Energy notes:

Energy exists in many different forms.

Examples of these are: light energy, heat energy, mechanical energy, gravitational energy, electrical energy, sound
energy, chemical energy, nuclear or atomic energy and so on.
Law of Conservation of Energy – the law that states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Each form can be
converted or changed into the other forms.
Kinetic energy (KE) is defined as the energy possessed by a moving body by virtue of its motion. Work must be done on
the object to change its kinetic energy.
For an object with mass m and speed v, the kinetic energy is defined as K = (1 /2) m v², where ‘m’ denotes the mass of the
object and ‘v’ denotes the velocity of the object. A running athlete, blowing wind, flying aircraft, etc. possesses kinetic
energy. 
Potential Energy (P.E) is defined as the energy which is stored by an object due to its position, relative to the other
objects.
The potential energy is expressed in the form of an equation as P.E = m*g*h where ‘m’ denotes the mass of the object, ‘g’
denotes the acceleration due to gravity and ‘h’ denotes the height in meters.
Mechanical energy is defined as the energy associated with the motion and the position of the object. It can possess
energy in the form of either potential energy or kinetic energy or both. Hence, mechanical energy is expressed as the sum
of kinetic energy and potential energy.

M.E= mgh+(1 /2)mv²

Chemical Energy is defined as the energy stored within the bonds of a  chemical compound, i.e., the energy is stored
between the atoms and molecules of the compound. It also refers to the ability of the chemical substances to undergo a
chemical reaction to transform into other substances. The chemical energy is involved in the formation or destruction of
chemical bonds, which is either absorbed or released from the chemical system.

Electrical Energy is defined as the energy that has been converted from electrical potential energy. An electrical circuit
delivers this type of energy and it is a combination of electric current and electric potential. When the electrical potential
energy is converted into another type of energy namely light, heat, or motion, it ceases to be electrical potential energy.

Nuclear Energy, also known as atomic energy, is defined as the energy that is released as a result of processes in which
atomic nuclei (i.e., the core of the atom) are affected. There are two methods by which nuclear energy can be released.
One is known as nuclear fission and the other one is known as nuclear fusion.

Both are nuclear reactions that produce energy, but fusion and fission are not the same. Fusion involves combining two
light nuclei to form a larger nucleus and fission involves the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter ones.
 NOTES ON DESCRIBING MOTION:

 If the location/position of an object changes with time the object is said to be in motion.
 If a body undergoes no change in position with time and with respect to a stationary object then it is said to be at
rest.
 A Reference Point is used to describe the location of an object. An object can be referred through many reference
points.

Scalar and vectors

Distance
 Distance is a scalar quantity, which means the distance of any object does not depend on the direction of its
motion.
 The distance of an object can be defined as the complete path travelled by an object.

E.g.: if a car travels east for 5 km and takes a turn to travel north for another 8 km, the total distance travelled by
car shall be 13 km.

 The distance can never be zero or negative and it is always more than the displacement of the object.
 The distance of the object gives complete information about the path travelled by the object.
 Displacement
 Displacement is a vector quantity, which means that the displacement of an object depends on the direction of the
motion of the object.
 The displacement of an object can be defined as the overall motion of the object or the minimum distance between
the starting point of the object and the final position of the object.

E.g.: if we consider the same example as given earlier, the total displacement of the object will be the length of the
line joining the two positions.

 The displacement of an object is usually shorter or equal to the distance travelled by the object.
 The displacement of the object does not give the proper information about the path travelled by the object.

 The length of the straight line segment joining the points A and B (the black line) is the displacement of the object
moving from A to B.
 The length of the curve joining the points A and B (the pink line) is the distance travelled by the object.

Speed
 Speed (measured in metres per second) is the distance moved by an object each second.
 The average speed of an object is given by the equation:

 You can rearrange the equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Velocity
  Velocity is a similar quantity to speed, but includes a direction (the direction of travel) as well as its value (its
magnitude)
 Two objects can have equal speeds but might have opposite velocities (if they are travelling in opposite
directions).

 The two cars have the same speed but opposite velocities, because they are travelling in opposite directions.

Acceleration

 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: In other words, how much the velocity of an object changes by
every second
 Acceleration is given by the equation:

(Where u is the initial velocity of an object and v is its final velocity)

 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

 The units of acceleration are m/s2, which mean the same thing as m/s/s – the change in velocity (in m/s) every
second.

FORCE AND MOTION

Introduction to Force
A force is an effort that changes the state of an object at rest or at motion. It can change an object’s direction and velocity.
Force can also change the shape of an object.

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

When balanced forces are applied to an object, there will be no net effective force acting on the object. Balanced forces do
not cause a change in motion.
Unbalanced forces acting on an object change its speed and/or direction of motion. It moves in the direction of the force
with the highest magnitude.

Net force
When multiple forces act on a body, they can be resolved into one component known as the net force acting on the object.
For Example:

Frictional force
The force that opposes relative motion is called friction. It arises between the surfaces in contact.
Example: When we try to push a table and it does not move is because it is balanced by the frictional force.

TYPES OF FORCES
 An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by a person or another object. If a person is pushing a desk
across the room, then there is an applied force acting upon the object. The applied force is the force exerted on the
desk by the person.
 The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massively large object attracts another object
towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the object. All objects upon earth experience a force of gravity
 that is directed "downward" towards the center of the earth. The force of gravity on earth is always equal to the
weight of the object as found by the equation:
 W = m.g where g = 9.8 N/kg (on Earth) and m = mass (in kg)

 The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another stable object. For
example, if a book is resting upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an upward force upon the book in order to
support the weight of the book. On occasions, a normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects that are
in contact with each other. For instance, if a person leans against a wall, the wall pushes horizontally on the
person.
 The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or makes an effort to move across
it. There are at least two types of friction force - sliding and static friction. Though it is not always the case, the
friction force often opposes the motion of an object. For example, if a book slides across the surface of a desk,
then the desk exerts a friction force in the opposite direction of its motion. Friction results from the two surfaces
being pressed together closely, causing intermolecular attractive forces between molecules of different surfaces.
As such, friction depends upon the nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they are pressed
together.
 The air resistance is a special type of frictional force that acts upon objects as they travel through the air. The force
of air resistance is often observed to oppose the motion of an object. This force will frequently be neglected due to
its negligible magnitude (and due to the fact that it is mathematically difficult to predict its value). It is most
noticeable for objects that travel at high speeds (e.g., a skydiver or a downhill skier) or for objects with large
surface areas.
 The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire when it is pulled tight by
forces acting from opposite ends. The tension force is directed along the length of the wire and pulls equally on the
objects on the opposite ends of the wire
 The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any object that is attached to it. An
object that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted upon by a force that restores the object to its rest or
equilibrium position.

MASS VS WEIGHT
The mass of an object refers to the amount of matter that is contained by the object; the weight of an object is the force of
gravity acting upon that object. Mass is related to how much stuff is there and weight is related to the pull of the Earth (or
any other planet) upon that stuff.
The mass of an object (measured in kg) will be the same no matter where in the universe that object is located. Mass is
never altered by location, the pull of gravity, speed or even the existence of other forces. For example, a 2-kg object will
have a mass of 2 kg whether it is located on Earth, the moon, or Jupiter; its mass will be 2 kg whether it is moving or not
(at least for purposes of our study); and its mass will be 2 kg whether it is being pushed upon or not.
On the other hand, the weight of an object (measured in Newton) will vary according to where in the universe the object
is. Weight depends upon which planet is exerting the force and the distance the object is from the planet. Weight, being
equivalent to the force of gravity, is dependent upon the value of g - the gravitational field strength. On earth's surface g is
9.8 N/kg (often approximated as 10 N/kg). On the moon's surface, g is 1.7 N/kg.

AERODYNAMIC FORCES:
You see them everyday: airplanes, jets, and helicopters, soaring, zooming, and even roaring through the skies. We may
take flight for granted; yet, knowing the science behind it gives us a better understanding of the marvels of air
travel.There are four forces that affect the motion of the flight.
Wings keep an airplane up in the air, but the four forces are what make this happen. They push a plane up, down, forward,
or slow it down.     
 Thrust is a force that moves an aircraft in the direction of the motion. It is created with a propeller, jet engine, or
rocket. Air is pulled in and then pushed out in an opposite direction. One example is a household fan.     
 Drag is the force that acts opposite to the direction of motion. It tends to slow an object. Drag is caused by friction
and differences in air pressure. An example is putting your hand out of a moving car window and feeling it pull
back.
 Weight is the force caused by gravity.
 Lift is the force that holds an airplane in the air. The wings create most of the lift used by airplanes.
The way the four forces act on the airplane make the plane do different things. Each force has an opposite force that
works against it. Lift works opposite of weight. Thrust works opposite of drag. When the forces are balanced, a plane flies
in a level direction. The plane goes up if the forces of lift and thrust are more than gravity and drag. If gravity and drag are
bigger than lift and thrust, the plane goes down. Just as drag holds something back as a response to wind flow, lift pushes
something up. The air pressure is higher on the bottom side of a wing, so it is pushed upward.