Respiratory system

Notes compiled by- Ms. Elizabeth K.

Definition- The exchange of gases (CO2 & O2) between the atmosphere & tissue is known as
respiration. It involves the exchange of gases between the blood & the lungs i.e external respiration
& exchange between blood & cells of the body i.e internal respiration,

1.ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT

 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs

Respiratory tract diag.

The respiratory tract can be divided into 2 parts- upper respiratory tract & lower respiratory tract.
The upper respiratory tract is made up of- Nose & pharynx. The lower respiratory system consists of
larynx, trachea, bronchi & lungs.

Nose: Nasal openings/nostrils/external nares are used for drawing in air. Both these openings lead
upto the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity consists of a large irregular cavity divided into 2 equal
passages/chambers by the nasal septum. Posteriorly the nasal chambers are not smooth, but have 3
bony ridges present. These ridges are known as superior conchae, middle conchae & inferior
conchae. They serve the purpose of increasing the internal surface area so that passing air gets more
area to come in contact with the lining & also prevent dehydration by trapping water droplets during
exhalation. The nose is lined with very vascular, ciliated columnar epithelium which contains mucous
secreting cells. The special functions of the nose are- a) Filtering & cleaning of air- The small hairs
trap large particles. Dust & microbes settle & adhere to the mucous, so that clean air reaches into
the lungs. b) Warming- Due to the large number of blood capillaries present in the nose, the air that
passes over the nasal lining gets warmed up. This warm air then passes into the lungs & does not
cause any fluctuations in internal body temperature. c) Humidification- Air travelling over the moist
mucosa becomes saturated with water vapour. This prevents drying of the internal respiratory
surfaces. d) Olfaction- Nose is the organ of the sense of smell.

Diag. of Nose

Pharynx- The pharynx or throat is a tube 12-14cm long . It participates in both respiration & intake
of food. It can be divided into 3 regions- nasopharynx, oropharynx & laryngopharynx. The
nasopharynx lies posterior to the nasal cavity & extends upto the soft palate. It has openings that
lead into auditory tubes or Eustachian tube & exchanges small amounts of air to equalize air
pressure in the middle ear. The oropharynx is the middle portion of the pharynx & lies posterior to
the oral cavity. It serves as a common passage way for air, food & drink. It has the pair of tonsils
situated here. The laryngopharynx is the inferior part of the pharynx. At the bottom it opens into the
oesophagus posteriorly & the larynx anteriorly. The pharynx has mucosa, fibrous tissue & muscle
tissue layers. It acts as passageway for air & food, helps in taste, hearing etc.

Diag. showing pharynx

Larynx: The larynx or ‘voice box’ is a short passageway that connects the laryngopharynx with the
trachea. The wall of the larynx is composed of several irregularly shaped cartilages attached to each
other by ligaments & membranes. They are 1 thyroid cartilage, 1 epiglottis, 1 cricoid cartilage, 2
arytenoid cartilages, 2 cuneiform cartilages & 2 corniculate cartilages. The thyroid cartilage is the
most prominent & consists of 2 pieces of hyaline cartilage fused to form the Adam’s apple. In males
it is is larger & prominent due to influence of some hormones during puberty. The epiglottis is a leaf-
shaped elastic cartilage lying over the larynx. This flap like structure is like a lid over the glottis &
prevents entry of food or water into the larynx during swallowing. Inside, the laryngeal cavity is
provided with vocal cords. When air passes through it, vibrations are caused in the vocal chords
which produce voice or sounds.

Diag. of larynx

Trachea: The trachea or ‘wind pipe’ is a tubular passageway for air that is about 12cm long & 2,5cm
in diameter. It is located anterior to the oesophagus & extends from the larynx upto the bronchi. It is
composed of 16-20 incomplete , horizontal rings of hyaline cartilage which resemble the letter C.
These C-shaped rings lie one on top of each other & are connrcted together by connective tissue.
The open part of each cartilaginous ring faces posteriorly towards the oesophagus. The layers of
tissue that cover the cartilages are an outer fibroelastic layer, middle smooth muscle fibres & inner
epithelium. These layers allow the diameter of the trachea to change slightly during inhalation &
exhalation, thereby maintaining efficient air flow. The solid C-shaped cartilage rings provide a semi-
rigid support so that tracheal walls do not collapse inward & obstruct the air passageway for
breathing.

Bronchi: At the 5th thoracic vertebrae, the trachea divides into 2 primary bronchi- right primary
bronchus which goes into the right lung & left primary bronchus which goes into the left lung. The
right bronchus is wider & shorter than the left bronchus. They are lined by ciliated columnar
epithelium. On entering the lungs, the primary bronchi divide to form the secondary bronchi (one for
each lobe of the lung). The secondary bronchi continue to branch forming tertiary bronchi which
then divide into smaller bronchioles. The bronchioles in turn branch into even smaller tubes called
terminal bronchioles. These then subdivide into microscopic branches called respiratory bronchioles,
which then divide into small alveolar ducts. Around the circumference of alveolar ducts are
numerous alveoli & alveolar sacs. This extensive branching from the trachea onwards resembles an
inverted tree & is commonly referred to as bronchial tree.

(Note- Primary bronchi → Secondary bronchi → Tertiary bronchi → Bronchioles → Terminal

bronchioles → Respiratory bronchiole s→ Alveolar duct → Alveolar sac → Alveoli)
 Diag. of bronchi

Lungs: They are 2 sac like cone shaped organs in the thoracic cavity. They are protected by the rib
cage, sternum & vertebral column. The lungs are separated from each other by the heart & other
structures in the mediastinum, which divides the thoracic cavity into 2 chambers. The lungs have an
apex, base, convex costal surface & concave medial surface. Each lung is enclosed & protected by a
double layered serous membrane called pleura/ pleural membrane. The outer layer called parietal
pleura lines the chest wall & diaphragm. The inner layer called visceral pleura covers the lungs
themselves. Between the 2 pleura is a small space called pleural cavity which contains small amount
of lubricating fluid. This fluid reduces friction between the 2 pleura & allows them to slide over each
other easily during breathing. The right lung is divided into 3 lobes-superior, middle & inferior. The
left lung is made up of 2 unequally sized lobes. The left lung also contains a concavity called cardiac
notch, in which the heart lies. Due to this the left lung is about 10% smaller than the right lung.
Lobes are formed by the presence of fissures in the lungs. Externally, the lungs appear pinkish, soft
& spongy. Internally, they are composed of extensive branching of bronchi & ultimate termination
into alveoli. It also shows presence of connective tissue, blood vessels & nerves. The air sacs or
alveoli are the regions where gaseous exchange takes place& they are surrounded by a network of
fine capillaries of an artery & vein. Thus, they have very thin walls for diffusion of gases. Membrane
of air sacs do not collapse as a thin film of lecithin is present.

Diag. of lungs
Route/ Passage of air in the respiratory tract:

External nares/ nostrils → Nasal chambers → Pharynx (nasopharynx →oropharynx→

laryngopharynx) → trachea→ bronchi ( primary→ secondary→ tertiary)→ Bronchioles (terminal
→respiratory) →Alveolar ducts→ Alveolar sacs →Alveoli .

2. PROCESS OF RESPIRATION:

The process of gas exchange in the body, called respiration has 3 different phases-

1.Mechanism of breathing:

Respiration is a continuous process of our body. Normally, a person breathes about 12 – 18 times in
a minute. (Average is 16 times/min). The mechanism of breathing consists of 3 stages- Inspiration /
Inhalation, Expiration/ Exhalation & Pause.

Inspiration- Breathing in is called inhalation. During inspiration, the dome shaped diaphragm
contracts & becomes flat & the intercostals muscles contract to raise the ribs upwards & outwards.
This results in an increase in the space or volume inside the thoracic cavity. With this, the pressure
inside the lungs falls below external atmospheric pressure. Because of this pressure difference, air
flows from region of high pressure i.e atmosphere to that of lower pressure inside lungs in an
attempt to equalize atmospheric and alveolar air pressures. The process of inspiration is active as it
requires energy for muscle contraction. During normal quiet inhalation, only the diaphragm and the
external intercostals muscles contract. During laboured or forceful inhalation, other accessory
muscles like scalene, pectoralis minor also contract.

Expiration – During expiration or exhalation, the reverse of the above process occurs. The muscles of
the diaphragm and intercostals get relaxed. Due to this the entire rib cage comes back to its normal
position and the diaphragm is raised and dome-shaped again. These movements decrease the space
inside the thoracic cavity. As this occurs pressure inside the lungs exceeds that in the atmospheric
and therefore air is expelled out from the respiratory tract. The lungs still contains some air and are
prevented from complete collapse by the pleura. This process is passive as it doesn’t require
expenditure of energy. During normal quiet exhalation, diaphragm and external intercostals muscle
relax. However during active forceful exhalation, abdominal and internal intercostals contract. Eg.
while playing a wind instrument or exercising.

After expiration, there is a pause before the next cycle begins. Respiration is under the nervous
control of the medulla oblongata.

Diag. for breathing

2. External Respiration - During external or pulmonary respiration, the air which is inhaled during
breathing comes into the alveoli which possess a network of capillaries of arterioles & venules. Each
alveolar wall is only one cell thick & gaseous exchange can easily occur by diffusion. Venous blood
arriving at the lungs has high levels of CO2 & low levels of O2. Carbon dioxide diffuses from venous
blood down its concentration gradient into the alveoli until equilibrium is reached. By the same
process, oxygen diffuses from alveoli of lungs into the blood through the same alveolar capillary
membrane. Oxygen once it enters the blood is taken up by haemoglobin present in RBC’s to form
oxyhaemoglobin. This oxygenated blood returns to the heart by pulmonary vein from where it is
pumped to all parts of the body.

3. Internal Respiration – During internal or tissue respiration, exchange of gases takes place
between blood and cell membranes of the body cells. The blood which reaches the cells is saturated
with oxygen. This oxygen diffuses into the cells while carbon dioxide diffuses out into the blood. The
whole mechanism of gaseous exchange depends upon partial pressure of oxygen and carbondioxide
at the two sides.

3. MEASUREMENT OF LUNG CAPACITY

The apparatus commonly used to measure the volume of air exchanged during breathing and the
respiratory rate is a spirometer or respirometer.

a) Tidal volume (TV) – Tidal volume is the amount of air which is received by the lungs during
the normal course of breathing. This is the amount of air which passes into and out-of the
lungs during each cycle of quiet breathing. Lungs receive about 500 ml of air. Out of these
500 ml, only 350 ml reaches into the alveoli, while the rest remains in the respiratory
 passage like bronchioles, bronchi, trachea. This air which never reaches the air sacs is also
called ‘dead space volume’. Dead space is not involved in spacious exchange as it does not
reach the site of respiratory exchange.
b) Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)- It is the amount of air which can be inhaled with
maximum effort after normal amount has been inhaled or it is the extra volume of air that
can be inhaled into lungs during maximal inspiration. In this way, 2000-3000 ml can be
inhaled by an adult. Example by taking a very deep breath.
c) Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) – It is the reverse of that of IRV i.e. the largest volume of
air which can be expelled from the lungs with maximum effort. About 1000 ml can be
pushed out this way.
d) Residual volume (RV) – This is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after forceful
expiration. It usually amounts to 1500 ml.
e) Vital capacity (VC)- Vital capacity is the sum total of all the air taken in and exhaled out of
the lungs with maximum possible effort.

VC is an important measure of the pulmonary capacity.

VC=IRV+ERV+TV

= 3000+1000+500

= 4500ml

Vital capacity is seen to be higher in athletes, sportsmen, mountain dwellers and

young persons. Smoking drastically reduces the vital capacity of an individual.

f) Total lung capacity (TLC) - It is the total amount of air that can be inhaled with maximum
effort and also includes residual volume. Therefore it varies between 4500 to 6000 ml. It is
the maximum volume of air present in the lungs and respiratory passages after maximum
inspiration.
TLC = (IRV+ERV+TV)+ RV
=VC+RV
=4500+1500
=6000 ml
All pulmonary volumes is 20-25% lesser in women as compared to men.
g) Inspiratory capacity (IC) – This is the amount of air that can be inspired with maximum
effort. It consists of tidal volume and also inspiratory reserve volume.
IC=TV+IRV
=500+3000
=3500 ml
h) Functional residual capacity (FRC) – It is the amount of air remaining in air passages and
alveoli at the end of quiet expiration. Functional residual capacity is calculated by adding
expiratory reserve volume and residual volume
FRC=ERV+RV
=1000+1500
=2500 ml
(Note: Lung capacities are combinations of specific lung volumes.)
(For extra knowledge you can read up on the below topics)

*DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Laryngitis
2. Bronchitis
3. Pneumonia
4. Asthma
5. Lung Cancer
6. Emphysema

*Artificial respiration by ventilator in case of respiratory failure.

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