated using x(pt) = 0.3 (see Section 1.6.1.2). Thus,
from the major and minor diameters given and using Equation (1.20),
d′( th ) = 0.318 + 0.3 ( 0.368 – 0.318 ) = 0.333 in
giving A′b ( th ) = π × 0.333 2 /4 = 0.087 09 in2 .
For the threaded, loaded, portion of the bolt
l ( th ) = 3.0 + 2 × 0.064 – 2.75 = 0.378 in .
Introducing x(pt) = 1.0 and x(nu) = 2 (see Section 1.6.1.3) Equation (1.21) gives
l′( th ) = 0.378 + 1.0 × 0.042 + 2 × 0.375 = 1.170 in .

Hence,
k (′th ) = 30.7 × 10 6 × 0.087 09/1.170 = 2.285 × 10 6 lbf/in .
The washers act with the bolt assembly and their joint stiffness is calculated using an outside diameter equal
to the washer diameter,
2 2
28 × 10 6 × π ( 0.655 – 0.392 )/4
k w′ = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 47.31 × 10 6 lbf/in2 .
2 × 0.064
Owing to the existence of the flanges on the rings the load will enter the joint very close to the surface
under the washers. Thus, only a very small layer of the joined ‘plates’ can act with the bolts. In view of
the fact that the bolts are long the effect of this small layer can be ignored. Accordingly, from Equation
(1.18),
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–1 –1 –1
k b′ – 1 = ( 1.206 × 10 6 ) + ( 2.285 × 10 6 ) + ( 47.31 × 10 6 )
giving
k b′ = 0.7764 × 10 lbf/in .
6
Feet Stiffness
This is estimated using Equation (1.23) which requires Af and If .The value of Af is obtained from Figure
1. Since the washers assist in distributing the load the values of l' will be taken to include them, that is,
l′ = 3 + 2 × 0.064 = 3.128 in .
As in Section 1.16.2.1 the dimension c will be taken as the washers’ outside diameter of 0.655 in. The
value of Df must be estimated. A minimum value is 1.0 in, being compatible with the 0.50 in radius shown
in Section A-A of Sketch 1.27. The next dimension relevant to Df is the distance from the bolt centre-line
to side where separation will occur, that is 0.56 in. Because of this dimension, and the fact that the section
is 1.25 in wide at the heel, a Df of 2 × 0.56, that is 1.12 in, will be assumed.
D 1.12
------f = ------------- = 1.710 ,
c 0.655
c 0.655
----- = ------------- = 1.747
db 0.375
and
l′ 3.128
--- = ------------- = 4.776
c 0.655
so that, from Equation (1.22)
2
π 2 0.5 ( 1.710 – 1 ) [ 4.776/5 – ( 4.776/10 ) ]
A f = --- ( 0.655 2 – 0.375 ) 1 + ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.3135 in2 .
4 1 – ( 0.375/0.655 ) 2
The value of g must be estimated for this joint since the ends of the feet are round. The dimension of 0.913
as shown in Section A-A of Sketch 1.27 will be taken. Then, from Equation (1.24),
w′ = ( 0.3135 + π × 0.375 2 /4 )/0.913 = 0.4643 in
and from Equation (1.25)
2 2
j = ( 0.4643 × 0.913 /2 – π × 0.375 × 0.56/4 )/0.3135 = 0.420 in .
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From Equation (1.26)
2 2
1 π × 0.375 2   0.56   0.375  
I f′ = 0.4643 × 0.913 3
--- – ------------------------------------------------   ------------- +  ------------------------ 
3 4 × 0.4643 × 0.913   0.913  4 × 0.913 
2 2
π 2 × 0.375 4 × 0.913 2  0.4643 × 0.913  0.56   0.4643 × 0.913  0.56 
– ------------------------------------------------------  ------------------------------------- +  ------------------------ –  ------------------------------------- +  -------------
4 × 0.3135  π × 0.375 2   2 × 0.913  π × 0.375 2   0.913
I f′ = 0.026 88 in4 ,
so that, from Equation (1.23)
29.1 × 10 6 × 0.3135
k′f = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.0 × { 1 – ( 0.3135/0.026 88 ) ( 0.420 – 0.56 + 0.52 ) ( 0.56 – 0.420 ) }
k′f = 8.012 × 10 6 lbf/in .
From Equations (1.9)
γ b = 1/ ( 1 + 8.012 × 10 6 /0.7764 × 10 6 ) = 0.088 34

and γ f = 1 – 0.088 34 = 0.9117 .
1.16.2.2Calculation for separation load at the heel and bolt yield load
At Assembly Temperature
From Equation (1.27)
P ahs ( 0.026 88/0.3135 ) – ( 0.56 – 0.420 ) × 0.420

----------- = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pt 0.9117 × [ ( 0.026 88/0.3135 ) – ( 0.56 – 0.420 ) × 0.420 ] + 0.52 × 0.420
P ahs
----------- = 0.1109 .
Pt
Setting the separation load at the heel Pahs at the applied load value of 900 lbf gives a minimum pretension
at the assembly temperature of
P ths = 900 /0.1109 = 8115 lbf .
The bolt core yields at a load of
140 × 10 3 × π × 0.318 2 /4 = 11 120 lbf .
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The pretension that yields the bolt under the applied load of 900 lbf is then, from Equation (1.13),
P ty = 11 120 – 900 × 0.088 34 = 11 040 lbf .
At Working Temperature
Under the anticipated temperature fluctuations, in which ∆T can be –75°C or +60°C, the pretension for
bolt yield or separation will differ from that required at the assembly temperature. Using Equation (1.33)
to correct for this, with hf = lb = 3.128 in, the pretension at temperature equal to the bolt yield load and
∆T = +60°C gives,
60 [ 10.8 × 10 – 6 × 3.128 – 11.4 × 10 – 6 × 3.128 ] × 30.7 × 10 6

11 040 = P t – -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.75 × 4 0.378 × 4
( 1 + 0.7764 × 10 – 6 /8.012 × 10 – 6 ) --------------------------- + ---------------------------
2
π × 0.375 2 π × 0.318
11 040 = P t – ( – 106.3 )
or P t = 10 930 lbf .
Similarly, at ∆T = –75°C, Pt = 11 170 lbf. This is just above the bolt yield load of 11 120 lbf and therefore
cannot be applied. If the bolt is at yield under load and at ∆T = –75°C then removal of the load and returning
to the assembly temperature will reduce the bolt load to
11 120 – 900 × 0.08834 – 106.3 = 10 930 lbf .
This is the same value calculated for ∆T = +60°C.
Also, for separation, at ∆T = +60°C and setting Pths to 8115 lbf,
8115 = P t – ( – 106.3 )
giving Pt = 8009 lbf and similarly, at ∆T = –75°C, giving Pt = 8248 lbf.
Thus, at assembly, the minimum pretension to avoid separation is 8248 lbf and the maximum pretension
to avoid bolt yielding is 10 930 lbf. The proposed upper bolt tension of 11 000 lbf, see example statement,
may therefore cause bolt yielding. Also, the minimum proposed bolt tension of 8248 lbf is only 752 lbf
below the lower bolt tension of 9000 lbf. These margins are small and, in view of the statement in Section
1.1 on application of the analysis, it is likely that larger diameter bolts with a higher pretension are required
(or if there is a line of similar bolts their spacing should be reduced to reduce the load per bolt).
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For choice of c and Df see Section 1.6.3

c
Curves are constructed for = 1.5
db
The general equation is :
D l 2
Af 1
2 ( c f − 1)[ 5cl −( 10c
1 1
)]
=1+
db 2
2
(π/4)(c − db )
2
1 −( c )
3.0 Df
c
2.8 3.0
2.6
2.4
2.5
2.2
Af
2 2
(π/4)(c − db )
2.0
2.0
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.2 1.2
1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
l1
c
FIGURE 1 VARIATION IN EFFECTIVE AREA OF PLATES FOR AXISYMMETRICALLY LOADED JOINTS
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85021
m
g
0.5 d
0.08 a. = 0.3
g
0.4 and 0.6
0.06
If
w1g3 0.3 and 0.7
0.04
0.02 0.2 and 0.8
m
g
0.08 d
0.5 b. = 0.4
g
0.4 and 0.6
0.06
If
w1g3
0.3 and 0.7
0.04
0.02 0.2 and 0.8
m
g
0.08
0.5 d
If c. = 0.5
g
w1g3 0.4 and 0.6
0.06
0.04 0.3 and 0.7
m
0.08 g
d
0.5 d. = 0.6
g
0.4 and 0.6
0.06
If
w1g3
0.04 0.3 and 0.7
0.02
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
d2
w1g
FIGURE 2 VARIATION OF SECOND MOMENT OF AREA FOR JOINTS WITH THICK FEET WITH THEIR
GEOMETRY
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If
1.2 1.2
Af m2 a. γf = 0.6
If
2 b. γf = 0.7
1.0 Af m
1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0
1.0
0.8 1.0 0.8
Pas Pas 1.0
Pt 0.5 Pt
0.5
0.6 0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5
0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1
0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3

If If
0.3 0.1 0.1 2 0.3 0.1 0.1 2
Af m Af m
0.0 0.0
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
j j
m m
b
Af Load line
Neutral axis 0.4

j b
0.6
If
m
0.8 $ m
1.0 Af m2 1.0
If
c. γf = 0.8 2 d. γf = 0.9
1.0 Af m
1.0
0.8 1.0 0.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.6 0.5 0.6
0.5
Pas Pas
Pt 0.5 Pt 0.5
0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5
0.1 0.1
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3
If If
0.3 0.1 0.1 2 0.3 0.1 0.1
Af m Af m2
0.0 0.0
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
j j
m m
FIGURE 3 VARIATION OF SEPARATION LOAD FOR JOINTS WITH THICK FEET WITH GEOMETRY
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2. ESDUpac A8521
2.1 Introduction
ESDUpac A8521 contains a Fortran 77 computer program for calculating the required pretension in a bolted
joint subjected to a tensile load and to changes in temperature, such that the bolted joint does not separate
and the bolt does not yield. The basis of the program is explained in Section 1. The input accepts numerical
data that describes the assembly of the bolted joint, the working temperature range, the applied load,
mechanical properties and geometry of the components of the bolted joint. The program outputs the limits
to the bolt pretension with bolt yielding and joint separation under applied load.
This Data Item relates to Version 1.0 of ESDUpac A8521V10 and Fortran program A8521V10.FOR. Both
the ESDUpac number and the program number contain the version number encoded in the three characters
V10. Throughout this Data Item the ESDUpac and its program are referred to by the number A8521 and
the current version number is taken to apply. Note that the Contents to the Sub-series Software Volume
states the current version number.
The program is available in two formats: (a) a Fortran source code with example input and output files, and
(b) an executable program for PCs. Both versions can be found on the Compact Disc and on disk in the
Sub-series Software Volume.
Every reasonable effort has been made to ensure that the program performs the intended calculation
satisfactorily. However, in common with other providers of software, no responsibility as to the suitability
or fitness of the program for any particular purpose is made and no liability for any loss occasioned by any
person as a direct or indirect result of use of the program whether arising from negligence or otherwise can
be accepted. In no event shall ESDU or any individuals associated with the development of the program
be liable for any damages, including loss of profit or consequential loss arising out of or in connection with
the program.
2.2 Notation
The notation for the program is as set out in Section 1.2.
2.3 Program Structure
The program of ESDUpac A8521 is written in Fortran 77 and consists of a number of distinct subroutines.
The first subroutine accepts all of the input data. The subroutines of the calculation core require no input
beyond their call and the computed values of pretension are returned to the main subroutine which calls
the single output routine.
2.4 Program Limitations
(i) Bolted joints comprising one bolt, two feet and two washers, to which up to five plates, acting with
the bolt assembly, (see Section 1.6), may be added.
(ii) For joints with thin feet additional stiffnesses can be introduced to represent components other than
those of plates. Also, up to five plates that act with the foot assembly may be added.
(iii) For joints with thick feet an additional stiffness that acts with the bolt assembly only can be
introduced.
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85021
(iv) Where manufacturing tolerances give a curved or waved surface on a component of the bolted
joint, for example the case of a thin arched foot (see Section 1.8.1), then a stiffness to represent the
influence of the curvature may be included.
The values of additional stiffnesses noted above must be pre-calculated and supplied as input data to the
program.
2.5 Data Input
This section and Table 2.2 describe the construction of the file for input directly to the Fortran program.
The input consists of a file of ordered numbers. Prior to joint data input, three lines are provided for run
identification details. These lines may be left empty or can carry up to 75 alphanumeric characters each.
The contents of the lines appear in the output. Also, prior to joint data input, two lines are provided for the
declaration of the units in which all the input data are to be supplied. These lines may be left empty or can
carry up to 75 alphanumeric characters each. These lines also appear in the output. (Note that this is NOT
an option to select units but simply the invitation to state the units used in the input data and to echo this
statement in the output.)
Any coherent system of units may be used for the input and Table 2.2 provides details of the inputs required.
Then, after selecting the form of analysis required, and whether or not the temperature analysis is required,
the number of plates must be entered. Each of the appropriate variables must then be entered in the correct
order, followed by the number of additional stiffness components and associated entries.
2.5.1 Selection of analysis option
The type of analysis is first selected by setting the control integer TYPE to 1 or 2, see Table 2.2. For notes
on the two types see Section 1.4.
TABLE 2.1
Control integer
Type of feet Analysis (see Section 1.4)
TYPE
Thin 1 Bolted joints for which the feet thickness hf1 + hf2 ≤ g .
Thick 2 Bolted joints for which the feet thickness hf1 + hf2 > g .
The option number is the first variable to appear in the input file and indicates whether or not plates and
additional stiffness components acting with the foot assembly may be included in the bolted joint structure.
The option number also determines whether ‘a’ or ‘g’ and ‘m’ are entered in the general data section of the
input file.
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2.5.2 Selection of temperature analysis
The effect of the working temperature of the bolted joint on the pretension value may also be investigated.
To select the temperature analysis Entry 4 in Table 2.2, TEMP, must be set to 1. Alternatively, if it is not
required, it must be set to zero. If selected, the assembly, upper and lower temperatures are entered in the
general data section of the input file. The coefficients of linear thermal expansion for all the components
of the bolted joint must also then be entered. The temperatures and coefficients of thermal expansion may
be in any chosen system as long as they are all compatible.
2.5.3 Bolted joint structure

When the feet are thin and TYPE = 1 is selected (see Section 2.4.1) the joint can contain plates and additional
stiffness components, for example Belleville washers. These are associated with either the bolt assembly
or the foot assembly. Thus, four integers must be specified in the input data file. These are:
(i) the number of plates acting with the bolt assembly (Entry 5).
(ii) the number of plates acting with the foot assembly (Entry 6).
(iii) 1 indicating that additional stiffness components act with the bolt assembly or zero (Entry
55).
and (iv) 1 indicating that additional stiffness components act with the foot assembly or zero (Entry
56).
For analysis TYPE = 2 the bolted joint cannot contain plates or additional stiffness components acting with
the foot assembly. Therefore, for this analysis, only two integers need to be specified in the input data file.
2.5.4 Temperature variations
2.5.4.1 No account of change of material properties with temperature
If the bolted joint is made up of components having different coefficients of linear thermal expansion then
changes in temperature from the assembly temperature of the joint will change the pretension load required
to prevent yielding or separation. For example, if the components between the bolt head and nut are of a
higher coefficient of linear thermal expansion than the bolt, then upon a temperature rise above the assembly
temperature, the components between the bolt will expand more than the bolt, so increasing the tension in
the bolt. The Equation (1.33) is employed in the program and is adequate provided that the material
properties do not change significantly over the temperatures considered. Note that when using Equation
(1.33) the value hf is taken to be (hf1 + hf2) which is equal to lb , see Section 1.10.1.
2.5.4.2 With account of changing material properties
Where the temperature change is large the values for modulus of elasticity and yield stress vary with
temperature and these affect the pretension required at the assembly temperature to prevent separation
and/or yielding at the working temperature. The following describes the procedure for calculating the value
of pretension at assembly that corresponds to yielding at the working temperature, allowing for changing
material properties.
The procedure relies on the fact that temperature induced tensions are independent of the assembly
pretension provided that separation does not occur. The temperature induced tensions can be obtained by
running the program twice. For the case where yielding is being investigated the procedure is as follows.
50
85021
(i) The first run is at assembly conditions, that is, with no temperature effects. Therefore TEMP is set
to 0. This calculates the required pretension, under the applied load at the assembly temperature,
and is denoted by PtA .
(ii) The second run includes temperature effects. Therefore TEMP is set to 1 and Tuw and Tlw are both
set equal to the working temperature. The material properties corresponding to the working
temperature are used together with the coefficients of expansion relevant to the change from the
assembly temperature to the working temperature
From the second run two pretensions are obtained.

(a) No temperature differences enter the assembly temperature results: however the properties relevant
to the working temperature have been used so this calculation relates to assembly as though at that
temperature. Thus, in this case the value computed at the assembly temperature is the pretension
for assembly at the working temperature; this is denoted by PtAu .
(b) The pretension at the working temperature is calculated with the material properties for that
temperature and the expansion coefficients from assembly to it. It therefore takes account of the
expansion effects but not of changes of material properties between the assembly and working
temperatures. Thus, the value computed at both temperature limits is the pretension for assembly
using a fixed set of material properties, which are those for the working temperature with expansion
effects included; this is denoted by PtAum .
The computed values of PtA, PtAu and PtAum can be used to calculate the required pretension. This is
achieved in three stages. First the effects of expansion alone are calculated. This is the difference between
PtAu and PtAum denoted here by Ptuex . Thus,
P tuex = P tAu – P tAum . (2.1)
Secondly, the pretension caused by the material property changes alone is calculated. This is the difference
between PtAu and PtA, denoted here by Ptum . Thus,
P tum = P tAu – P tA . (2.2)
Thirdly, the required pretension for the assembly temperature for yield at the working temperature under
load is calculated. This is the assembly temperature pretension, PtA, less the temperature induced
pretensions arising from both expansions and material changes. Thus,
P ty = P tA – P tuex – P tum . (2.3)
Combining the above three equations gives
P ty = 2 ( P tA – P tAu ) + P tAum . (2.4)
The above procedure can be adapted to examine temperature effects on separation.
2.5.5 Bolted joint assembly
In this section the remaining joint geometry details listed in Table 2.2 are required. These are all nominal
unloaded values. For analysis TYPE = 1 the effective diameter (see Table 2.2, Entry 17) of the nut or bolt
51
85021
head is used in the calculation of effective area for all of the bolted joint components other than the bolt.
This is also true for the components for analysis TYPE = 2, with the exception of the feet. This is due to
the fact that the feet in this analysis are ‘thick’, which leads to a greater dispersion of the load within the
feet than for thinner feet, and the effective area connected with the feet is larger. For this reason the washer
outer diameter is used to calculate the effective area of the feet for analysis TYPE = 2. If the outer diameters
of the two washers differ the average value is used in the calculation.
As described in Section 1.6, and illustrated in the worked examples of Section 1.16, the stiffness of the bolt
and nut assembly may conveniently be considered as being composed of several elements.
2.6 Program Output and Interpretation

The program outputs all of the input data followed by the component, assembly and joint stiffnesses and
the yield and separation values of pretension. If the temperature analysis is requested in the input file, then
the effect of the temperature change on the yield and separation values of pretension are also output. The
temperature yield pretension value corresponds to the value of pretension at assembly conditions that would
cause the bolt to yield at the given temperature under the applied load. Similarly, the temperature separation
pretension value corresponds to the value of pretension at assembly conditions that would allow the joint
to separate at the given temperature under the applied load.
In all calculations the LOWEST pretension for bolt yielding must EXCEED the HIGHEST pretension for
joint separation by a margin that must take account of the approximate nature of the analysis (see Section
1.1) and the practicability of achieving the desired pretension (see Section 1.9).
2.6.1 Messages
The input file is checked for illegal input variables, such as component thicknesses being zero or negative.
If such an error occurs then the following message will appear in the output and the program will terminate.
“Input variable” is less than or equal to zero

Program Terminated
The message in quotation marks will be appropriate to the illegal entry.
Similarly, if the input data do not meet the constraints of continuity, for example, the unloaded bolt length
is greater or less than the sum of the unloaded thicknesses of the components between the bolt head and
the nut, then the following message will appear in the output and the program will terminate.
Bolt length inconsistent with the sum of the thicknesses of the components
Program Terminated
It is possible to provide geometry inputs such that Equations (1.23) and (1.27) produce negative values. In
this event the following message is output and the program then terminates.
Stiffness of feet calculated as negative. See Equations (1.23) or (1.27) in Section 1.7 of
Data Item.
The assumption that the interface pressure is everywhere compressive is invalid and the
analysis cannot be used.
Program Terminated
It is possible to input such a large applied load that the calculated pretension for yield condition is negative.
In this event the following message is output and the program terminates.
52
85021
The calculated yield pretension is negative indicating that the applied load is much too
high for the joint.
Program Terminated
Where temperature changes are introduced, calculation of the assembly temperature pretension is usually
possible. However, in some cases the calculation may show that the joint is not viable. A range of situations
can occur and these give rise to the following messages.
To obtain bolt yielding at the working temperature an assembly pretension greater than
would cause bolt yielding under load at the assembly temperature would be required.
This is not possible if the joint is to be loaded at the assembly temperature. A reduced
pretension of (value) at the assembly temperature will give yielding under application of
the load at the working temperature (value).
In the extreme cases where the calculated pretension is negative the appropriate one of the following two
messages is output.
The effect of temperature is large such that a pretension of zero at the assembly
temperature leads to bolt yielding at a temperature of (value) before the working
temperature of (value) is reached. The joint is therefore not viable since it cannot be
loaded at the assembly temperature without separation occurring.
The effect of temperature is large such that a pretension of zero at the assembly
temperature would prevent separation at the working temperature.
Also, where the effects of temperature are requested the following self evident message can occur.
The coefficients of expansion of the feet, the bolt assembly and the plate materials are
identical. There is therefore no effect of temperature and the pretensions calculated for
the assembly temperature apply at all temperatures.
53
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TABLE 2.2 INPUT FILE CONSTRUCTION
Component part Entry Case for which Enter the numerical values for the quantities indicated, in free format. Each
Entry entry must be in the order given and made on a separate line with no blank
and section name or entry is
order lines in between (except Entries 1 and 2).
number symbol required
– 1 Title All Enter run identification data, input file title or notes. Three lines of up to 75
(2.4) text characters each allotted. If any lines are not used leave blank lines.
– 2 Units All Enter the coherent units of force and length and temperature used on the two
(2.4) declaration lines provided. If any lines are not used leave blank lines.
– 3 TYPE All Enter analysis type control integer, 1 or 2.
(2.4.1) 1 – feet for which h + h ≤ g
f1 f2
2 – feet for which h +h > g (see Section 1.4)
f1 f2
– 4 TEMP All Enter control integer to select inclusion of temperature analysis:
(2.4.2) 1 – yes
0 – no
Plates 5 npb All Number of plates acting with the bolt assembly (0 – 5).
(2.4.3) 6 npf TYPE = 1 Number of plates acting with the foot assembly (0 – 5).
General 7 Ta TEMP = 1 Assembly temperature.
Joint 8 Tuw TEMP = 1 Upper working temperature.
Data 9 Tlw TEMP = 1 Lower working temperature.
(2.4.4) 10 Pa All Local applied load.
(2.4.5) 11 – All Bolt material yield stress (see Section 1.9).
12 b All Distance from bolt centre-line to load line (see Sketch 1.1).
13 Df All Outer diameter of practical working area of foot (see Section 1.6.3).
14 a TYPE = 1 Distance from bolt centre-line to hinge point (see Sketch 1.5).
15 g TYPE = 2 Effective length of foot (see Sketch 1.8).
16 m TYPE = 2 Distance from bolt centre-line to heel (see Sketch 1.1).
Bolt 17 c All Effective diameter of bolt head or nut.
(2.4.4) 18 db All Bolt nominal diameter.
(2.4.5) 19 dcore All Bolt core diameter.
20 d(th) All Bolt thread diameter.
21 Eb All Bolt modulus of elasticity.
22 p All Bolt thread pitch.
23 l(sh) All Bolt shank length.
24 l(th) All Bolt threaded length.
25 hb All Bolt head thickness.
26 x(sh) All Effective bolt shank length coefficient (typically 0.2) (see Section 1.6.1.1).
27 x(th) All Effective bolt threaded area coefficient (typically 0.3) (see Section 1.6.1.2).
28 x(pt) All Bolt pitch coefficient (applied to p) (see Section 1.6.1.3).
29 x(nu) All Nut stiffness coefficient (applied to db) (see Section 1.6.1.3).
30 αb TEMP = 1 Bolt materal coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
Feet 31 hf1 All Thickness of foot 1.
(2.4.4) 32 hfb1 All Thickness of foot 1 acting with bolt assembly (see Section 1.6.1).
(2.4.5) 33 Ef1 All Foot 1 modulus of elasticity.
34 α f1 TEMP = 1 Foot 1 material coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
35 hf2 All Thickness of foot 2.
36 hfb2 All Thickness of foot 2 acting with the bolt assembly (see Section 1.6.1).
37 Ef2 All Foot 2 modulus of elasticity.
38 α f2 TEMP = 1 Foot 2 material coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
54
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TABLE 2.2 INPUT FILE CONSTRUCTION (Continued)
Washers 39 hw1 All Thickness of washer 1.
(2.4.4) 40 Ew1 All Modulus of elasticity of washer 1.
(2.4.5) 41 dwi1 All Inner diameter of washer 1.
42 dwo1 TYPE = 2 Outer diameter of washer 1.
43 α w1 TEMP = 1 Coefficient of linear thermal expansion of washer 1.
44 hw2 All Thickness of washer 2.
45 Ew2 All Modulus of elasticity of washer 2.
46 dwi2 All Inner diameter of washer 2.
47 dwo2 TYPE = 2 Outer diameter of washer 2.
48 α w2 TEMP = 1 Coefficient of linear thermal expansion of washer 2.

Plates 49 hpb n >0 Thickness of plate acting with the bolt assembly (see Sketch 1.6).
pb
(2.4.4) 50 Epb n>0 Modulus of elasticity of plate acting with the bolt assembly.
pb
(2.4.5) 51 α pb n > 0 and Coefficient of linear thermal expansion of plate acting with the bolt assembly.
pb
TEMP = 1
49a – n pb > 1 Repeat entries 49 to 51 inclusive for the required number of plates acting with
to the bolt assembly, npb .
51a
52 hpf n pf > 0 Thickness of plate acting with foot assembly (see Sketch 1.6).
53 Epf n pf > 0 Modulus of elasticity of plate acting with the foot assembly.
54 α pf n pf > 0 and Coefficient of linear thermal expansion of plate acting with the foot assembly.
TEMP = 1
52a npf > 1 Repeat entries 52 to 54 inclusive for the required number of plates acting with
to the foot assembly, npf .
54a
Additional 55 ncb All Enter number to select inclusion of a stiffness component acting with the
*
stiffnesses bolt assembly: 1 – yes, 0 – no.
(2.4.3) 56 ncf TYPE = 1 Enter number to select inclusion of a stiffness component acting with the
(2.4.4) foot assembly: 1 – yes, 0 – no.
(2.4.5) 57 hcb ncb = 1 Thickness of additional stiffness component acting with the bolt assembly.
58 kcb ncb = 1 Stiffness of additional component acting with the bolt assembly.
59 α cb ncb = 1 and Coefficient of linear thermal expansion of additional stiffness component
TEMP = 1 acting with the bolt assembly.
60 hcf ncf = 1 Thickness of additional stiffness component acting with the foot assembly.
61 kcf ncf = 1 Stiffness of additional component acting with the foot assembly
62 α cf ncf = 1 and Coefficient of linear thermal expansion of additional stiffness component
TEMP = 1 acting with the foot assembly.
*
Note that for more than one additional stiffness component acting with the bolt/foot assembly the combined thickness and stiffness must
be entered (see Equation (1.18)).
55
85021
2.7 Examples
2.7.1 Example 1 Joint with thin feet
This example is the same as that described in Section 1.16.1. The input data file is shown in Table 2.3 and
the output file is shown in Table 2.4.
2.7.2 Example 2 Joint with thick feet
This example is the same as that described in Section 1.16.2. The input data file is shown in Table 2.5 and
the output file is shown in Table 2.6.
2.7.3 Example 3 Joint with component giving additional stiffness
This example demonstrates the inclusion of an additional stiffness element into a bolted joint.
It is required to prevent separation under the bolt of the joint shown in Sketch 2.1 under an applied load of
5000 N. The working environment is not expected to lead to temperatures significantly different from the
joint assembly temperature.
Bolt details are as follows.

8 mm bolt, 1.4 mm pitch, 6.2 mm core diameter.
8 mm shank length.
3.5 mm threaded length.
Eb = 200 000 N/mm2 .
Yield stress = 680 N/mm2 .
The feet, washers and plate are all manufactured from aluminium alloy and all have a modulus of 70 000
N/mm2 .
The influence of the disc spring can be incorporated into the analysis if it is input as an additional stiffness.
It must behave approximately linearly across the range of its deflection. For the disc spring shown in Sketch
2.1, the stiffness in the linear range is 51 000 N/mm (see Section 5 of Data Item 78043).
The data input file is shown in Table 2.7 and the output file is shown in Table 2.8. Note that the ‘hinge
point’ is assumed to be at the outer diameter of the standard washer under the nut, that is, 7.5 mm from the
bolt centre-line.
Sketch 2.1
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TABLE 2.3 DATA FILE INPUT FOR EXAMPLE 2.7.1
Entry Order
Number Input file data
(see Table 2.2)
1 EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLE 2.7.1 (See also example in Section 1.16.1)
NOVEMBER 1994
2 Force: Newtons, Length: Metres
Temperature: Celsius
3 1
4 1
5 0
6 2
7 20
8 50
9 -10
10 3500
11 684E+6
12 0.0135
13 0.023
14 0.0075
17 0.0138
18 0.008
19 0.0062
20 0.008
21 204E+9
22 0.0014
23 0.015
24 0.0054
25 0.0067
26 0.2
27 0.3
28 1.0
29 2.0
30 0.0000108
31 0.005
32 0.0005
33 72E+9
34 0.000023
35 0.005
36 0.0005
37 72e+9
38 0.000023
39 0.0012
40 204e+9
41 0.008
43 0.000023
44 0.0012
45 204e+9
46 0.008
48 0.000023
49 0.004
50 66E+9
51 0.000023
49a 0.004
50a 66E+9
51a 0.000023
55 0
56 0
57
85021
TABLE 2.4 OUTPUT FILE FOR EXAMPLE 2.7.1
*******************************************************************************
ESDU International Plc.
Program A8521
ESDUpac Number: A8521

ESDUpac Title: Analysis of pretensioned bolted joints
subject to tensile (separating) forces
Data Item Number: 85021
Data Item Title: Analysis of pretensioned bolted joints

ESDUpac Version: 1.0 Issued December 1994.
(See Data Item for full input/output specification and interpretation.)
*******************************************************************************
INPUT DATA
----------
EXAMPLE 1
NOVEMBER 1994
Declaration of units used for all dimensional input

Units:Force: Newtons, Length: Metres
BOLTED JOINT ASSEMBLY DATA:
Analysis type (1 thin feet, 2 thick feet) TYPE= 1

Temperature analysis selected (1 yes, 0 no) TEMP= 1
Number of plates acting with the bolt assembly npb= 0

Number of plates acting with the foot assembly npf= 2
Additional element acting with the bolt assembly nsb= 0

Additional element acting with the foot assembly nsf= 0
GENERAL DATA :
Assembly temperature Ta = 20.00

Upper working temperature Twu= 50.00
Lower working temperature Twl= -10.00
Difference between upper working temperature and 30.00
assembly temperature
Difference between lower working temperature and -30.00
Applied load Pa = 3500.
Distance from bolt centre line to load line b = .1350E-01
Outer diameter of practical working area Df = .2300E-01
of foot
Distance from bolt centre line to hinge point a = .7500E-02
BOLT DATA :
Geometry
Effective diameter of nut or bolt head c = .1380E-01
Bolt diameter d = .8000E-02
Bolt core diameter dcore= .6200E-02
Bolt thread diameter dth= .8000E-02
58
85021
Bolt thread pitch p = .1400E-02
Bolt shank length lsh= .1500E-01
Bolt threaded length lth= .5400E-02
Thickness of the bolt head hb = .6700E-02
Effective bolt shank length coefficient:
acts on the bolt nominal diameter xsh= .2000
Effective bolt threaded area coefficient:
acts on the bolt thread depth xth= .3000
Bolt thread pitch coefficient:
acts on the bolt thread pitch xpt= 1.000
Nut stiffness coefficient:
acts on the nominal diameter of the bolt xnu= 2.000
Material Properties
Bolt material modulus of elasticity Eb = .2040E+12
Bolt material yield stress = .6840E+09
Bolt coefficient of linear thermal expansion ALPHAb= .1080E-04
FEET DATA :
Thickness of foot 1 hf1= .5000E-02

Thickness of foot 1 acting with the hfb1= .5000E-03
bolt assembly
Foot 1 modulus of elasticity Ef1= .7200E+11
Foot 1 coefficient of linear thermal alphaf1= .2300E-04
expansion
Thickness of foot 2 hf2= .5000E-02

Thickness of foot 2 acting with the hfb2= .5000E-03
bolt assembly
Foot 2 coefficient of linear alphaf2= .2300E-04
thermal expansion
WASHER DATA :
Thickness of washer 1 hw1= .1200E-02

Modulus of elasticity of material of washer 1 Ew1= .2040E+12
Inner diameter of washer 1 dwi1= .8000E-02
Washer 1 material coefficient of linear alphw1= .2300E-04
thermal expansion

Inner diameter of washer 2 dwi2= .8000E-02
Washer 2 material coefficient of linear alphaw2= .2300E-04
thermal expansion
PLATE DATA :
Thickness of plate 1 acting with hpf1= .4000E-02

the foot assembly
Modulus of elasticity of plate 1 acting Epf1= .6600E+11
with the foot assembly
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion alphapf1= .2300E-04
of plate 1 acting with the foot assembly
Thickness of plate 2 acting with the hpf2= .4000E-02

foot assembly
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion alphapf2= .2300E-04
59
85021
of plate 2 acting with the foot assembly
===============================================================================
RESULTS
-------
EXAMPLE 1
NOVEMBER 1994
UNITS DECLARED AT INPUT

Force: Newtons, Length: Metres

BOLT ASSEMBLY STIFFNESSES :
Bolt shank stiffness kb(sh)= .6275E+09

Bolt thread stiffness kb(th)= .3192E+09
Washer stiffness kw = .8441E+10
Feet stiffness acting with the bolt assembly kbf= .7150E+10
Total bolt assembly stiffness kb = .2006E+09
FOOT ASSEMBLY STIFFNESSES :
Feet stiffness acting with the foot assembly kff= .9037E+09

Plate(s) stiffness acting with the foot kfp= .9319E+09
assembly.
Total foot assembly stiffness kf = .4588E+09
JOINT STIFFNESSES :
Stiffness parameter for the bolt Gammab= .3043

Stiffness parameter for the feet Gammaf= .6957
PRETENSION VALUES REQUIRED FOR BOLT YIELD

AND SEPARATION UNDER THE BOLT; AT THE ASSEMBLY
TEMPERATURE AND UNDER THE APPLIED LOAD :
Yield pretension value Pty= .1959E+05

Separation pretension value Pts= 8735.
PRETENSION VALUES REQUIRED AT THE ASSEMBLY

TEMPERATURE FOR BOLT YIELD AND SEPARATION
UNDER THE BOLT; AT THE UPPER AND LOWER WORKING
TEMPERATURES AND UNDER THE APPLIED LOAD :
Pretension value at assembly for yield at upper = .1737E+05

temperature limit of 50.00 degrees.
Yielding at the lower working temperature

To obtain bolt yielding at the working
temperature an assembly pretension greater than
would cause yielding under load at the assembly
temperature would be required. This is not
possible if the joint is to be loaded at the
assembly temperature. A reduced pretension of = .1737E+05
at the assembly temperature will give
yielding under application of the load at
the working temperature of -10.00 degrees.
60
85021
Pretension value at assembly for separation at = 6515.
upper temperature limit of 50.00 degrees.
Pretension value at assembly for separation at = .1096E+05

lower temperature limit of -10.00 degrees.
The LOWEST pretension for bolt yielding must EXCEED

the HIGHEST pretension for joint separation by a
reasonable margin which must take account of the
approximate nature of the analysis and the
practicallity of achieving the desired pretension.
*******************************************************************************
RUN COMPLETED
61
85021
TABLE 2.5 INPUT DATA FILE FOR EXAMPLE 2.7.2
Entry Order
(see Table 2.2)
1 EXAMPLE 2
EXAMPLE 2.7.2 (See also example in Section 1.16.2.)
DECEMBER 1994
2 Force: Pounds force, Length: inches
3 2
4 1
5 0
7 20
8 80
9 -55
10 900
11 140000
12 0.52
13 1.12
15 0.913
16 0.56
17 0.655
18 0.375
19 0.318
20 0.368
21 30700000
22 0.042
23 2.75
24 0.378
25 0.31
26 0.2
27 0.350
28
19 1.0
30 2.0
31 0.0000108
32 1.5
33 0
34 29100000
35 0.0000114
36 1.5
37 0
38 29100000
39 0.0000114
40 0.064
41 28000000
42 0.392
43 0.655
44 0.0000114
45 0.064
46 28000000
47 0.392
48 0.655
55 0.0000114
0
62
85021
*******************************************************************************
Program A8521


*******************************************************************************
INPUT DATA
----------
EXAMPLE 2
DECEMBER 1994

Units:Force: Pounds force, Length: inches


GENERAL DATA :
Assembly temperature Ta = 20.00

Upper working temperature Twu= 80.00
Lower working temperature Twl= -55.00
Difference between upper working temperature and 60.00
Difference between lower working temperature and -75.00
Applied load Pa = 900.0
Distance from bolt centre line to load line b = .5200
Outer diameter of practical working area Df = 1.120
of foot
Effective length of foot g = .9130
Distance from bolt centre line to heel m = .5600
BOLT DATA :
Geometry
Effective diameter of nut or bolt head c = .6550
Bolt diameter d = .3750
Bolt core diameter dcore= .3180
Bolt thread diameter dth= .3680
Bolt thread pitch p = .4200E-01
Bolt shank length lsh= 2.750
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85021
Bolt threaded length lth= .3780
Thickness of the bolt head hb = .3100
Material Properties

Bolt material yield stress = .1400E+06
Bolt coefficient of linear thermal expansion ALPHAb= .1080E-04
FEET DATA :
Thickness of foot 1 hf1= 1.500

Thickness of foot 1 acting with the hfb1= .0000
bolt assembly
Foot 1 coefficient of linear thermal alphaf1= .1140E-04
expansion

bolt assembly
Foot 2 coefficient of linear alphaf2= .1140E-04
thermal expansion
WASHER DATA :

Inner diameter of washer 1 dwi1= .3920
Outer diameter of washer 1 dwo1= .6550
Washer 1 material coefficient of linear alphw1= .1140E-04
thermal expansion

Inner diameter of washer 2 dwi2= .3920
Outer diameter of washer 2 dwo2= .6550
Washer 2 material coefficient of linear alphaw2= .1140E-04
thermal expansion
===============================================================================
RESULTS
-------
EXAMPLE 2
DECEMBER 1994

Force: Pounds force, Length: inches
64
85021

JOINT STIFFNESSES :
Stiffness parameter for the bolt Gammab= .8836E-01


AND SEPARATION AT THE HEEL; AT THE ASSEMBLY

Separation pretension value Pts= 8115.
PRETENSION VALUES REQUIRED AT THE ASSEMBLY

TEMPERATURE FOR BOLT YIELD AND SEPARATION
AT THE HEEL; AT THE UPPER AND LOWER WORKING
TEMPERATURES AND UNDER THE APPLIED LOAD :
Pretension value at assembly for yield at upper = .1093E+05

temperature limit of 80.00 degrees.
Yielding at the lower working temperature

To obtain bolt yielding at the working
temperature an assembly pretension greater than
would cause yielding under load at the assembly
temperature would be required. This is not
possible if the joint is to be loaded at the
assembly temperature. A reduced pretension of = .1091E+05
at the assembly temperature will give
yielding under application of the load at
the working temperature of -55.00 degrees.

upper temperature limit of 80.00 degrees.

lower temperature limit of -55.00 degrees.
The LOWEST pretension for bolt yielding must EXCEED

the HIGHEST pretension for joint separation by a
reasonable margin which must take account of the
approximate nature of the analysis and the
practicallity of achieving the desired pretension.
*******************************************************************************
RUN COMPLETED
65
85021
TABLE 2.7 INPUT DATA FILE FOR EXAMPLE 2.7.3
Entry Order
(see Table 2.2)
1 EXAMPLE 3
EXAMPLE 2.7.3
DECEMBER 1994
2 Force: Newtons
Length: millimetres
3 1
4 0
5 0
6 1
10 5000
11 680
12 15
13 26
14 7.5
17 12.6
18 8
19 6.2
20 8
21 200000
22 1.4
23 8
24 3.5
25 6
26 0.2
27 0.3
28 1.0
29 2.0
31 2
32 0.2
33 70000
35 2
36 0.2
37 70000
39 1
40 70000
41 8
44 1
45 70000
46 8
52 1.5
53 70000
55 1
56 0
57 4
58 51000
66
85021
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Program A8521


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INPUT DATA
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EXAMPLE 3
EXAMPLE 2.7.3
DECEMBER 1994

Units:Force: Newtons
Length: millimetres


Number of plates acting with the foot assembly npf= 1

Additional element acting with the foot assembly nsf= 0
GENERAL DATA :
Applied load Pa = 5000.

Distance from bolt centre line to load line b = 15.00
Outer diameter of practical working area Df = 26.00
of foot
Distance from bolt centre line to hinge point a = 7.500
BOLT DATA :
Geometry
Effective diameter of nut or bolt head c = 12.60
Bolt diameter d = 8.000
Bolt core diameter dcore= 6.200
Bolt thread diameter dth= 8.000
Bolt thread pitch p = 1.400
Bolt shank length lsh= 8.000
Bolt threaded length lth= 3.500
Thickness of the bolt head hb = 6.000
67
85021
Material Properties
Bolt material yield stress = 680.0
FEET DATA :

bolt assembly

bolt assembly
WASHER DATA :
Thickness of washer 1 hw1= 1.000

Inner diameter of washer 1 dwi1= 8.000
Thickness of washer 2 hw2= 1.000

Inner diameter of washer 2 dwi2= 8.000
PLATE DATA :
Thickness of plate 1 acting with hpf1= 1.500

the foot assembly
ADDITIONAL STIFFNESS COMPONENT DATA :
Thickness of additional component acting hcb= 4.0000

with the bolt assembly
Stiffness of additional component acting kcb= 51000.
with the bolt assembly
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RESULTS
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EXAMPLE 3
EXAMPLE 2.6.3
DECEMBER 1994

Force: Newtons
Length: millimetres
68
85021
Addittional component stiffness acting with kbc= .5100E+05
the bolt assembly.
Feet stiffness acting with the bolt assembly kbf= .1302E+08

Plate(s) stiffness acting with the foot kfp= .4012E+07
assembly.
JOINT STIFFNESSES :
Stiffness parameter for the bolt Gammab= .3423E-01


AND SEPARATION UNDER THE BOLT; AT THE ASSEMBLY

Separation pretension value Pts= .1483E+05
The pretension for bolt yielding must EXCEED the

pretension for joint separation by a reasonable
margin which must take account of the approximate
nature of the analysis and the practicallity of
achieving the desired pretension.
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RUN COMPLETED
69
85021
THE PREPARATION OF THIS DATA ITEM
The work on this particular Data Item was monitored and guided by the Stress Analysis and Strength of
Components Committee, which first met in 1964 and now has the following membership:
Chairman
Prof. C.E. Turner – Imperial College of Science and Technology
Vice-Chairman
Prof. T.G.F. Gray – University of Strathclyde
Members
Dr I.J. Bickley – Mirrlees Blackstone (Stockport) Ltd
Dr M.S.G. Cullimore – Independent
Dr L.C. Laming – Imperial College of Science and Technology
Mr R.B. Laycock – European Gas Turbines Ltd
Mr A.B. Smith – Lloyd’s Register of Shipping
Mr J.V. Vint – Independent.
The Item was accepted for inclusion in the Structures Sub-series by the Aerospace Structures Committee,
which first met in 1940 and now has the following membership:
Chairman
Mr J.H. van der Sloot – Fokker B.V., Schiphol, The Netherlands
Vice-Chairman
Mr J.K. Bennett – Independent
Members
Dr P. Bartholomew – Royal Aerospace Establishment, Farnborough
Mr A. Dickson – British Aerospace Defence Ltd
Mr K. Fitzsimons – Westland Helicopters Ltd
Mr P.J. Mitchelmore – Independent
Mr B. Popham – British Aerospace Space Systems Ltd
Mr M.S. Pressnell – University of Hertfordshire
Prof. A. Rothwell – Technische Universiteit Delft
Mr P. Stocking – Cranfield University
Mr K. van Katwijk* – European Space Agency, Noordwijk, The Netherlands.
*
Corresponding Member
The technical work involved in the assessment of the available information and the construction and
subsequent development of the Data Item was undertaken by
Mr D.A. Nurthen – Engineer.
The person with overall responsibility for the work in this subject area is Mr M.E. Grayley, Director and
Head of Strength Analysis Group.
70

85021b - Bolted Joints Subjected To Tension Forces

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85021b - Bolted Joints Subjected To Tension Forces

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85021

ANALYSIS OF PRETENSIONED BOLTED JOINTS SUBJECT TO TENSILE

Issued August 1985

1.2.1 General Symbols

A effective cross-sectional area of component m2 in2

a distance from bolt centre-line to hinge point (see m in

b distance from bolt centre-line to load line (see m in

c effective diameter of nut or bolt head and associated m in

Df outer diameter of practical working area of foot (see m in

db nominal diameter of bolt (see Sketch 1.1) m in

E modulus of elasticity of material of component N/m2 lbf/in2

g effective length of foot (see Sketch 1.8) m in

I effective second moment of area of foot-print (see m4 in4

i height of bow of slightly arched foot (see Sketch m in

j distance from heel of joint to neutral axis of bending m in

K axial stiffness of joint N/m lbf/in

k axial stiffness of joint component N/m lbf/in

m distance from bolt centre-line to heel (see Sketches m in

n cb , n cf program control integers, see Table 2.2

TYPE program control integer, see Table 2.2

P , P , P , see Section 2.5.4.2 N lbf

R reaction in region of toe in rigid foot after N lbf

TEM P program control integer, see Table 2.2 m in

w width of foot (see Sketch 1.1) m in

x coefficient correcting actual or reference value to

α coefficient of linear thermal expansion (m/m)/°C (in/in)/°C

γ non-dimensional stiffness parameter,

δ axial deflection of component m in

1.2.2 Suffixes, Prefixes and Primes

The following are attached to the symbols above as required.

A at assembly conditions (temperature)

a externally applied (load or deflection)

as externally applied load at separation

bs separation below bolt

c relates to an additional component

e relates to conditions with non-flat components

lw at lower working temperature

n number of component parts in a stiffness calculation

( nu ) loaded threaded portion of nut

( pt ) relates to thread pitch

t( T) pretension value at temperature T

( th ) loaded threaded portion of bolt

uw at upper working temperature

∆ change of quantity from assembly conditions

Sketch 1.1 Illustration of notational terms in a simple joint

1.3 Load Path Through an Idealised Joint With a Pretensioned Bolt

(i) a straight row of bolts,

Note that both kb and kf are positive values.

Sketch 1.2 Idealised joint

From which it follows that

and that Equation (1.6) may be expressed as

Also, the bolt load before separation is simply given as

and after separation Pb = Pa .

The load in the feet is given, from Equation (1.3), as

1.4 Load Path Through Practical Joints

1.5 LOAD PATHS THROUGH JOINTS WITH THIN FEET

1.5.1 Analysis of practical joints with thin feet

Sketch 1.5a Simplified prising action (joints with thin feet)

Sketch 1.5b Actual prising action (joints with thin feet)

1.6 Estimation Of Stiffnesses kb and kf

1.6.1 Estimation of bolt stiffness kb (joints with thick or thin feet)

(a) The bolt head.

1.6.1.2 Bolt thread area