The 

Atomic Model Revisited

Mama Huela explained to Rieza and her friends that there are
several key concepts that are necessary in order to understand how
everything is connected, even in the atomic level. The first is to go
back to what the atom looks like. In Grade 8 Matter, Rutherford
proposed that the atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus
containing protons and neutrons (no charge), surrounded by
negatively charged electrons. He suggested that the electrons are
moving in an orbit around the nucleus, just like how planets move
around the sun in the solar system. The explanation did not account
for the fact that electrons are not attracted at all to the positive
nucleus, causing the atomic structure to collapse.

Mama Huela went on to say that several years following

Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model, a young Danish scientist named
Niels Bohr studied the atom. He believed that the atom can be
described as a small positive nucleus with electrons moving around
it. Two years later, his studies led him to discover that these
electrons move around the nucleus in a fixed orbit corresponding to
a specific energy level. This means that each of the orbits has a
corresponding energy that only electrons which possess appropriate
amount of energy are allowed within that orbit. However, the
electrons can move from one orbit to another by absorbing or
emitting energy.
Rieza and her friends now became very curious. This idea
somehow changed the way they perceived the atom. Mama Huela
smiled and said that the new atomic model fits the model of the
hydrogen atom perfectly. However, it does not fit the other
elements. Further analysis of the model proved that it was flawed
and incorrect. This setback did not diminish Bohr’s contribution,
though. He paved the way for later theories and discoveries of the
atomic model. It is important to know that Bohr’s model is not the
same as the current atomic model. The electrons do not move
around the atom in a fixed orbit. In fact, it is uncertain how the
electron moves or where it is exactly in the atom.
FIGURE 2.2
Bohr’s model of the atom

Mama Huela continued that many scientists already

acknowledged the flaws in Bohr’s atomic model. For them, there
has to be another way of looking at the atom. Two young physicists,
Louis de Broglie and Erwin Schrödinger proposed an atomic model
based on quantum mechanics, a body of scientific principles that
studies matter and its interactions with energy in the atomic and
subatomic levels. In their study, they considered the electron not as
a particle but both a particle and a wave. This new model is a
mathematical analysis and interpretation of both the particle and
wave nature of the electrons. It is called the wave mechanical
model of the atom.
Bohr’s atomic model described electrons as moving in a fixed
circular orbit around the nucleus. On the other hand, the wave
mechanical model depicts that electrons are moving in certain
regions or areas around the atom called orbitals. It is important to
know that orbits and orbitals are not the same. To understand this
better, consider a firefly held in a dark room with its food left in the
middle of the room. Imagine that this room is very dark and a
camera is positioned at a corner with its opened shutter. Every time
this firefly emits light, the camera records an image of it. The
firefly, of course, is attracted to the food, and will most likely spend
a lot of time hovering around that area. The firefly may also be
moving in different places around the room. When the film from the
camera is developed, an image just like in Figure 2.3 may be
observed.

FIGURE 2.3
The film from the camera taking pictures of the firefly may show an image that looks like this. The dark center is where the
firefly spent most of its time while the lighter areas are where it spent a little of its time.
 Now, going back to the firefly experiment, where would you
expect to find the firefly next? Where would you expect the next
flash to be?
You can not be sure where the firefly is going to fly next. The
path it takes is unpredictable. But, there is a great possibility that the
firefly might be found at the center of the room than in any other
area since it is attracted to the food located there.
What does this experiment have to do with the wave atomic
model?
This is how the model explains the electrons. Schrödinger
discovered that he could not point out exactly the electron’s path.
His mathematical analysis only enabled him to predict the
probability of finding the electrons at any given points around the
nucleus. In fact, there is no way one could specifically locate the
electrons or how they move, but you can be sure that the electrons
do not move around the nucleus in a circular motion as Bohr
suggested.
 The Orbitals

Rieza and her friends are still curious about the atomic structure so
Mama Huela continued. She explained that the regions of space
inhabited by electrons are known as orbitals. The probability of
finding the electrons further from the nucleus becomes less and less,
and the probability of finding it at greater distances still decreases,
but will never be equal to zero. A good analogy of this is the earth’s
atmosphere. There is no distinct boundary between the layers of the
atmosphere.
FIGURE 2.4
The orbital of hydrogen. The first illustration (a) shows where the electron (black dots) might be located in the atom. The
second (b) shows a boundary drawn to denote the inclusion of 90% of the electrons. The third (c) shows the probability shell
portrayed as a spherical surface.

The orbital does not have a definite size. However, chemists

found a way to describe the size of the orbital by enclosing the atom
in a solid sphere which has a probability of finding 90% of the
electrons within it. The remaining 10% can be found outside of this
sphere.
 Mama Huela added that the modern atomic structure shows that
the atom has specific energy levels which may be pictured like an
inverted triangle, and electrons can be found within these energy
levels. These levels are known as principal energy levels which
have corresponding numbers. Each of these levels is further divided
into what is called as sublevel or sometimes referred to as subshell.
FIGURE 2.5
The inverted triangle analogy of the principal energy levels and their corresponding sublevels.

FIGURE 2.6
Principal energy level 2 and its corresponding sublevels and orbitals.
FIGURE 2.7
The probability map of the 2p orbitals (above) and their corresponding surfaces (below) containing 90% probability of finding
the electron, just like in the1s orbital.

FIGURE 2.8
The relative sizes of the s sublevels

For example, principal level 1 has one sublevel, principal level 2

has two sublevels, and so on. Each of these sublevels contains
spaces where electrons are located, and these spaces are
called orbitals.
The hydrogen atom has principal level 1 with one sublevel, and
one orbital. This is denoted as 1s, where the number 1 is the
principal energy level, and the lowercase s is the shape of the
sublevel or type of orbital.
Now, how do you think would principal energy level 2 look like?
Analyze Figure 2.6.
The two sublevels of principal energy level 2 are denoted
as 2s and 2p. Sublevel 2s has one orbital while 2p has three orbitals
given the designation 2p , 2p , and 2p . The 1s,
x
3
and
y
3
z

consequently 2ssublevels are spherical, while the 2porbitals are

lobe-shaped or dumbbell-shaped (Figure 2.7).
 What does the x, y, and z mean? These letters correspond to the
directions in the coordinate system where the lobes are pointing to.
The p  orbital points are along the x-axis, while the p  points along
x y

the y-axis, and p  points along the z-axis.

z

Just like the 1s orbital, the 2p orbitals also show the probability of

finding the electron within the atom, specifically within the region
of the lobes.
But what does the difference between the numbers suggest? For
example, how is 1s different from 2s?
An increase in the principal energy level denotes an increase in
the size of the sublevels and their corresponding orbitals. Therefore,
you can describe 1s as being smaller than 2s, while 2s is smaller
than 3s, and so on (Figure 2.8). This means that the electrons in
the 1sorbital are located closer to the nucleus than the electrons in
the 2s or 3s orbitals.
Rieza wanted to know about the higher principal energy levels
and their shapes. Mama Huela smiled and told her that in principal
level 3, there are three sublevels: 3s, 3p, and 3d. For principal level
4, the sublevels are 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f. Rieza became more curious
how orbitals got their letter designations.
FIGURE 2.9
What the orbitals looked like experimentally.
 Mama Huela explained that the letters have nothing to do with the
shapes of the orbitals. The letter s does not mean spherical and p is
not polar. The letters were assigned by scientists when they first
experimentally discovered these orbitals. The letters correspond to
what they looked like in the line spectra (Figure 2.9).
For example, s means sharp since it produced sharp lines, p is for
principal, d is for diffuse, and f is for fundamental.
Rieza scratched her head and Mama Huela told her that she does
not need to worry about these things yet. Mama Huela showed her
what these orbitals really look like (Figure 2.10). Rieza noticed that
the shapes of the orbitals are almost the same regardless of their
energy levels. The only difference is in their sizes.
It is also important to remember that the number of orbitals
increases by two as the sublevel increases. The ssublevel has only
one orbital; the p sublevel has three orbitals; the d sublevel has five
orbitals; and the fsublevel has seven orbitals.
Unlike Bohr’s model, the wave mechanical model, or the modern
atomic theory applies to all atoms and not just to hydrogen. In fact,
this model is able to explain the similarities of elements in the
periodic table. Note that the periodic table was arranged such that
 certain elements share similar chemical properties. The wave
mechanical model is able to explain that because it pictures out how
electrons are arranged in the atom.
The wave mechanical model is able to show the following:
 Atoms contain certain energy levels called principal energy levels.
They are given the designation n, which could be any integer starting
with 1 (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.).
FIGURE 2.10
The shapes of the d and f orbitals

 The size of the energy level, as well as the energy itself, increases as n
increases.
 Each principal energy level contains one or more types of sublevels and
inside are different types of orbitals.
 The number of sublevels is equivalent to the given principal energy
level n. As an example, principal level 1 has one sublevel (1s),
principal level 2 has two sublevels (2s, 2p), principal energy level 3 has
 three sublevels (3s, 3p, 3d) and principal level 4 has four sublevels (4s,
4p, 4d, 4f).
 The sublevels are designated by a number and a letter. The number
corresponds to the principal energy level while the letter describes the
shape of the orbital.
 The shape of the orbital does not describe the electron’s movement but
rather, it indicates the probability of finding electrons within the
orbital.
Now that Rieza and her friends learned the principles behind the
modern atomic theory or the wave mechanical model, Mama Huela
told them that they are now ready to arrange the electrons in a more
specific manner for each of the elements in the periodic table.

The Electron Configuration

As Mama Huela stated previously, certain chemical properties of

elements can be explained by the way electrons are arranged in an
atom. This is known as electron configuration. As the name
suggests, only electrons are dealt with in electron configuration—
the protons and the neutrons are not considered in the arrangement.
In a neutral element, the number of protons is exactly equal to the
number of electrons. Take note that the electrons are not arranged in
random order. There are certain rules that need to be followed
before effectively writing an electron configuration.
FIGURE 2.11
The Aufbau Principle of writing electron configuration, starting from the lowest energy level, 1s. Written below is the hierarchy
of the building up principle.

The first rule is the Aufbau Principle, which comes from the

German word aufbauen, meaning to build up. This simply means
that electrons are arranged from the lowest to the highest energy
level. Since Rieza and her friends won’t be able to memorize all the
subshells and orbitals needed in electron configuration, Mama Huela
taught them the easier way to do the process. She wrote something
on a piece of paper that looks like diagram above.
First, you must write down all the s sublevels in a straight line
from lowest number to highest (up to 7s). On the second line, you
should write all the p sublevels starting with 2 (since the p sublevel
begins at 2). The principal energy levels must be written exactly in
the same column. The third line will have the d sublevel, starting
with 3. Then, the fourth line will have the fsublevel, starting with 4.
Now, you have to draw a winding arrow that begins with 1s, as
shown in the diagram above. That is how the building up principle
works. Rieza wondered why some principal energy levels
interchange. For example, why does 4s come before 3d? 

Mama Huela explained that these are all based on experimental

results, that is why the building up principle is written in that
manner.
One other thing to consider in electron configuration is that an
electron spins, just like a top that spins on its axis. It spins in either
clockwise or counterclockwise. The spins are written in the form of
an arrow, either ↑, which spins in one direction or ↓, which means
spinning in the other direction. This was explained by a Swiss
physicist by the name of Wolfgang Pauli. He formulated what is
now known as Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, which states that an
orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons only that spin in
opposite direction.
TABLE 2-1
The table shows the principal energy levels, the sublevels, the orbitals, and the maximum number of electrons in each orbital.
Maximum
Main Energy
Sublevels Orbitals Electrons per
Level
Energy level
4f seven 4f orbitals
14
×2
4d five 4d orbitals × 10
4 2
4p three 4p orbitals ×
6
2
4s one 4s orbital × 2 2
3d five 3d orbitals ×
10
2
3 3p three 3p orbitals × 6
2
3s one 3s orbital × 2 2
2p three 2p orbitals ×
6
2 2
2s one 2s orbital × 2 2
1 1s one 1s orbital × 2 2
 Considering this, Rieza and her friends can now calculate the
maximum number of electrons in each energy level. They wrote
their results on the table above.
Now that the basics for writing an electron configuration have
been presented, Mama Huela took hydrogen as an example.
Hydrogen is the element 1 in the periodic table, which means it has
1 proton and 1 electron. The electron configuration for hydrogen can
then be written as 1s . The number in the superscript denotes the
1

electron count. For helium, which has atomic number 2 (2 protons

and 2 electrons), the electron configuration is 1s . The next is
2

lithium, with atomic number 3 (3 protons and 3 electrons). Since the

1s orbital has been filled (it can only take 2 maximum electrons), the
next orbital is considered, 2s. Therefore the electron configuration
for lithium is 1s  2s . Mama Huela challenged Rieza to write down
2 1

the electron configuration for the first 10 elements. She started

working on them and presented her work in a table.
Mama Huela commended Rieza for learning the electron
configuration easily. She told her that there is another way of
writing down the electron configuration. It is called the orbital
diagram representation or simply the box diagram. The orbitals
are presented as boxes. Inside the box, electrons may be written in
the form of arrows either pointing up or down. Pauli Exclusion 
Principle must be applied here, meaning only two electrons can
occupy a certain orbital.
Electronic
Element
Configuration
1 H 1s1
He
2 1s2
3 Li 1s22s1
Be
4 1s22s2
5 B 1s22s22p1
6 C 1s22s22p2
 7 N 1s22s22p3
8 O 1s22s22p4
9 F 1s22s22p5
10 Ne 1s22s22p6
TABLE 2-2
The electron configuration of the first 10 elements.

In addition, a third rule must also be considered. This was

formulated by the German physicist Friedrich Hund. His rule states
that: (1) every orbital in a sublevel must be singly occupied before
being doubly occupied and (2) all electrons that are singly occupied
must have the same spin to maximize the total spin. This rule is
known as Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity, and it simply
means that the electrons must be distributed across the orbitals of
the same principal energy level before they can be paired up, and
electrons that are written first must have the same spin. Before
Rieza gets lost in the definition, Mama Huela wrote the orbital
diagram representation for hydrogen.

The box represents the 1s orbital and the upward arrow represents

one electron. In writing down these arrows, it is common practice to
write the upward arrow first before the downward arrow. Now, to do
the orbital diagram for helium, the following is written, still in
the 1s orbital but with two electrons this time.
To apply all the rules together, Mama Huela asked Rieza to write
the orbital diagram representation for oxygen. This is what she came
up with:
 Note that the orbitals are written separately, with labels
underneath the boxes. To fill up the 2p sublevel, the electron arrows
are distributed first before they are paired up, following Hund’s
Rule of Maximum Multiplicity.
To sum up, the rules in writing electron configuration are the
following:
 The sublevels are filled up from the lowest to the highest energy level
(Aufbau Principle).
 Only two electrons can occupy a given orbital. (Pauli Exclusion
Principle)
 Electrons should be distributed and written first with the same spin
across the orbitals of the same principal energy level before they can be
paired up. (Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity)
Rieza now became curious about what Mama Huela mentioned
previously. Electron configurations can explain why some elements
have similar chemical properties. Mama Huela showed her a
different version of the periodic table.
In this periodic table of elements, the elements are presented
based on the last orbital of their electron configurations. For
example, Group 1A elements all end in ns1 even though they have
different principal energy levels. Group 8A elements end in np6.
These similarities in their electron configurations account for the
similarities of their chemical properties.
FIGURE 2.12
The periodic table of elements showing the last orbitals of their electron configurations.
 Rieza stared in awe at this newfound knowledge. Not only
elements are arranged in increasing atomic numbers, but they are
also arranged based on their electron configurations which coincide
with their chemical properties. There is more about the periodic
table of elements not just atomic numbers and masses after all.

The Lewis Dot Diagram

Rieza and her friends noticed that Mama Huela has not yet talk
about what keeps atoms and molecules connected. Mama Huela said
they must first learn the fundamental ideas. This one will be the last
piece of information they needed in order to start discussing the
bonds that keep atoms and molecules together.

Mama Huela then introduced the concept of valence electrons,

which are electrons located at the outermost (highest) principal
energy level of a representative or noble gas element. Take note that
valence electrons are only applicable to representative elements,
meaning transition and inner transition elements are not considered.
It is therefore common to see valence electrons located in either
the s or p orbitals. The electrons located between the valence
electrons and the nucleus are called core electrons.
Scientists have devised a way to designate the valence electrons
of the atoms in an element. This shorthand symbol was first
introduced by Gilbert Lewis, an American chemist. In 1902, while
he was trying to explain the concept of valence electrons to his
general chemistry students, he conceived the idea that electrons
surround the atom in a cube, and each electron occupies the corner
of a cube. This basically showed that there are eight electrons
surrounding an atom, and these electrons, the valence electrons, are
responsible for the chemical properties and behavior of elements.
They are the ones that interact with the atoms of other elements an
interaction known as chemical bonding. This cubic model by Lewis
was not given much importance because of the existing wave
mechanical model, but it did pave the way for better understanding
of the nature of chemical bonds.
Mama Huela continued that valence electrons are represented by dots surrounding the symbol
of an element. This is now known as the Lewis dot diagramor simply the Lewis symbol. She
then showed Rieza and her friends a table that represents the Lewis dot diagram for the main
group of element.

FIGURE 2.13
Lewis dot diagram for the main group of elements. The transition and inner transition elements are excluded.

Rieza and her friends observed that the Lewis dot diagram is the same for all members of
each group. Mama Huela nodded and said that the group numbers (Groups IA, IIA, IIIA, IVA,
VA, VIA, VIIA, and VIIIA) correspond to the number of valence electrons of the elements.

FIGURE 2.14
Lewis dot diagrams for the element magnesium.

Take note that there is no particular way in writing the Lewis dot diagram for an element. The
general practice is to distribute the electrons, or dots, around the element symbol before pairing
 up as electrons are added. For example, there are several ways in writing the Lewis dot diagram
for Mg.
To sum it up, Mama Huela reminded them of the following rules in writing Lewis dot
diagram:

 Elements belonging in the same group in the periodic table have the
same number of valence electrons. This accounts for the similarities in
their chemical properties.
 The group number for all group A elements correspond to the number
of their valence electrons. For example, the Lewis dot diagram for Li,
Na, and K show one dot, while C and Si show four dots.
 The maximum number of valence electrons for any element is eight.
The reason for this is that when both the outermost s and p sublevels
are completely filled, the atom becomes stable, or does not undergo
changes easily, since there are no more spaces for electrons to fill. The
noble gases are the only elements that exhibit a full eight valence
electrons, with the exception of helium, which has only two valence
electrons. Noble gases are the most unreactive of all the elements. They
are the only elements that are found uncombined with any other
element in nature.
The electron configurations of the noble gases are presented in the
table below.
TABLE 2-3
The electron configurations of the noble gases. The valence electrons are highlighted in red. Notice that the subshells
corresponding to the valence electrons are those with the highest principal energy level.
Atomic
Element Symbol Electronic Configuration
No.
Helium He 2 1s2
Neon Ne 10 1s22s22p6
Argon Ar 18 1s22s22p63s23p6
Krypton Kr 36 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
Xenon Xe 54 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p6
Radon Rn 86 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s25d104f146p6
 The electron configuration of the noble gases presents an easier
way to write down electron configurations for the other elements.
The noble gases become a standard in writing electron
configurations for the heavier elements. This is sometimes referred
to as the noble gas notation. For example, the standard form for the
electron configuration of zinc is as follows:

30 Zn = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2 2 6 2 6 2 10

This can now be simplified into:

30 Zn = [Ar]4s 3d 2 10

The noble gas symbol enclosed in brackets refers to the electron

configuration for that noble gas followed by the remaining electrons
that needed to be filled up.
After learning electron configurations and the Lewis dot diagram,
Mama Huela introduced yet another term, the octet rule. This rule
states that atoms of elements lose, gain, or even share electrons in
such a way that their electron configurations achieve eight valence
electrons. This will be the basis for the next topic, the chemical
bonds.
 The Chemical Bond:
An Introduction

Now, Mama Huela can start the discussion on how atoms and
molecules are held together. If you may recall from the Periodic
Table of Elements, there are currently about 118 known elements.
But the world does not contain only 118 pure elements. In fact, there
are millions of compounds and molecules that exist, because of
chemical bonding. In essence, when two atoms chemically bond
with each other, the resulting compound or molecule will have
physical and chemical properties that are different from the original
atoms.

For example, sodium is a soft metal that is so reactive. It may

become so hot and may catch fire easily, or even explode when
mixed with water. On the other hand, chlorine gas is a yellow,
poisonous gas that was used as a chemical agent during World War
I. When these two reactive and destructive elements combine, the
resulting compound is sodium chloride or table salt, which is even
safe to eat every day. The result is the rearrangement of the bonds in
sodium and in chlorine to produce sodium chloride.
Mama Huela explained that chemical bonding and how atoms are
arranged in a molecule or compound plays an important role in
many activities which are vital for the survival of the organisms. In
biological reactions, a slight change in a molecule sometimes alters
the way it is processed, which may lead to devastating effects.
Molecules of drugs for example must have exactly the right
structure, otherwise it will not even function at all. The structure of
a molecule affects the sense of smell and taste. That is why it is very
important to understand chemical bonding and the factors that may
alter the structure of compounds.
FIGURE 2.15
The molecular structure of water.

So, Mama Huela explained that a chemical bond is a force that

holds groups of two or more atoms together and makes them
function as an intact unit. For example, consider the structure of
water, H O (Figure 2.15). This molecule is held together by two O—
2

H bonds, one on each side of the molecule.

There are three major types of chemical bonds: metallic, ionic,
and covalent. They are sometimes referred to as intramolecular
bonds because they keep the molecule or compound intact. On the
other hand, chemical compounds are two or more chemically
bonded elements which form into a chemical substance that has a
fixed ratio. It can be classified into three major types: metallic
compounds, ionic compounds, and molecular compounds. Metallic
compounds are made up exclusively of metals. Ionic compounds are
made up of metal and nonmetal elements which typically have high
melting points (500°C to 2000°C), which are also good conductors
of electricity when dissolved in water or when melted (liquid state).
Molecular compounds, on the other hand, are composed of two or
more non-metals, which typically have lower melting points than
ionic compounds. These compounds do not conduct electricity in
the molten state.
Mama Huela added that there is one more thing that is important
in the discussion of chemical bonding. Recall that in the previous
lesson, the octet rule was introduced. This means that for an atom to
be stable, it needs to have a total number of eight electrons in its
outermost energy level or valence shell. The exception to the rule is
helium, which has only two electrons, so in this case, an atom gains
stability when it attains a noble gas electron configuration. Most
atoms do not have eight electrons. In order to achieve this, atoms of
elements either lose or gain electrons. The resulting particle is called
an ion, which is an atom or group of atoms that is electrically
charged due to the loss or gain of electrons.
FIGURE 2.16
A cation (left) is formed when the atom loses an electron/s, and anion when it gains an electron/s.

If an atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes positively

charged because there are now more protons than electrons. This is
called a cation. When an atom gains one or more electrons, it
becomes negatively charged since there are now more electrons than
protons. The resulting particle is called an anion. Note that the
number of protons, does not change when ions are formed.
The charge on an ion depends on how many electrons it lost or
gained. For example, if an atom loses one, two, or three electrons,
the resulting cation will have a 1+, 2+, or 3+ charge, respectively.
However, if it gains one, two, or three electrons, the anion will have
a 1–, 2–, or 3– charge, respectively. The charges are written as
superscripts after the element symbol. There is no exact rule that
states which one comes first, the charge (+ or –) or the number. That
is just a matter of preference. However, for the purpose of
consistency, the number will precede the charge sign. Note that for a
1+ or 1– charge, the number 1 is omitted. Some examples of ionic
symbols are given below.
Cations: Na , Mg , Al + 2+ 3+

Anions: Cl , O , N – 2– 3–

Going back on atomic structure, the number of electrons will

obviously change since the number of protons and electrons are not
equal anymore. Take for example, sodium:
Na = 11 protons and 11 electrons
11

Na  = 11 protons and 10 electrons

11
+

Mama Huela further added that there is a simple explanation why

some atoms lose or gain electrons. Going back to the octet rule, the
atom of an element needs to attain a noble gas configuration
(including helium) to become stable. Again, take sodium for
example.
Na = 1s 2s 2p 3s 2 2 6 1

Sodium has one valence electron. It can attain a noble gas

configuration in two ways: by losing one electron or gaining 7
electrons:
Na Na  = 1s 2s 2p  (lost 1 electron)
+ 2 2 6

Na Na  = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p  (gained 7 electrons)
7- 2 2 6 2 6
 In this case, the least number of lost or gained electrons will
always be more favorable. For sodium, it is easier to lose one
electron than gain seven more. Another example is chlorine.
Cl = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 5

Chlorine has seven valence electrons. To attain a noble gas

configuration, it can either lose all seven valence electrons or gain
one more electron.
Cl Cl  = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
- 2 2 6 2 6

Cl Cl  = 1s 2s 2p
7+ 2 2 6

It means that for chlorine, gaining one electron is better than

losing seven electrons, thus the more preferred process.
Mama Huela said that in essence, they can already make a
generalization based on these two examples.
Metal atoms containing one, two, or three electrons tend to lose
those electrons more readily to attain a noble gas electron
configuration. The noble gas involved is usually the one preceding
the atom.
Group IA metals form 1+ ions
Group IIA metals form 2+ ions
Group IIIA metals form 3+ ions
FIGURE 2.17
The ability of elements in the periodic table to lose electrons.
 Nonmetal atoms with five, six, and seven electrons gain three,
two, or one more electron, respectively, to attain a noble gas
electron configuration. The noble gas involved is the one within the
end of the period of the nonmetals in the periodic table.
Group VA nonmetals form 3– ions
Group VIA nonmetals form 2– ions
Group VIIA nonmetals form 1– ions
FIGURE 2.18
The ability of elements in the periodic table to gain electrons.

Rieza and her friends wanted to know if the same thing happens
to the elements in Group IVA. Mama Huela answered that Group
IVA elements have the tendency to either lose or gain four electrons
to achieve the noble gas electron configuration. The most interesting
of these elements is carbon, which will be discussed in the next
chapter.
Mama Huela continued that any atoms or ions that have the same
electron configuration are considered as isoelectronic. Isoelectronic
ions tend to have similar chemical properties. The following ions are
isoelectronic with neon and have the electron configuration 1s 2s 2p : 2 2 6

Na           Mg           Al           C           N           0           F

+ 2+ 3+ 4- 3- 2- -

However, it is important to note that the ion which is isoelectronic

with the noble gas will not have the same properties as the noble
gas. It will not become noble gas either, but rather, they will just
have the same number of electrons. Recall in Grade 8 Matter on
subatomic particles the discussion on the number of protons which
determine the identity of the element.
To emphasize the significance of ions, Mama Huela told them that
the chemical properties of an atom or ion depend on the way the
electrons are arranged within the atom. Ions have electron
configurations quite different from the neutral atoms, thus their
chemical properties differ as well. A good example of this is
lithium, which is used for the treatment of patients with manic-
depressive disorders. The drug used for treatment does not make use
of neutral lithium but rather the lithium ion, Li+. Lithium, as an
element is potentially poisonous and even fatal when ingested.
However, as an ion, and when combined with carbonate, its effects
on the human body are quite beneficial.
Finally, Mama Huela concluded that the road to understanding the
nature of chemical bonds is paved. They can now start the
discussion about metallic, ionic, and covalent bonds. But first, they
need to take a break and have some refreshments. All these
information made them really hungry.
 The Chemical Bond:
Ionic And Introduction

After indulging their snacks, Mama Huela started discussing the

first type of intramolecular bond, the metallic bond. Metals are
distinct from other elements because of their ability to conduct
electricity, their low ionization energy, and low electronegativity,
something you have learned from Grade 8 on the properties of
elements. You also learned from Grade 7 the different properties of
metals such as their malleability, ductility, and their lustrous or
shiny appearance.

Mama Huela continued that in the early 1900s, a German

physicist named Paul Drude came up with the idea that the atoms of
 metals can be illustrated as having an atomic core containing the
nucleus and the core electrons with very mobile valence electrons.
This started the sea of electrons theory which is also known as the
Drude model. In this model, the valence electrons are free to move
and delocalized, meaning they are not associated with any particular
atom.
Drude’s sea of electrons theory is accounted for the following
properties of metals.

FIGURE 2.19
The sea of electrons theory that shows a Group 1 (a) and Group 2 (b) metal surrounded by mobile valence electrons which are
not associated with any particular atom.

 Malleability and ductility. When the metal is hammered into thin

sheets, the sea of electrons act like a cushion, preventing any changes
in the structure of the metal. The protons may rearrange, but the sea of
electrons will adjust to the new position of the protons to keep the
metal intact.
 Ability to conduct heat. The mobile valence electrons are able to
transport heat and move about in the solid.
 Conductivity. Since the valence electrons are free to move about, if
an outside source of electrons is introduced in one end of a metal, the
 electrons will travel to the other end at the same rate. Conductivity is
just the movement of charges.
 Luster. The sea of electrons can absorb photons, or packet of light
emitted by electrons, that is why metals appear opaque. On the other
hand, the electrons on the surface can also reflect light in the same
frequency as the light hits the surface. This is the reason why metals
appear lustrous or shiny.
IONIC BOND
Before continuing, Mama Huela instructed Rieza and her friends to
find a periodic table of elements. They will need to use this in order
to identify the valence electrons of each of the elements. She
reminded them that the valence electrons correspond to the group
number of the element, i.e. Group IA has one valence electron,
Group IIA has two, Group IIIA has three, and so on.
Mama Huela then talked about the ionic bond, which involves a
transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal. She said that the
formation of ions, in reality, is not a singular or isolated process. In
fact, ions form because when one atom loses electrons, the other
atom gains it, much like a game of table tennis. The formation of
ions requires the presence of two elements: a metal that loses
electrons and a nonmetal that gains electrons. The electrons lost by
the metal are the exact same electrons gained by the nonmetal.
Therefore, an ionic bond is the electrostatic force that holds ions
together in an ionic compound. To elaborate this further, she used
table salt, or sodium chloride as an example.
In the reaction below (Figure 2.20), sodium loses its one valence
electron and becomes positively charged. This valence electron then
transfers to chlorine to complete its valence shell. Both ions now
have noble gas electron configurations. Take note of the general rule
in writing ions is to put the element symbol inside a bracket to
denote a loss or gain of electrons.
FIGURE 2.20
The reaction between sodium and chlorine as represented by their Lewis dot diagrams.

Now consider what happens when magnesium reacts with oxygen,

which has two electrons in its valence shell.
Magnesium has two valence electrons it needs to lose to gain a
noble gas electron configuration. Oxygen, on the other hand, needs
two electrons to fill its valence shell. The result is a 1:1 ratio
between magnesium and oxygen, and the result is MgO.
FIGURE 2.21
The reaction between magnesium and oxygen as represented by their Lewis dot diagrams.

Now this time, look at the reaction between sodium and oxygen.
FIGURE 2.22
The reaction between sodium and oxygen as represented by their Lewis dot diagram.

Sodium has one valence electron that it can lose while oxygen
needs two valence electrons to complete its octet (Figure 2.30).
After one sodium atom transfers its electron, oxygen needs another
one to complete its valence shell. Therefore, another atom of sodium
transfers its electron to oxygen, satisfying the octet of both sodium
and oxygen. The resulting ionic compound has the formula Na O. 2

FIGURE 2.23
The reaction between calcium and chlorine as represented by their Lewis dot diagrams.
 Observe another reaction, this time between calcium and chlorine
(Figure 2.23).
Calcium has two valence electrons it needs to lose while chlorine
can accept only one electron in its valence shell. After one electron
has transferred from calcium, another chlorine atom will take the
other extra electron, thus satisfying both the octet of calcium and
chlorine. The resulting ionic compound is CaCl . 2

Mama Huela presented another example, this time between

magnesium and nitrogen.
FIGURE 2.24
The reaction between magnesium and nitrogen as represented by their Lewis dot diagrams.

In the reaction above, magnesium has two valence electrons it

needs to lose, while nitrogen requires three electrons to complete its
valence shell. Since this is not a 1:1 ratio between the two atoms, a
different approach is taken. First, magnesium will transfer two of its
electrons to nitrogen. However, nitrogen still needs one more
electron to complete its valence shell. Another magnesium atom will
then transfer one of its electrons to nitrogen. Nitrogen now has a
complete octet, but magnesium has one extra electron. Another
nitrogen atom will accept that electron. Magnesium has transferred
its two electrons but nitrogen needs two more to complete its
valence shell. Finally, another magnesium atom will transfer its two
electrons, thereby satisfying the octet of both magnesium and
nitrogen, hence the transfer is complete. The resulting ionic
compound is Mg N . 3 2

COVALENT BOND
Mama Huela then talked about the covalent bond. In contrast with
ionic bonds, which are formed by transferring of electrons, covalent
bonds are formed by sharing of electrons between atoms. While
ionic bonds are formed by a metal and a nonmetal, covalent bonds
involve only nonmetals. To begin the discussion, she presented the
simplest of all covalent compounds, the hydrogen molecule, H . 2

FIGURE 2.25
The bond formed between two hydrogen atoms.

Each hydrogen atom contains one valence electron. Instead of

transferring this electron from one hydrogen atom to the other, they
share their electrons instead. The shared electron is depicted as two
dots between the element symbols, which is usually represented by a
single line. In the case of the hydrogen molecule, it is written as H—
H.
Take note that the total number of valence electrons from the
atoms before bonding must be equal to the number of electrons in
the covalent compound. For the hydrogen molecule, each hydrogen
atom has one valence electron each, giving two. On the other hand,
the resulting covalent molecule has one bonding pair, which gives
two electrons. Since the electrons are equal, therefore the structure
is correct.
Now, consider the bond formed between hydrogen and fluorine.
FIGURE 2.26
The bond formed between hydrogen and fluorine.

In this case, hydrogen has one valence electron while fluorine

needs one more electron to complete its octet. Hydrogen will share
its electron with fluorine, to satisfy both atoms, giving H—F. The
line between hydrogen and fluorine contains bonding electrons,
which are pairs of valence electrons shared between two atoms in a
covalent bond. The dots, or electrons, surrounding fluorine are
called nonbonding electrons, which are pairs of valence electrons
in an atom that are not shared and do not participate in bonding. HF
therefore, has one pair of bonding electrons and three pairs of
nonbonding electrons.
To check, count the number of valence electrons. Hydrogen has
one, and fluorine has seven, giving a total number of eight. In HF,
there is one bonding pair (two electrons) and three nonbonding pairs
(six electrons), which is equal to eight valence electrons. Then, the
covalent compound is correct.
Consider three more examples.
FIGURE 2.27
The bond formed between hydrogen and oxygen (top), hydrogen and nitrogen (middle), and hydrogen and carbon (bottom).

In the first diagram, hydrogen has one valence electron while

oxygen needs two electrons to complete its octet. To satisfy both,
two hydrogen atoms will share electrons with one oxygen atom,
resulting to H O or water. For water, there are two bonding pairs and
2

two nonbonding pairs of electrons. For nitrogen and hydrogen, three

hydrogen atoms share an electron each with a nitrogen atom,
resulting to NH  or ammonia. It has three bonding pairs and one
3

nonbonding pair of electrons. For hydrogen and carbon, a total of

four hydrogen atoms share their electrons with one carbon atom,
producing CH  or methane. It has four bonding pairs and without
4

nonbonding pairs of electrons.

To check if the structure is correct count the electrons. Two
hydrogen atoms have two and oxygen has six, which gives a total of
eight electrons. The water molecule has two bonding pairs (four
electrons) and two nonbonding pairs (four electrons), giving a total
of eight as well. For hydrogen and nitrogen, three hydrogen atoms
give three electrons, while nitrogen atom has five, adding up to
eight. Ammonia has three bonding pairs (six electrons) and one
nonbonding pair (two electrons), which gives a total of eight
electrons, coinciding with the atoms. Lastly, four hydrogen atoms
have four total electrons, while a carbon atom has also four
electrons. The covalent compound for methane has four bonding
pairs (eight electrons) and without nonbonding pairs, coinciding
with eight electrons as well.
Mama Huela pointed out that what she have shown so far are all
single covalent bonds. These are covalent bonds that are formed
when two atoms share one pair of electrons. However, there are
instances when atoms need to share more than one pair of electrons
which is known as multiple covalent bonds (multiple bonds), that
can be double or triple covalent bonds. A double covalent bond, or
simply called double bond, is formed when two atoms share two
pairs of electrons. Double bonds are shorter in length, but twice as
strong as a single bond, meaning twice as much energy is needed to
break them. On the other hand, a triple covalent bond, or triple
bond, results from sharing three pairs of electrons among atoms.
Triple bonds are three times stronger than single bonds but are a lot
shorter than either single or double bonds.
To illustrate these bonds, consider the oxygen molecule.
FIGURE 2.28

Double bonds formed between two oxygen molecules.

 In the diagram above, each oxygen atom contains six valence
electrons, which means each need two more electrons to complete
their octet. To satisfy both, one electron is first shared by the oxygen
atoms, then another one, sharing a total of four electrons. As
mentioned earlier, each pair of electron shared can be replaced by a
line, and since there are two electrons shared in this case, two lines
are form between the two oxygen atoms. This is an example of
double covalent bond.
To count the electrons for oxygen molecule, each atom has six
electrons, which gives a total of twelve electrons. The covalent
oxygen molecule on the other hand, has two double bonds (four
electrons) and four pairs of nonbonding electrons (eight electrons),
which also gives a total number of twelve electrons.
Another example is the nitrogen molecule.
FIGURE 2.29
Triple bonds formed between two nitrogen molecules.

In the case of nitrogen (Figure 2.29), each atom needs three

electrons to complete its octet. Three bonding pairs form between
two nitrogen atoms, resulting to triple bond. To ensure the correct
covalent compound, each nitrogen has five valence electrons which
gives a total of ten electrons. The nitrogen molecule has a triple
bond (six electrons) and two nonbonding pairs (four electrons),
which also gives a total of ten electrons.
Mama Huela added that so far, they have encountered covalent
compounds in which both the participating atoms contribute the
same number of electrons to the bond. However, it is also possible
for one atom to supply all the bonds needed, while another atom
does not contribute to the bond at all. This is known as a coordinate
 covalent bond. It is a covalent bond where both electrons of a
shared pair come from one of the two atoms involved in the bond.
Consider the hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and chlorous acid (HClO ) 2

as examples. The covalent compounds are given below.

FIGURE 2.30
The covalent compounds of hypochlorous acid and chlorous acid.

Notice that chlorous acid has a single bond between hydrogen and
oxygen and another single bond between oxygen and chlorine. This
is expected since hydrogen and chlorine form one bond each while
oxygen can form two bonds, based on their valence electrons.
However, in chlorous acid, only the hydrogen and the oxygen
attached to it comply with the expected number of bonds. The other
oxygen, which has one bond, and chlorine, which has two bonds,
does not.
Rieza and her friends asked Mama Huela, how they could tell
whether an element forms a covalent bond or coordinate covalent
bond. Mama Huela told them that they should first write the Lewis
structures of these molecules. She added that there is actually a
specific way how to write correct the Lewis structures.
The following is a systematic procedure in writing Lewis
structures:
 Count the total number of valence electrons by adding all the valence
electrons from individual atoms. Use the periodic table as a guide. For
example, H2O has a total number of eight electrons coming from two
hydrogen atoms (two electrons) and one oxygen atom (six electrons).
 2(1) + 1(6) = 8 valence electrons
 Draw a skeletal structure of the covalent compound. First, write the
symbols of the atoms in the covalent compound in the order in which
they are bonded to each other, and then draw a single bond between
them. Take note that a single bond contains a pair of electrons. For
example, for water it is:
H—O—H
 Subtract the number of bonding pairs of electrons from the total
number of valence electrons. For water, 8 – 4 = 4. This is the total
number of nonbonding electrons required for the covalent compound.
Surround the elements with the nonbonding electrons, starting with the
outermost atom and ending with the central atom. Make sure that the
elements all comply with the octet rule, with the exception of
hydrogen, which can only take a maximum of two electrons.

 Count the total number of valence electrons in the completed Lewis

structure. Make sure that this number is equal to the calculated total
number of valence electrons in the first step.
Mama Huela instructed Rieza and her friends to get a pen and paper.
She asked them to draw the Lewis structure for SO . 2

 Sulfur and oxygen both belong in Group VIA, therefore the total
number of their valence electrons is:
1(6) + 2(6) = 18 valence electrons
 They drew the skeletal structure of SO . Since no central atom was
2

specified, they decided to choose S since it is by itself.

 O—S—O
 The subtracted the number of bonding electrons with the total number
of valence electrons computed in the first step.
18 – 2(2) = 14 valence electrons left
Then, they added these valence electrons around the atoms,
starting from the outer elements (oxygen) up to the central atom,
(sulfur).

In their Lewis structure both the oxygen atoms comply with the
octet rule. However, sulfur does not since it has only six electrons.
Mama Huela reminded them that covalent bonding is all about
sharing electrons and that each single bond is composed of a pair of
electrons. This gave them an idea, so they wrote:

They borrowed a pair of electrons from one of the oxygen atoms

and placed another bond with sulfur, creating a double bond. They
now had to account for the number of nonbonding pairs they have.
But they also needed to account for the fact that they added another
bond into the Lewis structure.
14 – 1(2) – 6(2) = 0
 It is time to check whether they had the correct structure. The Lewis
structure has three bonding pairs and six nonbonding pairs.
3(2) + 6(2) = 18 valence electrons
 The number of electrons is exactly the same with the computed
valence electrons, therefore they got the correct Lewis structure for
SO . 2

Mama Huela explained that some structure such as SO may have 2

two forms: the double bond may be on the right side, or on left side,
(Figure 2.31). This is known as resonance. A molecule shows
resonance when it has more than one Lewis structures. These Lewis
structures are also known as resonance structures.
FIGURE 2.31
The resonance structures of SO2

Rieza and her friends wanted a more challenging structure, so

Mama Huela smiled and gave them CO . They scratched their heads
3
2–

because now, they have to deal with a compound that has a negative
charge. Mama Huela told them to recall what they have learned
about the negative charge.
Rieza said that it is basically an extra electron. This gave them the
clue they need to solve the problem.
 Carbon is in Group IVA and oxygen is in Group VIA. To count the
total number of valence electrons, they considered the negative charge
on the compound.
1(4) + 3(6) + 2 = 24 valence electrons
 Now they wrote the skeletal structure of CO . But the central atom was
3
2–

not specified, so they chose C, since it is by itself.

 They subtracted the number of bonding pairs of electrons to the total
number of valence electrons computed in the first step.
24 – 3(2) = 18 valence electrons left
They used these 18 valence electrons to surround the atoms and
satisfy the octet of each element, starting from the oxygen atoms
then up to the carbon.

They noticed that all oxygen atoms have complete octets while
carbon does not. Applying what they recently learned atom about
sharing of electrons, they borrowed a pair from one oxygen atom
and got the structure:

They now account all the remaining valence electrons, including

the extra bond.
18 – 1(2) – 8(2) = 0 valence electrons left
 To check whether they got the correct structure, they count all the
bonding and nonbonding pairs of electrons and subtract this from the
total number of valence electrons they computed in first step.
24 – 4(2) – 8(2) = 0
In addition, they also wrote down the resonance structures for
CO .
3
2–
FIGURE 2.32
The resonance structures of CO32-

When Mama Huela confirmed that their answers were all correct,
they let out a huge cheer. They asked if there is anything else they
needed to know, something that is more challenging. She simply
smiled, and told them that there is, in fact, one more hurdle to
tackle.
 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
(VSEPR)

Mama Huela told Rieza and her friends that this will be the last
topic in their discussion of chemical bond. She then introduced
the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion(VSEPR) theory. This
model is useful for predicting the exact structure of covalent
compounds. The main idea of VSEPR is that the structure of the
molecules is determined by the repulsion of electrons surrounding
the central atoms. This implies that the bonding and nonbonding
electrons must be positioned as far away from each other as
possible.
For example, the Lewis structure for the compound BeF  is as 2

follows:

Beryllium does not follow the octet rule and it can only take a
maximum of four electrons. The best arrangement for the electron
pairs that allows them to be far apart as possible is to separate them
at 180° from each other.
 Whenever two bonding pairs of electrons surround the central
atom, they should have a linear structure.
Now, consider the Lewis structure for BF  below:
3

Boron is another element that does not follow the octet rule and
can only take a maximum of six electrons. In this compound, boron
is surrounded by three bonding pairs. To separate the electrons the
angle far apart, from each other.

This arrangement is known as trigonal planar. When three

bonding pairs of electrons are present around the central atom, they
should be placed at the corners of a triangle.
Next, take a look at the Lewis structure of methane:

There are four bonding pairs of electrons around carbon. The

obvious arrangement is square, where each bond is 90° far apart
from each other. Is there another way to arrange the bonding
electrons such that they can be separated further? There is in fact,
another way. The structure is as follows:

This is a three-dimensional structure known as tetrahedral. The

angle between each of the bonds is 109.5°. Tetrahedral may look
like this in three-dimensional space:

On the other hand, this is what methane would look like in three-
dimensional space, where carbon is at the center and the hydrogens
are in the corners of the cube.
 Mama Huela added that not all the electrons around the central
atom are bonding electrons in tetrahedral molecules. There are
instances when a nonbonding pair of electrons exists. Take, for
example, the Lewis structure for ammonia, NH . 3

The structure has three bonding pairs, and one nonbonding pair of
electrons. It is incorrect to say that this structure is a tetrahedral
since not all electrons surrounding the central atom are bonding.
Instead, this structure is known as a trigonal pyramidal. This is the
structure of ammonia in three-dimensional projection:

Finally, consider the Lewis structure of water.

This time, H O has two bonding pairs and two nonbonding pairs
2

of electrons. The resulting structure is definitely not tetrahedral nor

trigonal pyramidal. It assumes a bent structure, which is given
below:

Steps in predicting the molecular structure using VSEPR model.

1. Draw the Lewis structure for the covalent compound or molecule.
2. Count the number of electron pairs, take note of both the bonding and
nonbonding pairs.
3. Determine the positions of the atoms based on the way the electron
pairs are shared.
4. Find out the name of the molecular structure based from the positions
of the atoms.
Table 2–4 will be the basis of determining the molecular structure
of a covalent compound or molecule.
Mama Huela announced that finally, the topic on chemical bonds
has come to an end. It was a very long journey for Rieza and her
friends to get to this point. They now know everything there is to
learn about chemical bonds. Now they are definitely ready to tackle
the more difficult topics that lie ahead.
TABLE 2-4
VSEPR Table