A Closer Look on Irrationality of ζ(3)

Soumyajit Ghosh
Online Summer Internship , June-July 2021

ABSTRACT

From more than 200 years after the first appearance of ζ function, subsequently
in the work of Euler, Riemann ;finding the values of zeta and their relation with
other function remain a constant topic of utmost curiosity among mathemati-
cians. After Euler gave the beautiful formula connecting all even zeta values,
there is still no closed form for all zeta values at odd arguments. Many eminent
number theorist proved many elegant results but their algbraic nature was still
in mystery . In 1978 , Roger Apery unraveled it showing ζ(3) is irrational . It
opened a wide area of research in this domain . So here in this paper , I try
to give a detailed look into Apery’s master proof of irrationality of ζ(3) and its
related things .

1 Introduction
Before diving to the main part , let us look some prerequisites and related things
about ζ(s) .We also proof the result which Euler gave for even arguments of zeta
function.

1.1 Few Definitions

1. Analytic function :
A complex valued function f of complex variable z is analytic at a point
z0 if it has derivative at each point in some neighborhood of z0 .Similarly,
a function f is said to be analytic in an open set D if it has derivative
everywhere in D.
Basically, f is smooth function. Formally a function f is real analytic on
an open set D in <, if for any x0 D , we can express it as
X
f (x) = an (x − x0 )n
n≥0

2. Entire function :

1
 An entire function is a function that is analytic at each point in the entire
finite plane.
eg: All polynomials,sin(x), cos(x)

3. Holomorphic function :
A holomorphic function is a complex valued function of one or more vari-
able that is at every point of its subset, f is complex differentiable in a
neighborhood of that point.
Any holomorphic function is infinitely differentiable and equal locally to
own Taylor series.
i.e.
f (z) − f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim
z→z0 z − z0
exists ∀ z0  D

4. Singularity : A point z0 is called singular point of a function f if f fails to

be analytic at z0 but is analytic at some point in every neighborhood of
z0 . Though in those neighborhood f may or may not be analytic. Based
on this, there are three kinds of singularity –a) isolated (pole, removable,
essential)
b) Non isolated c) Branch points
• Pole :
A point ’a’ is a pole of f if ∃ a holomorphic function g on U with
g(z)
g(a)6= 0 and nN such that f (z) = (z−a) n is defined ∀zU \ {a}

5. Laurent series :
A Laurent series of a function f(z) is a representation of that function as
a power series which includes terms of negative degree . Laurent series of
f(z) about a point c is given by
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − c)n
n=−∞

where an , c are constants.

6. Meromorphic function :
It is a function on an open set D ⊂ C which is holomorphic on all of D
except for a set of poles of that function.

7. Generating function :
It is a way of encoding an infinite sequence of numbers (an ) by treating
them as coefficients of a power series.
x
eg: a) f (x) = ex −1 is G. F. of Bernoulli numbers.

2
 1
b) f (x, t) = √1−2xt+t2
is G. F. of Legendre polynomials .. ( legendre
type polynomial was used in proof of Irrationality of ζ(2) and ζ(3) by F.
Beukers.

1.2 Riemann zeta function

It is formally expresses as
∞
X 1 1 1 1
ζ(s) = s
= 1 + s + s + ...... + s ......if Re(s) > 1
n=1
n 2 3 n

It is a meromorphic function as at s=1 , it has simple pole. It is defined for

other complex values by Analytic continuation. P∞
ζ(s) is a particular case of Dirichlet series which is of the form n=1 anns
Now this series is also a special case Dirichlet L-series which is of form
∞
X χ(n)
L(s, χ) =
n=1
ns
Z ∗
where, χ(n) is Dirichlet character which is a homomorphism from ( nZ ) to
C . L(s, χ) is also known as L-function after applying analytic continuation.
• There is a natural generalisation of ζ(s), which is called Hurwitz (gener-
alized)zeta function , defined by,
∞
X 1
ζ(s, a) :=
n=0
(n + a)s

/ Z0− := {0, −1, −2, −3, ...., −n, ...}

where Re(s)>1 with a ∈
Clearly, ζ(s, 1) = ζ(s); ζ(s, 2) = ζ(s) − 1; ζ( 21 ) = (2s − 1)ζ(s)
• ζ(s) also can be defined in the way
∞
1 X (−1)n+1
ζ(s) = 1−s
(1 − 2 ) n=1 ns

where Re(s)>0 , s 6= 1.
Basically this is the relation between ζ(s) and Dirichlet eta function η(s)
, which is of the form
∞
X (−1)n+1
η(s) =
n=1
ns

Proof : Observe that,

X (−1)n X 1 X 1
s
+ s
=2 s
n n n=2,4,6,...
n
n≥1 n≥1

3
 X (−1)n X 1 X 1
=⇒ s
+ s
=2
n n (2n)s
n≥1 n≥1 n≥1
X (−1) n X 1
=⇒ s
= (21−s − 1)
n ns
n≥1 n≥1

X 1 1 X (−1)n+1
=⇒ =
ns (1 − 21−s ) ns
n≥1 n≥1

1
=⇒ ζ(s) = η(s)
(1 − 21−s )

Since the above definition is valid for Re(s) >0 . So now if we plug s = 21 ,
then we get
∞
√ X (−1)n
 
1
ζ = (1 + 2) √
2 n=1
n

From this we can say ζ( 12 ) is conditionally convergent by Leibniz test ,

but not absolutely.
Recent researches show many good series representations which include
certain Lambert series, but still the algebraic nature of ζ( 12 ) is not known.
• We know that ζ(s) is absolutely convergent for Re(s) >1 , which is quite
evident from p series test.
• Here we mention the functional equations that are satisfied by ζ(s)
1.  
− 2s
s
− 1−s 1−s
π Γ ζ(s) = π 2 Γ ζ(1 − s)
2 2
[This is symmetric form, since there is no change if we replace s by
(1 − s)]
2. Asymmetric form :
 πs 
ζ(s) = 2s π s−1 sin Γ(1 − s)ζ(1 − s)
2
• Euler Infinite Product Form :
Y −1
1
ζ(s) = 1− s
p
pP

where P is set of primes.

Proof :
P∞ 1
ζ(s) = n=1 ns
1 1
P∞ 1
P∞ 1
=⇒ 2s ζ(s) = 2s n=1 ns = n=1 (2n)s

4
 Subtracting , we get

∞
1 X 1
(1 − s )ζ(s) =
2 ns
n=1,n6=2k

∞
1 1 X 1
=⇒ s
(1 − s )ζ(s) =
3 2 (3n)s
n=1,n6=2k

Subtracting above two,

∞
1 1 X 1
=⇒ (1 − )(1 − s )ζ(s) =
3s 2 ns
n=1,n6=2k,n6=3k

1
Then multiplying the above equation by 5s and then subtracting we get,
∞
1 1 1 X 1
(1 − s
)(1 − s )(1 − s )ζ(s) =
5 3 2 ns
n=1,n6=2k,n6=3k,n6=5k

Continuing this process for infinitely many times, after all prime powers
are sieved out, then we get,
1 1 1 1 1
.......(1 − )(1 − s )(1 − s )(1 − s )(1 − s )ζ(s) = 1
11s 7 5 3 2
1
=⇒ ζ(s) = Q 1
p (1 − ps )

Y −1
1
=⇒ ζ(s) = 1− s
p
pP

Here a fact is that Hurwitz zeta function doesn’t enjoy this kind of beau-
tiful Euler product form.
• Integral representation of ζ(s)

∞
xs−1
Z
1
ζ(s) = dx
Γ(s) 0 ex − 1

where Re(s)>1.
Proof : By definition of Gamma function ,we know
Z ∞
Γ(s) = e−x xs−1 dx
0

Now considering the series,

5
 ∞
−x −2x −3x −nx
X 1
e +e +e + ..... + e = e−nx =
n=1
ex − 1

Then,
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ Z ∞
xs−1
Z Z X X
= xs−1 e−nx dx = xs−1 e−nx dx,
0 eX − 1 0 n=1 n=1 0

(by Mn test )

∞ ∞ Z ∞ s−1 −z
xs−1
Z X z e
=⇒ x
dx = s−1
dz, (nx = z, say)
0 e −1 n=1 0
n n

∞
! Z
∞ ∞
xs−1
Z 
X 1
=⇒ = e−z z s−1 dz = ζ(s)Γ(s)
0 ex − 1 n=1
ns 0

• Zeros of ζ(s) :
1
By Riemann Hypothesis , all non trivial zeroes of ζ(s) is on x = 2 .
Now it is known that
Bn+1
ζ(−n) = (−1)n
n+1
Since,Bn = 0 for all odd n except 1 .There if we choose n = 2m∀m =
1, 2, 3, ... in the above equation , then
B2m+1
ζ(−2m) = (−1)2m = 0, ∀m = 1, 2, 3, ...
2m + 1

So x=-2,-4,-6,... are the trivial zeros of ζ(s).

Now we state a few results related to ζ(s)
1. Goldbach’s Theorem
Let S denote the set of all non trivial integer kth powers ; that is
S := {nk : n, kN \ {a}}.
= {4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 27, 32, 36, ....} . Then,
X 1
=1
ω−1
ωS

This is sometimes called as Goldbach-Euler series. But the interesting fact

is this result can be restated as
∞
X
(ζ(k) − 1) = 1
k=2

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 P∞
It is again restated as k=2 F(ζ(k)) = 1
where F(x) := x − [x] is fractional part of x.
Proof :From the definition of ζ(s), it follows that ζ(s) > 1. But it can also
be shown that 1 < ζ(s) < 2 ∀k ≥ 2
which implies [ζ(k)] = 1∀k ≥ 2 =⇒ F(ζ(k)) = ζ(k) − 1
Now then,
P∞ P∞ P∞ 1
P∞ P∞ 1
P∞ 1
k=2 (ζ(k) − 1) = k=2 n=2 nk = n=2 k=2 nk = n=2 n(n−1)
P∞ 1
=⇒ n=2 ( n−1 − n1 ) = 1

1
P
Generalized Goldbach-Euler series : ωS ω s −1
P∞
which can be expressed as n=1 ns1−1 − (ζ(s) − 1) for Re(s) >1

2. There are similar kinds of relation which are as follows :

P∞
• k=1 F(ζ(2k)) = 4
3
P∞
• k=1 F(ζ(2k + 1)) = 4
1
P∞
• k
k=2 (−1) F(ζ(k)) = 2
1

3. We now mention some beautiful result about ζ(s) with γ (Euler-Mascheroni

constant) .
P∞ ζ(2k+1) −2k
• k=1 2k+1 2 = log2 − γ ( Ramaswami)
P∞ ζ(2k+1)−1
• k=1 2k+1 = 1 − γ − 21 log2 (Legendre)
P∞ ζ(2k)−1
• k=1 k = log2 (Johnson)
P∞ ζ(k)−1
• k=2 k =1−γ
All these above results except the last one already was known to
Euler.
4. We want to end this by stating another worth - mentioning result.
Dirichlet (1849) found a relation between γ and the average of fractional
parts, that is ,
n
1 X nno 1
= 1 − γ + O( √ )
n x=1 x n

He used this to prove the number of divisors of an integer n is of order logn.

But there is a quest to find the minimized error term in that. Finding the
optimal exponent θ > 0 such that

n n o
X n
− n(1 − γ) = O(nθ+ε )
x=1
x

7
 where ε > 0.
which is known as ’Dirichlet divisor problem ’. It is still unsolved. Hardy
(1916) conjectured that inf θ ≥ 14 .
Recently Ibrahim Alabdulmahsin
Pn  (2017) was working in the asymptotic
behavior of fs (n) = x=1 nx xs (s = 0 =⇒ Dirichlet’s result) and its
relation with zeta function.
He proved that,
n n o
1 X n 1 ζ(s + 1) 1
xs = − + O( √ )
ns+1 x=1
x s s+1 n
.

1.3 Euler’s result about ζ(2k)

For proving this we need to prove some necessary results.

1. sine product form :

By Weierstrass factorization theorem, every entire function can be repre-
sented as a product involving its zeroes.
Let us consider the equation sin(x) = 0 which has zeroes at x = nπ ∀n 
Z. Then (x − π), (x + π), (x − 2π), (x + 2π), ...., (x − nπ), (x + nπ)... all are
factors of f (x) = sin x.
Hence sin x = 0 can be written as -
sin x = cx(x − π)(x + π)(x − 2π)(x + 2π)....(x − nπ)(x + nπ)..
sin x
=⇒ x = c(π − x)(π + x)(2π − x)(2π + x)...
Taking limn→0 at both sides we get,
1 = cππ2π2π...nπnπ..
1
=⇒ c = ππ2π2π...nπnπ...
sin x x x x x
=⇒ x = (1 − π )(1 + π )(1 − 2π (1 + 2π )....
2 2
sin x x2
=⇒ x = (1 − πx2 )(1 − 4π
x
2 )(1 − 9π 2 )...
Q∞  2

sin x
=⇒ x = n=1 1 − nx2 π2

2. Bernoulli numbers :
Definition by generating function ,
∞
x X xn
x
= Bn , |x| < 2π
e − 1 n=0 n!

P∞ n
Bn xn!


From this, x = (ex − 1) n=0

8
 P  P 
xk n
=⇒ x = k≥1 k! n≥0 Bn xn!
  
x2 x3 2 3
=⇒ x = x + 2! + 3! + ... B0 + B1 x + B2 x2! + B3 x3! + ...
Now, comparing the coefficients from both sides, we get
B0 = 1, B1 = − 21 , B2 = 16 , B3 = 0, ...
Further we can show that all Bn is zero if n is odd except 1.
n
Proof : We know exx−1 = n≥0 Bn xn!
P
n n
=⇒ exx−1 + x2 = n≥0 Bn xn! + x2 = n≥0,n6=1 Bn xn!
P P
x
Now , from left hand side, x( 12 + 1
ex −1 ) = x2 ( eex −1
+1
) = f (x)(say)
ex −e−x ex +e−x
We know, sinh x = 2 , cosh x = 2
sinh x ex −e−x e2x −1
=⇒ tanh x = cosh x = ex +e−x = e2x +1
ex −1
=⇒ tanh x2 = ex +1
ex +1
=⇒ coth x2 = ex −1
Then, f (x) = x2 coth x2
Now f(x) is even function . So,f (−x) = f (x)
Then,
x x X xn
coth = Bn
2 2 n!
n≥0,n6=1

Replacing x by -x ,

x x X (−1)n xn
coth = Bn
2 2 n!
n≥0,n6=1

From these, we get

(−1)n Bn = Bn
=⇒ −Bn = Bn ,if n is odd .
=⇒ 2Bn = 0
=⇒ Bn = 0, if n is odd (n 6= 1)
=⇒ B2m+1 = 0, where m = 1,2,3,..

From sine product formula , sin x = x(1 + πx )(1 − πx )(1 + x

2π )(1 − x
2π )...
Taking log at both sides ,
x x x
log sinx = log x + log(1 + ) + log(1 − ) + log(1 + ) + ...
π π 2π
1 1 1 1 1
Differentiating we get , cot x = x + π+x − π−x + 2π+x − 2π−x + ...

9
 ∞
1 X 2x
=⇒ cot x = + ......(1)
x n=1 x2 − n2 π 2
 −1
x2
1
P∞ 2x
From (1), cot x = x− n=1 n2 π 2 1− n2 π 2
 2 2
x2
1
P∞ 2x
Then, cot x = x + n=1 n2 π 2 {1 + + nx2 π2 + ....}
n2 π 2
P∞ P∞ 1

x
2n
=⇒ x cot x = 1 − 2 n=1 k=1 k2n π
∞
X  x 2n
=⇒ x cot x = 1 − 2 ζ(2n)
n=1
π
Putting , x = πz , the above equation becomes
∞
X
πz cot πz = 1 − 2 ζ(2n)z 2n .....(2)
n=1

ix −ix ix −ix
We know sin x = e −e 2i , cos x = e +e 2
ix −ix
e −e
Then, tan x = i(e ix +e−ix )
 ix −ix 
=⇒ cot x = i eeix −e
+e
−ix
 ix −ix 
e +e
=⇒ x cot x = ix eix −e−ix
 2iπz 
Putting,x = πz , πz cot πz = iπz ee2iπz −1 +1
 
=⇒ πz cot πz = iπz 1 + e2πz2 −1 = iπz + e2iπz 2iπz
−1
P∞ n
(2iπz)
=⇒ πz cot πz = iπz + n=0 Bn n!
P∞ 2n
=⇒ πz cot πz = iπz − 12 2iπz + 1 + n=1 B2n (2iπz) (2n)!
P∞ 2n
=⇒ πz cot πz = 1 + n=1 B2n (2iπz) (2n)! ........(3)
Using (2) and (3) , we get
∞ ∞
X X (2π)2n z 2n (−1)n
−2 ζ(2n)z 2n = B2n
n=1 n=1
(2n)!

(−1)n+1 B2n (2π)2n

=⇒ 2ζ(2n) =
(2n)!

(−1)n+1 B2n (2π)2n

=⇒ ζ(2n) =
2(2n)!

2 Main Aspect of this Project

For the last 100 years ,there are many expressions of ζ(2m+1) values discovered
,but these series representations were quite complicate in nature to tackle and

10
resulting
Pin no fruitful way of finding their algebraic nature .First and foremost
∞
ζ(3) = n=1 n13 .
Some other interesting results are as follows :
  √ 3 2  √  P∞
• ζ(3) = − 65 log 1+2 5 + π6 log 1+2 5 + 54 n=1 3  1+1√5 2n (Landen,1780)
n 2

3 P∞
• ζ(3) = 7π
180 −2 1
n=1 n3 (e2nπ −1) (Lerch,1901)
2 P∞ ζ(2n)
• ζ(3) = − 4π7 n=0 (2n+1)(2n+2)22n (Euler,1772)

So in last century all felt the need to produce some fast converging series of
ζ(3) which was needed for proving its irrationality .Therefore now it’s time to
proof the series representation of ζ(3) that Apery used .

• Proposition :

For any a1 , a2 , a3 , ...ak

∞
X a1 a2 a3 ...ak−1 1
=
(x + a1 )(x + a2 )(x + a3 )...(x + ak ) x
k=1

a1 a2 a3 ....ai
Chosse A0 = x1 ; Ai = x(x+a1 )(x+a 2 )(x+a3 )...(x+ai )
∀1 ≤ i ≤ k
1
So that A0 − A1 = (x+a1 )
a1
A1 − A2 = x(x+a 1)
− x(x+aa11)(x+a
a2
2)
= (x+a1a)(x+a
1
2)
a1 a2 a1 a2 a3 a1 a2
A2 − A3 = x(x+a1 )(x+a2 ) − x(x+a1 )(x+a2 )(x+a3 ) = (x+a1 )(x+a 2 )(x+a3 )
So clearly this is a telescoping sum .
Now,

K K
X a1 a2 a3 ....ak−1 X
= (Ak−1 − Ak ) = A0 − AK
(x + a1 )(x + a2 )(x + a3 )..(x + ak )
k=1 k=1

K
X a1 a2 a3 ....ak−1 1 a1 a − 2a3 .....aK
=⇒ = − .....(1)
(x + a1 )(x + a2 )...(x + ak ) x x(x + a1 )(x + a2 )....(x + aK )
k=1

As K → ∞ ,then x(x+aa1 )(x+a

1 a2 a3 ....aK
2 )...(x+aK )
→ ∞, this needs to be true .
Now putting , x = n2 , ak = k 2 , where 1 ≤ k ≤ K ≤ n − 1 .
From (1),
n−1
X (−1)k−1 ((k − 1)!)2 1 (−1)n−1 ((n − 1)!))2
= −
(n2 − 12 )(n2 − 22 )(n2 − 32 )....(n2 − k 2 ) n2 n2 (n2 − 12 )(n2 − 22 )...(n2 − (n − 1)2 )
k=1

1 (−1)n−1 (n−1)!(n−1)!2n
=⇒ n2 − n2 (n−1)!(n+1)(n+2)...(n+n−1)2n

11
 1 2(−1)n−1 n!n!
=⇒ n2 − n2 n!(n+1)(n+2)..2n
1 2(−1)n−1 (n!)2
=⇒ −
n2 n2 (2n)!
Then,
n−1
X (−1)k−1 ((k − 1)!)2 1 2(−1)n−1
= −
(n2 − 12 )(n2 − 22 )...(n2 − k 2 ) n2 n2 2n


k=1 n
2
1 (k!) (n−k)!
Define, εn,k = 2 k3 (n+k)!
2 2
Then, εn,k − εn−1,k = 21 (k!) (n−k)! (n−1−k)! 1 (k)!) (n−1−k)! n−k
k3 [ (n+k)! − (n−1+k)! ] = 2 k3 (n−1+k)! ( n+k − 1)
 2
=⇒ εn,k −εn−1,k = − (k!) k
(n−1−k)! 2 (n−1)!
(n+k)! = −((k−1)!) n!(n2 −k2 )(n2 −(k−1)2 )...(n2 −12 )
(Above right most expression comes by multiplying the earlier quotient up
and down with (n − k)(n − (k − 1))(n − (k − 2))...(n − 1) and then simplifying )
1
=⇒ εn,k − εn−1,k = −((k − 1)!)2 n(n2 −12 )(n2 −22 )...(n2 −k 2 )

(−1)k−1 ((k − 1)!)2

=⇒ (−1)k n(εn,k − εn−1,k ) =
(n2 − 12 )(n2 − 22 )..(n2 − k 2 )
Taking summation in both sides,we get
n−1 n−1
X X (−1)k−1 ((k − 1)!)2 1 2(−1)n−1
(−1)k n(εn,k −εn−1,k ) = = − 2 2n

(n2 − 12 )(n2 − 22 )....(n2 − k 2 ) n2 n n
k=1 k=1

n−1
X 1 2(−1)n−1
T hen, (−1)k (εn,k − εn−1,k ) = −
n3 n3 2n


k=1 n

Now taking summation again ,

N n−1 N
X X X 1 (−1)n−1
(−1)k (εn,k − εn−1,k ) = 3
− 2 3 2n

n=1 n=1
n n n
k=1

Since, the left hand side of above equation the sum is a finite one ,so we can
interchange the summation , hence 
Pn−1 k
PN
k=1 (−1) n=1 (εn,k − εn−1,k )
Pn−1 P 
k N
= k=1 (−1) n≥k+1 (εn,k − εn−1,k ) (since, k ≤ n − 1)
PN −1
= k=1 (−1)k (εN,k − εk,k )
PN −1 2
(N −k)!
= 21 k=1 (−1)k (k!) 1
k3 [ (N +k)! − (2k)! ]
PN −1 PN −1 k−1
= 12 k=1 (−1)k 3 (N +k)!N 1
! + 21 k=1 (−1)
k3 (2k
k k!N !(N −k)!k! k)

1
PN −1 (−1)k−1 1 1
PN −1 (−1)k−1
= 2 k=1 k3 +
(Nk+k)(Nk ) 2 k=1 k3 (2k k)
Now since the above first part ,that is partial sum of N-1 terms i.e. SN → ∞
as N → ∞ .

12
 Therefore we get
N N N −1
X 1 X (−1)n−1 1 X (−1)k−1
− 2 =
n3 n3 2n k 3 2k



n=1 n=1 n
2 k
k=1

As N → ∞ ,
∞ ∞
X 1 5 X (−1)n−1
=
n3 2 n=1 n3 2n


n=1 n
∞
5 X (−1)n−1
=⇒ ζ(3) =
2 n=1 n3 2n


n

(This ζ(3) is popularly known as ”Apery’s Constant” )

2.1 Some necessary things

1. Let us denote lcm(1, 2, 3....n) by dn .Sometimes it is also denoted as
[1,2,3,....n] .

• Proposition :
logn
p[ logp ]
Y
dn =
p≤n

where p is prime and [.] is greatest integer ≤ x.

Proof : Let p be any prime number .Then for some x< , n = px implies
log n =x log p . Then [x] = [ log n
log p ] is largest integer power of p for which
p[x] < n .
Suppose {A1 , A2 , A3 , ....An } is a set of positive integers where Ai = py1i1 py2i2 ....pyαiα
∀i1(1)n ,where pi ’s are primes . Here Ai is written by Fundamental the-
orem of arithmetic .
As [A1 , A2 , A3 , ....An ] can be expressed as pm 1 m2 mα
1 p2 ...pα .
where, mj = max{yi1 ; i = 1, 2, 3, ....n}
h i
log n
In a special case where Ai = i ;then mj = log pj

Hence log n
p[ log p ]
Y
dn = [A1 , A2 , A3 , ....An ] =
p≤n

2. Definition : π(n) = number of primes ≤ n .It is an arithmetic function

which is also known as prime counting function .
Now Prime number theorem gives us π(n) ≈ logn n as n → ∞
log n log n
Now from 1. , dn = p≤n p[ log p ] ≤ p≤n p log p
Q Q

log n
Now let p log p = x

13
 =⇒ ( log n
log p ) log p = log x
=⇒ log n = log x =⇒ n = x
Then Y n
dn ≤ n = nπ(n) ≈ n log n = en
p≤n

=⇒ dn ≈ en

Now the above result can be more generalized as dn ≤ en(1+) where  > 0
.
Point to be noted that it can also be shown that dn < 3n for sufficiently
large n . Further recent research shows that 2n < dn < 4n ∀n > 6 (B.Sury
, 2019 )

• Proof of first claim : dn < 3n

From prime number theorem we know π(n) ≈ logn n . Since it is asymptotic

relation , its better workable version is as follows ∃ N  Z + such that
∀n > N ,
n εn
π(n) < +
log n log n
for a given ε > 0.
Choosing, ε = log 3 − 1 > 0,then ∃N 0 Z + such that π(n) < n
log n +
(log 3−1)n n log 3
log n = log n ∀ n¿N’
n log 3
Thus, nπ(n) < n log n .
n log 3
Let x = n log n =⇒ log x = ( nlog
log 3
n ) log n = n log 3 =⇒ x = 3
n

which implies nπ(n) < 3n =⇒ dn < 3n for sufficiently large n .

3. ordp (n) : It is defined as the highest power of prime p that divides any
given n .It is uniquely determined .
i.e. Let p be a prime . If pγ |n but pγ+1 doesn’t divide n , then ordp (n) = γ
,where nN .
Since pγ |n, =⇒ n = pγ m for some m  N
Properties :
• ordp ( ab ) = ordp (a) − ordp (b) ∀a, b  N
• ordp (ab) = ordp (a) + ordp (b)
• ordp (mk ) = kordp (m) where k  Z\{0} (since by definition ordp (1) =
0)

14
 • If m,n  Z \ {0} such that m—n ,then for any prime p we have
ordp (m) ≤ ordp (n) .
Proof (2) : Let ordp (a) = α, ordp (b) = β.
Then a = pα m, b = pβ n where m,n  N . Now ab = pα+β mn = pα+β k
where mn=k .
=⇒ ordp (ab) = α + β = ordp (a) + ordp (b)
The next property (3) follows from the now proved result with in-
duction .
Proof (4) : Since, m|n ∃ k  N such that n=mk
=⇒ ordp (n) = ordp (m) + ordp (k)
Clearly, ordp (m) ≤ ordp (n)
log n
• Since we have already proved that d = p[ log p ]
Q
n p≤n
From the definition of ordp (n) ,it is easy to see that
 
log n
ordp [1, 2, 3, .....n] = ordp (dn ) =
log p
 
• ordp m n n! n!



= ordp m!(n−m)! ≤ ordp m! = ordp (n!) − ordp (m!)
n


=⇒ ordp m ≤ ordp (dn ) − ordp (m) (by using above mentioned prop-
erties )
n


h log n i
=⇒ ordp m ≤ log p − ordp (m)

4. Definition : Λ(n) = Von-Malgoldt function which is an important arith-

metic function that is neither additive nor multiplicative. It is defined by
Λ(n) = log p ,if n = pm for some m ≥ 1 , = 0 , otherwise .

• ψ(n) = Summatory Von-Malgoldt P function or also called as 2nd func-

tion .It is defined by ψ(n) = x≤n Λ(x)
P
which is equivalently expressed as ψ(n) = p≤n mp (n) log p , where
p is prime .
Here mp (n) is largest integer such that pmp (n) ≤ n .Then,
X  log n 
ψ(n) = log p
log p
p≤n

log n
As we know , dn = p≤n p[ log p ]
Q

Taking log at both sides ,

 
log n
p[ ]
Y
log(dn ) = log[1, 2, 3, ..., n] = log  log p

p≤n

log n X  log n 
log p[ log p ] =
X
=⇒ log(dn ) = log p = ψ(n)
log p
p≤n p≤n

15
 Now
X  log n  X
ψ(n) ≤ log p ≤ log n ≤ π(n) log n
log p
p≤n p≤n

By prime number theorem ,ψ(n) ≈ ( logn n ) log n

Then ψ(n) ≈ n as n → ∞
It can also be proved that,
ψ(n) log[1, 2, 3, ...n]
lim = lim =1
n→∞ n n→∞ n
This existence of limit is quite deep that includes mellin transform
of ψ(n) and derivative of ζ(s) .
• Von-Malgoldt function satisfies the relation
X
log n = Λ(d)
d|n

αk
Proof : n = pα 1 α2 0
1 p2 ....pk where pi s are primes with αi ≤ 0 ∀i  1(1)k
.
Now all pi ’s and their powers with combination are divisors of n
together . But from the definition of Λ(n) ,it can easily be seen that
if a divisor d = p1 , p21 , p31 , ...., pα
1 ,in all these cases Λ(d) = log p1
1

which appears α1 times .

Similarly logp2 appears α2 times and so on ...log pk appears αk times
,when evaluated for d = pα i |n ∀i  1(1)k .
i

i αj
And rest all divisors of type pα i pj results zero .
Then,
X αk
Λ(d) = α1 log p1 +α2 log p2 +.....+αk log pk = log (pα 1 α2
1 p2 .....pk ) = log n
d|n

5. Dirichlet Approximation theorem : Given ξ  < and n  Z + .If ξ is

irrational ,then there exists an infinite set of integers p,q where 0 <q ≤ n
such that |ξ − pq | ≤ q12 .
Proof :
We know x = [x] + {x} for any x  < , where [x] is integral part of x and
{x} is fractional part of x .
Let Q ¿1 be an fixed integer. Now considering Q+1 numbers which are
0, {ξ}, {2ξ}, ...., {Qξ} and Q intervals [ Qi , i+1
Q ] where i= 0(1) Q-1 (i.e. Ba-
sically it is breaking [0,1] into Q intervals ).
j j+1
Hence , ∃ an interval say, [ Q , Q ] containing two of these Q+1 numbers
by pigeonhole principle ,say, aξ, bξ with 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ Q .
1
Hence, |bξ − aξ| ≤ Q

16
 Now bξ = β + {bξ} and aξ = α + {aξ} where α, β  Z .
Then, {bξ} − {aξ} = α − β + (b − a)ξ
Putting,q = (b − a) ,so 0 ≤ q ≤ Q and p =α − β ;then
|qξ − p| ≤ |qξ| ≤ 1
Q =⇒ |ξ − pq | ≤ 1
qQ ≤ 1
q2 as 0 < q ≤ Q
which is true for any Q .
General theorem :
A real number ξ is irrational ,if there exists a δ > 0 and infinitely p,q  Z
with gcd(p,q )=1 such that |ξ − pq | ≤ q1+δ
1
.

2.2 Crux of the story

Define a double sequence :
n k
X 1 X (−1)m−1
cn,k = 3
+ n n+m



m=1
m m=1
2m3 m m

• Lemma 1 : 2cn,k n+k Z Z Z Z

k Z+ 23 + 33 + ..... + n3 = [1,2,3,....n]3
Proof :
To prove this lemma it suffices to show that 2cn,k n+k

3
k [1, 2, 3, ..., n]  Z
n+k
3


or 2dn cn,k k  Z . And to show this we need to prove
  
3 n+k
ordp 2dn cn,k ≥0
k

where p is any prime and it further implies

!
d3n n+k
k
ordp n n+m


≥0
m3 m m

(i.e. this above conditions come from the fact that for a prime p and n
 Z \{0}, p|n iff ordp (n) ≥ 0 ) and thus eventually it implies the desired
number is actually an integer .
(n+m
m )
k
(m )
Proof : Firstly, we observe n+k = n+k
( k ) (m+n)
(n+m
m )
k
(m )
Since, n+k = (m+n)!
n!m!
k!n!
(n+k)!
(n+m)! k!(k−m)!
= (k−m)!m! (n+k)! = n+k
( k ) (m+n)
 3 n n+m   3 n k 
m (m)( m ) m (m)(m)
Then, ordp n+k = ordp n+k
( k ) (m+n )
 3 n n+m 
m (m)( m ) n

k

n+k


=⇒ ordp n+k = ordp (m3 ) + ordp m + ordp m − ordp m+n
( k )

17
  3 n n+m 
m (m)( m ) n

k


=⇒ ordp n+k ≤ ordp (m3 ) + ordp m + ordp m ≤ 3ordp (m) +
( k )
h i h i h i h i
log n log k log n log k
log p + log p − 2ordp (m) = ordp (m) + log p + log p ........(1)
h i h i
Since, dk |dn ( as, k ≤ n) =⇒ ordp (dk ) ≤ ordp (n) =⇒ log k log n
log p ≤ log p
.......(2)
 n

m3 (m )(n+m
m )
h i
log n
Using (1) and (2) we get , ordp ≤ ordp (m) + 2
(n+k
k )
log p
 3 n n+m 
m (m)( m )
=⇒ −ordp ≥ −2ordp (dn ) − ordp (m)
(n+k
k )
 3 n n+m 
m (m)( m )
=⇒ ordp (d3n ) − ordp ≥ ordp (dn ) − ordp (m)
(n+k
k )
 3 n+k 
d ( )
=⇒ ordp m3 nn kn+m ≥0
(m)( m )
=⇒ 2d3n cn,k n+k


k Z
• Lemma 2 : cn,k → ζ(3) as n → ∞ uniformly on k (k ≤ n) .
Proof :  
P∞ (−1)m−1
Pn 1 1
Pk 
|cn,k − ζ(3)| =  m=1 m3 − m=1 m3 + m=1 2m3 n n+m 

(m)( m )
 
 P∞ Pk m−1
=⇒ |cn,k − ζ(3)| = − m=n+1 m13 + m=1 2m(−1)


3 n n+m 
(m)( m )
 
P∞  Pk m−1
=⇒ |cn,k − ζ(3)| ≤  m=n+1 m13  +  m=1 2m(−1)


3 n n+m 
(m)( m )
P∞
Now, the above first sum of right of inequality is convergent as m=n+1 m13 <
P∞ 1
m=1 m3 ( p series test )
P∞
Hence, ∀n > N1 , | m=n+1 m13 | <  where  > 0
Pk m−1 Pk
Nextly, | m=1 2m(−1)3 n
| ≤ m=1 2m3 n1 n+m
(m)(n+m
m ) (m)( m )
n n+m



Now we have to find the minimum value of 2m3 m m , so that recip-
rocal of that will be maxximum value of 2m3 n1 n+m .
(m)( m )
Here, m ≤ k ≤ n .
Case-1 m ≤ n2 , m ≥ 1
n
and n+m



Since, m m is increasing from m=1 ,so smallest value of that
n n+m n n+1





2m3 m m is 2.1. 1 1 = 2n(n + 1) .
n
Case-2 m ≥ 2,m ≥1
n


Now smallest value of m happens when n=m ,being 1 . Smallest value of
m3 occurs at m = [ n2 ] ,as m as m3 is increasing in nature . And smallest
value of m+n occurs at m = [ n2 ] .


m

18
 n n+m n+[ n
2]
≥ 2[ n2 ]3 .1.




Thus, 2m3 m m [n ]
2
n
Since, m ≥ and m ≥ 1,then n2 ≥ 1 =⇒ [ n2 ] = 1 ∀n ≥ 2
2
n

h 3i
n3
Then, n+[ 2] n+1 n


n
[2]
≥ 1 = n + 1 and for n ≥ 3, 8 > n =⇒ 8 > [n] = n.
n n+m



Hence, for n ≥ 3 , smallest value of 2m3 m m is 2n(n + 1) .
3 n n+m 1 1



Then, 2m m m ≥ 2n(n + 1) =⇒ 2m3 n n+m ≤ 2n(n+1)
(m)( m )
Then,
k k
X 1 X 1 k n 1 1
=⇒ n n+m ≤ = ≤ ≤ ≤



m=1
2m3 m m m=1
2n(n + 1) 2n(n + 1) 2n(n + 1) 2(n + 1) 2n

Pk (−1)m−1 1 1
Hence, | m=1 2m3 ( n )(n+m) | ≤ 2n <∀n> 2 = N2
m m

Let,N = max{N1 , N2 }. Then for n > N , we have |cn,k − ζ(3)| < 2 = 0

(say)
Since, the convergence is independent of k ; so the convergence is uniform
.
But the point is that cn,k is not sufficiently fast converging to ζ(3) to prove
its irrationality . It has very large denominator relative to its closeness to
ζ(3).
• Lemma 3 :
If xn,k and yn,k are real numbers with yn,k converges to a limit L , then
Pn
k=0 xn,k yn,k
P n →L
k=0 xn,k

Proof : As yn,k converges to a limit L, then for given ε > 0 ∃N such that
|yn,k − L| < ε ∀n > N ∀k
Then, |yn,k − yn,0 | = |(yn,k − L) + (L − yn,0 )| ≤ |yn,k − L| + |yn,0 − L| < 2ε
=⇒ yn,0 − 2ε < yn,k < yn,0 + 2ε
Pn Pn
k=0 xn,k yn,k x (y
Pnn,k n,0
+2ε)
Then, P n < k=0
= yn,0 + 2ε
k=0 xn,k k=0 xn,k
Pn
k=0 xn,k yn,k
Similarly we get, yn,0 − 2ε < P n
k=0 xn,k
Pn
x y
Combining this , yn,0 − 2ε < Pn n,k n,k
k=0
< yn,0 + 2ε
k=0 xn,k

So, ∃N 0  N such that for ε > 0 |yn,0 − L| < ε ∀n > N 0

=⇒ L − ε < yn,0 < L +ε .
Pn
k=0 xn,k yn,k
Then,L − 3ε < P n < L + 3ε
k=0 xn,k

19
 Let, n0 = max{N, N 0 } . Then,
Pn
0 k=0 xn,k yn,k
L−ε < P n < L + ε0
k=0 xn,k

∀n > n0 where ε0 = 3ε.

Hence, the lemma follows.
• Lemma 4 :
Pn n 2 n+k 2 Pn n 2 n+k 2





Define : an = k=0 k k cn,k ; bn = k=0 k k
Pn 1
Pk (−1)m−1
where, cn,k = m=1 m3 + m=1 2m3 ( n )(n+m) .
m m

Then, an , bn satisfy the following relation :

n3 un + (n − 1)3 un−2 = (34n3 − 51n2 + 27n − 5)un−1 ∀n ≥ 2 .
Proof :
Step 1 :
Let us define a sequence,
 2  2
n n+k
Bn,k = 4(2n + 1)[k(2k + 1) − (2n + 1)2 ]
k k

First of all let us prove the following propositions :

P1. nk = n−1


n
k n−k
n n+1 n−k+1



P2. k = k ( n+1 )
P3. n+k

n+k n+k−1

k = n k
n+k n+1 n+k+1



P4. k = n+k+1 k

P5. nk = n−k+1 n



k k−1

P6. n+k

n+k n+k−1

k = k k−1
Proof :
n(n−1)!
P1. nk = k!(n−k)!
n!
= n−1


n
= k!(n−k)(n−k−1)! k n−k
n n! (n+1)n!(n−k+1) n+1
= (n+1)k!(n−k)!(n−k+1) = n−k+1



P2. k = k!(n−k)! n+1 k

(n+k)!
P3. n+k = n!k! = (n+k)(n+k−1)! = n+k n+k−1


k n(n−1)!k! n k

(n+k)!
P4. n+k = n!k! = (n+k)!(n+k+1) (n+1)(n+k+1)! n+k+1

n+1
k (n+k+1)n!k! = (n+k+1)(n+1)!k! = k n+k+1
n n! n!(n−k+1) n
= k(k−1)!(n−k+1)! = n−k+1



P5. k = k!(n−k)! k k−1
n+k

(n+k)! (n+k)(n+k−1)! n+k n+k−1


P6. k = n!k! = k(k−1)!n! = k k−1

2
2
Now, Bn,k − Bn,k−1 = 4(2n + 1)[{k(2k + 1) − (2n + 1)2 } nk n+k k − {(k −
n 2 n+k−1 2
2



1)(2k − 1) − (2n + 1) } k−1 k−1 ]

20
Using, P5 and P6 we get
n 2 n+k 2



Bn,k −Bn,k−1 = 4(2n+1)[{k(2k +1)−(4n2 +4n+1)} k k −{(2k 2 −
n+k 2

2 k2 k2
3k + 1 − 4n2 − 4n − 1)} nk (n−k+1)


2 (n+k)2 k ]
=⇒ Bn,k − Bn,k−1 = (8n + 4){(2k 2 + k − 4n2 − 4n − 1) − (2k 2 − 3k − 4n2 −
k4 n 2 n+k 2



4n) (n+k)2 (n−k+1) 2} k k
And then using P1,P2,P3,P4 we get,

2 n+1+k
2
2 n+k 2
Bn,k −Bn,k−1 = (n+1)3 n+1 −(34n3 +51n2 +27n+5) nk


k k k +

2 n−1+k
2
n3 n−1
k k
Step 2 :
Pn 1
Pk (−1)m−1
We know, cn,k = m=1 m3 + m=1 2m3 ( n )(n+m)
m m

1
Pk (−1)m−1 Pk (−1)m−1
Then, cn,k − cn−1,k = n3 + m=1 2m3 ( n )(n+m) − m=1 2m3 (n−1)(n−1+m)
m m m m
h i
1
Pk (−1)m−1 (m!)2 (n−m)! (m!)2 (n−1−m)!
=⇒ cn,k − cn−1,k = n3 + m=1 2m3 (n+m)! − (n−1+m)!
h i
1
Pk (−1)m−1 (m!)2 (n−m−1)! n−m
=⇒ cn,k − cn−1,k = n3 + m=1 2m3 (n+m−1)! n+m −1
1
Pk (−1)m m2 ((m−1)!)2 (n−m−1)! 1
Pk (−1)m ((m−1)!)2 (n−m−1)!
=⇒ cn,k −cn−1,k = n3 m=1 m2 (n+m)! = n3 + m=1 (n+m)!
Now,
(−1)m ((m−1)!)2 (n−m−1)! (−1)m ((m−1)!)2 (n−m−1)!(m2 +n2 −m2 )
(n+m)! = n2 (n+m)!
(−1)m (m!)2 (n−m−1)! (−1)m−1 (n−m)!((m−1)!)2
⇔ n2 (n+m)! − n2 (n+m−1)! = Am+1 − Am
m−1 2
where, Am = (−1) n2((m−1)!)
(n+m−1)!
(n−m)!

Pk
Then, m=1 (Am+1 − Am ) = (A2 − A1 ) + (A3 − A2 ) + .... + (Ak+1 − Ak ) =
(−1)k (k!)2 (n−k−1)! 1
Ak+1 − A1 = n2 (n+k)! − n3
Therefore,
(−1)k (k!)2 (n − k − 1)!
cn,k − cn−1,k =
n2 (n + k)!
Pn n 2 n+k 2 Pn



Step-3 : We know, bn = k=0 k k = k=0 bn,k

2
2
where, bn,k = nk n+k
k
We have to say that bn,k satisfies the recursive relation .
From earlier (step 1) we have, Bn,k −Bn,k−1 = (n+1)3 bn+1,k −P (n)bn,k +
n3 bn−1,k := Gn,k (say)
where, P (n) = 34n3 − 51n2 − 27n − 5
So, Bn,k = Gn,k + Bn,k−1 = Gn,k + Gn,k−1 + Bn,k−2 = Gn,k + Gn,k−1 +
Pk
Gn,k−2 + Bn,k−3 + ..... = i=0 Gn,i

21
Then,

n+1
X n+1
X
(n + 1)3 bn+1,i − P (n)bn,i + n3 bn−1,i


Bn,n+1 = Gn,i =
i−0 i=0

3
Pn+1 Pn+1 Pn+1
= (n + 1) i=0 bn+1,i − P (n) i=0 bn,i + n3 i=0 bn−1,i
But, bn,n+1 = 0, bn−1,n = 0, bn−1,n+1 = 0 by definition of bn .
Then, Bn,n+1 = (n + 1)3 bn+1 − P (n)bn + n3 bn−1
But,Bn,r = 0 where r > n .

=⇒ (n + 1)3 bn+1 − P (n)bn + n3 bn−1 = 0

Hence, bn satisfies the recurrence relation .

Step-4 :
n 2 n+k 2



Since, k k = bn,k .
Pn
Then, an = k=0 bn,k cn,k
This can be shown that ,(Bn,k − Bn,k−1 )cn,k + (n + 1)3 bn−1,k (cn−1,k −
cn,k ) − n3 bn−1,k (cn,k − cn−1,k ) = An,k − An,k−1
k
where, An,k = Bn,k cn,k + 5(2n+1)(−1)
n(n+1)
k n
n+k

k k

Noe we already know, n3 un +(n−1)3 un−2 = (34n3 −51n2 +27n−5)un−1 =

0 is equivalent to
(n + 1)3 un+1 + n3 un−1 − P (n)un = 0
Substituting, an in place of un ,
Pn Pn Pn
(n+1)3 k=0 bn+1,k cn+1,k −P (n) k=0 bn,k cn,k +n3 k=0 bn−1,k cn−1,k =
0......(1)
this is to be proved.
Now from step 1, Bn,k − Bn,k−1 = (n + 1)3 bn+1,k − P (n)bn,k + n3 bn−1,k
=⇒ −P (n)bn,k cn,k = (Bn,k −Bn,k−1 )cn,k −(n+1)3 bn+1,k cn,k −n3 bn−1,k cn,k
Substituting it in the expression (1),
Pn+1 3 3
k=0 {(n + 1) bn+1,k cn+1,k + (Bn,k − Bn,k−1 )cn,k − (n + 1) bn+1,k cn,k −
3 3
n bn−1,k cn,k + n bn−1,k cn−1,k }
Pn+1
= k=0 {(n+1)3 bn+1,k (cn+1,k −cn,k )+(Bn,k −Bn,k−1 )cn,k +n3 bn−1,k (cn−1,k −
cn,k )}
From previous result, this above expression in bracket is An,k − An,k−1 .
Then,
n+1
X
(An,k −An,k−1 ) = An,0 −An,−1 +An,1 −An,0 +An,2 −An,1 +.....+An,n+1 −An,n
k=0

22
 Pn+1
=⇒ k=0 (An,k − An,k−1 ) = An,n+1 − An,−1
Now, from the definition of An,k ,it is clear that An,n+1 = 0 since,
n


Bn,n+1 = 0 and n+1 =0.
Similarly, An,−1 = 0
Thus eventually an satisfies the recurrence relation n3 un + (n − 1)3 un−2 =
P (n)un−1 .
• Lemma 5 :
an , bn satisfy the above relation n3 un + (n − 1)3 un−2 = P (n)un−1 ∀n ≥ 2
where P (n) = 34n3 − 51n2 + 27n − 5 . Then,
6
an bn−1 − an−1 bn =
n3

Proof :
As, an , bn satisfy the relation then,
n3 an + (n − 1)3 an−2 = P (n)an−1
n3 bn + (n − 1)3 bn−2 = P (n)bn−1
Now multiplying 1st equation by bn−1 and 2nd equation by an−1 ,then
subtracting
n3 (an bn−1 − bn an−1 ) = (n − 1)3 (an−1 bn−2 − an−2 bn−1 )
Then, (an bn−1 −bn an−1 ) = ( n−1 3 n−1 3 n−2 3
n ) (an−1 bn−2 −an−2 bn−1 ) = ( n ) ( n−1 ) (an−2 bn−3 −
an−3 bn−2 )
=⇒ (an bn−1 − bn an−1 ) = ( n−1 3 n−2 3 n−3 3
n ) ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) (an−3 bn−4 − an−4 bn−3 ) =
....
... = ( n−(n−1)
n )3 (a1 b0 − a0 b1 ) = 1
n3 (a1 b0 − a0 b1 )
Plugging, n = 0, n = 1 in definition of an , bn ,
a0 = 0, a1 = 6, b0 = 1, b1 = 5
Hence, a1 b0 − a0 b1 = 6
6
Thus, an bn−1 − bn an−1 = n3

• Lemma 6: an
bn → ζ(3) as n → ∞
Proof :
Using, Lemma 2 we know cn,k → ζ(3)
Pn Pn
And by Lemma 4 we have, an = k=0 bn,k cn,k and bn = k=0 bn,k
And lastly using Lemma 3, we get
Pn
an k=0 bn,k cn,k
= P n → ζ(3)
bn k=0 bn,k
as n → ∞

23
• Lemma 7:
6
If an bn−1 − an−1 bn = n3 ,then
∞
an X 6
ζ(3) − = 3
bn k bk bk−1
k=n+1

an an−1 an bn−1 −bn an−1 6

Proof : Observe that, bn − bn−1 = bn bn−1 = n3 (bn bn−1 ) using
lemma 5 .
an+1 an an+1 bn −an bn+1 6
bn+1 − bn = bn bn+1 = (n+1)3 bn bn+1 and so on ...
an
Let, ζ(3) − bn = xn ∀n
an+1 an 6
Now, xn − xn+1 = bn+1 − bn = (n+1)3 bn bn+1
an 6
=⇒ ζ(3) − bn = xn = (n+1)3 bn bn+1 + xn+1
and proceeding in this way ,we get
ζ(3)− abnn = 6
(n+1)3 bn bn+1 + (n+2)3 b6n+1 bn+2 +....+ (n+m)3 bn+m
6
bn+m−1 +xn+m
an Pn+m 6
Then, ζ(3) − bn = k=n+1 k3 bk−1 bk + xn+m
an
Since, bn → ζ(3) as n → ∞
an
=⇒ ζ(3) − bn → 0 as n → ∞
So eventually, xn+m → 0 as n → ∞
Hence, we get,
∞
an X 6
|ζ(3) − |=
bn k 3 bk bk−1
k=n+1

• Final Theorem : ζ(3) is irrational.

Proof :
an P∞ 6
From previous result, |ζ(3) − bn | = k=n+1 k3 bk bk−1
an
So here we have, ζ(3) − bn = O(b−2
n )

As we’ve already seen that bn satisfies the relation .So, n3 bn +(n−1)3 bn−2 −
(34n3 − 51n2 + 27n − 5)bn−1 = 0
This can be written as bn + (1 − n1 )3 bn−2 − (34 − 51
n + 27
n2 − 5
n3 )bn−1 =0
∀n ≥ 2
Now, as n → ∞ , the above equation reduces to bn + bn−2 − 34bn−1 → 0
Though this is not for all n ,but we can say
bn = 34bn−1 − bn−2 for sufficiently large n .
Now to find the general form of bn , let us consider the equation ,

24
 ∞
X ∞
X
B(x) = bn xn = b0 + b1 x + bn x n
n=0 n=2

∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
=⇒ B(x) = b0 +b1 x+ (34bn−1 −bn−2 )xn = 1+5x+34x bn−1 xn−1 −x2 bn−2 xn−2
n=2 n=2 n=2
2
=⇒ B(x) = 1 + 5x + 34x(B(x) − 1) − x B(x)
=⇒ (1 − 34x + x2 )B(x) = 1 + 5x − 34x = 1 − 29x
1 − 29x
=⇒ B(x) =
x2 − 34x + 1
2
√ √
√ 4of x −√34x4 + 1 = 0 are 17 + 2 2, 17 − 2 2 ; which are equal
Now, roots
to (1 + 2) , (1 − 2)
√ √
Let, α = (1 + 2)4 , β = (1 − 2)4 .
Then, x2 − 34x + 1 = (x − α)(x − β) where, αβ = 1.
1−29x A D
Therefore, B(x) = (x−α)(x−β) = (x−β) + (x−α) (say)
So, A(x − α) + D(x − β) = 1 − 29x
=⇒ A + D = −29; Aα + Dβ = −1
29β−1 1−29α
Solving this , A = α−β ; D = α−β
Hence,
   
29β−1 1 1−29α 1
B(x) = α−β x−β + α−β x−α
   
29β−1 −1 1−29α −1
=⇒ B(x) = α−β x
β(1− β ) + α−β x
α(1− α )
   
1−29β
=⇒ B(x) = β(α−β) (1 − βx )−1 +
(1 − αx )−1 29α−1
α(α−β)
   
1−29β
=⇒ B(x) = β(α−β) (1 − xα)−1 + α(α−β)
29α−1
(1 − xβ)−1
   
1−29β 29α−1
= β(α−β) (1 + xα + x2 α2 + ...) + α(α−β) (1 + xβ + x2 β 2 + ...)
 P  P
1−29β ∞ n 29α−1 ∞ n
=⇒ B(x) = β(α−β) n=0 (xα) + α(α−β) n=0 (xβ)

∞     
X 1 − 29β n 29α − 1
=⇒ B(x) = α + β n xn
n=0
β(α − β) α(α − β)
P∞ n
Now comparing the coefficients of it and n=0 bn x we get,
   
1 − 29β 29α − 1
bn = αn + βn
β(α − β) α(α − β)

25
 √
Observing β = (1 − 2)4 =⇒ |β| < 1
which implies β n → 0 as n → ∞
 
1−29β
Hence, bn = β(α−β) αn as n → ∞
 
1−29β
which can be written as |bn | ≤ Kαn where, K = β(α−β) ( constant)
=⇒ bn = O(αn ) for sufficiently large n .
Earlier we have proved that an ’s are basically rationals (due

3 to rationality
of cn,k ) with denominator dividing d3n ,since 2cn,k n+k
k dn  Z .
pn
We define two new sequences pn , qn in such a way that ζ(3) → qn as
n→∞
Define : pn = 2d3n an ; qn = 2d3n bn where pn , qn , bn  Z
Since, bn = O(αn ) and dn ≈ en
We have qn = O(αn e3n )
Now
pn 2d3 an an
ζ(3) − = ζ(3) − n3 = ζ(3) − = O(b−2
n ) = O(α
−2n
)
qn 2dn bn bn

Finally by using Dirichlet’s Approximation theorem to prove irrationality

of ζ(3) , we have to find that δ > 0 in such a way that
pn  
ζ(3) − = O qn−(1+δ)
qn
 
−(1+δ)
Therefore, O(α−2n ) = O qn = O(αn e3n )−(1+δ)

=⇒ α−2n = (αn e3n )−(1+δ) = (αe3 )−n(1+δ)

=⇒ α−2 = α−(1+δ) e−3(1+δ)
=⇒ α−1+δ = e−3(1+δ)
=⇒ (−1 + δ)logα = −3(1 + δ)
3(1+δ)
=⇒ logα = (1−δ)
logα+3 2 1
=⇒ logα−3 = 2δ = δ
logα−3
=⇒ δ = logα+3 = 0.080.. > 0
Hence, for this δ(= 0.080...) > 0, we have
 
ζ(3) − pn  ≤ 1
 
 qn  qn1+δ

This implies ζ(3) is irrational . (Q.E.D.)

26
3 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude to IIT Indore for giving me this opportunity
amidst this crucial time. I personally would like thank Dr. Bibekananda Maji
for being such a good mentor; without his constant support and motivation
this internship can’t be completed. I learn a lot from him even in his packed
schedule.I also want to mention my junior Maitreyo with whom I did this . His
assistantship was so fruitful till last day .

REFERENCES

• Journals :
[1] A proof that Euler missed...Apery’s proof ;An informal report ,Alfred
Van der Poorten,1978
[2] The Irrationality of ζ(2) and ζ(3) , Victor Legge, Masters thesis, San
Jose University ,2001 .
[3] The Irrationality of ζ(3) , Sneha Chaubey, Msc Thesis, NISER,2012
[4] Applications of order functions,Lecture notes, CSUSM, Spring , Prof.
Wayne Aitken .
[5] The value of the zeta function at an odd argument ,Badih Ghusayni
,International Journal of Mathematics and Computer science , 2009
[6] Some families of rapidly convergent series representations of Zeta func-
tion, H.M.Srivastava ,Taiwanese Journal of Mathematics ,2000 .
[7] Sums of Certain Series of the Riemann Zeta Function, H.M.Srivastava,
Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications ,1986
[8] Fractional parts and their relation to the values of Riemann Zeta func-
tion, Ibrahim Alabdulmohsin, Arabian Journal of Mathematics ,2017
[9] Lower bound for the Least common multiple , B.Sury ,The American
Mathematical Monthly, 2019
• Books :
[1] Complex variables and applications, Brown and Churchill .
[2] PNT and Von Malgoldt function , Chapter 7 from an anonymous book
(taken from internet)

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