SET C TYPES OF VALUES

Commercial value.

This refers to anything that has worth in business transaction, especially one that
is marketable and profitable, one that is significant in buying and selling, or mercantile
activities; hence it is important in business or trading. A place, for instance, is said to
have a commercial value because it is so strategically situated that one can put up a
good business on whatever is in demand in the locality. Also, a certain cottage industry
has a commercial value insofar as it gives the residents of the community a viable
source of income.

In short, a thing, a place, or a person may have commercial value, depending

upon the purpose and motive of an individual. And so a book, a piece of stone (e.g.,
gold), a certain species of tree (e.g., narra lumber) or a kind of soil (e.g., garden soil), a
kind of grass (e.g., Bermuda grass), or sand (e.g., white sand) may have commercial
value whenever there is a demand for these.

In the same manner, an individual human being may have a commercial value
even as a profiteer may use him or her for profitable purposes. This sadly happens to
young men and women who are employed for their sexual availability and market ability,
in which they become like other commodities that can be used, misused, abused, and
manipulated; as a result, they become toys or play things and cease to be persons and
human beings. Here lies the conflict between moral value and commercial value. Either
one may sacrifice his sense of morality for commercial considerations, or one may
uphold his sense of propriety at the expense of monetary gains. The distinction spells
out the great difference between a morally upright individual and a corrupt one.

Financial value.

Financial value refers to whatever has monetary or pecuniary significance, or

anything measured or valued in terms of money; hence, it is the "cash" value of a thing,
place, or person. To a large extent, financial value is related to commercial value inso-
far as both are centered on the value of money (monetary value). On the one hand,
commercial value deals primarily with the process, activity, or system of procuring
money, that is, the money-making activity. Financial value, on the other hand, pertains
directly to the money matter involved concerning a thing, a place, or a person.

To illustrate further: inasmuch as one can make money by selling books and
newspapers, they have financial value. Writing a book for commercial purposes has
financial value. Growing fruit bearing trees, like mango, citrus, and lanzones, and hog
raising have financial value. The selling of books and newspapers, the writing of books,
and the growing of fruitbearing trees and hog raising have commercial value; whereas
the books and newspapers, the fruits and pigs themselves have financial value.

Conjugal value.

This is the value of marriage, the relationship between husband and wife. Known
also as matrimonial value, it refers to such spousal meanings that will enhance
connubial relationship. Anything, then, that fosters and deepens a husband-wife re-
lationship has a conjugal value. Fidelity, for instance, is a conjugal value even as it
affirms the commitment of one spouse to the other. Any gesture of concern, love, care,
responsibility, and respect that one does for his/her spouse is an out ward expression of
conjugal value. Saying "I love you, Dad, despite what you have done" or "Mahal kita,
Mama, kabila ng iyong mga sa pagkukulang" (I love you, Mommy, despite your
shortcomings) with all candor and sincerity reflects the value of conjugal love.
 The marriage vow and the marriage contract are not just meaningless words and
a stationary piece of paper, for they embody an inherent conjugal value which couples
are supposed to treasure and pre serve. It goes without saying then that a faithful and
truthful spouse values the conjugal union; whereas the one who maintains a mistress or
a par amour cares less about conjugal value.

Broken homes and shattered families have set aside the value of marriage at the
expense of helpless children who usually become delinquent because of lack of
parental guidance and supervision. Families that value their conjugal union, on the other
hand, are joined together by fidelity, honesty, and integrity that will enable them to
resolve and surmount family problems that may come along. Truly enough, conjugal
value as such remains, but those who mock it and choose to play around will suffer, get
shattered, and frustrated.

Scientific value.

Scientific value refers to anything that has scientific significance. By science is

meant the department of knowledge in which the results of investigation have been
arranged logically and systematically in the form of hypothesis and general laws subject
to verification. In other words, science pertains to knowledge of facts, phenomena, laws,
and proximate causes, gained and verified by exact observation, organized experiment
and ordered thinking.

Anything of scientific worth, then, has something to do with systematic

knowledge in general, or it may be expertness, skill, a proficiency resulting from
knowledge. For examples, we may speak of scientific boxing or scientific basketball
insofar as coaches train their players to follow certain game plays, techniques and
strategies, that have been proven to be effective and fruitful. The invention of the
compass, thermometer, stethoscope, fetoscope, among many others, has far reaching
scientific value, insofar as they are all great contributions to the progress of scientific
knowledge.

Similarly, one's discovery of the cure of a certain disease has scientific and
medical value, insofar as it becomes a significant part of the development of medical
science. The first bone marrow transplantation performed by Dr. H.G. Baylon, a Filipino
hematologist, and the first heart transplantation conducted by Dr. C. Bernard are
scientific landmarks in modern science and technology.

Technological value.

That which pertains to, associated with, produced or affected by technology is

said to have technological worth. By technology is meant that branch of theoretical
knowledge of industry and the industrial arts which involve the application of science
and technical advances in industry, manufacturing, commerce, and the arts. And so
anything that is related to the advancement of technology is technologically valuable,
insofar as it is a contribution to the progress of technological science. Thus, the OHP,
the e-mail, the fax machine, the computer, the internet, the scanner, xerox machine,
calculator, pager, cellphone, etc. have a technological value.

To a large extent, scientific and technological values go hand and hand, precisely
because the advance of science normally involves the advance of technology, and
conversely. Medical scientists, for instance, cannot perform delicate, multiple, and risky
surgical operations (such as heart bypass, heart valve replacement, endarterectomy,
etc.) un less hi-tech instruments and devices are already available for use. This is the
reason why we usually speak of the advance of modern science and technology.
 It can be remarked in this context that man creates technological values, such as
money, cars, TV, cameras, computers, washing and fax machines, electric fans, air
conditioners, etc., which now have value for people.

Ecological value.

Ecology, a.k.a. bionomics, is a biological science that treats of the relations

between organisms and their environment. It is the study of ecosystem which
underscores the interdependence and inter relationships of all things in the world.
Plants, for instance, depend upon animals for carbon dioxide, without which they will
perish. Likewise, animals depend upon plants for oxygen or else they, too, will die.

In the same vein, animals and men need fresh air and clear water for sustenance
and survival. For this reason, the ecological value of clean air and unpolluted water
cannot be taken for granted or underestimated. Forests must be preserved because in
their roots clean water is conserved; besides, their roots keep the soil intact to prevent
erosion when rivers become inundated. We have to take care of our environment so
that we can preserve clean air and water. In short, the conservation of our natural
resources must be given priority for the sake of human survival. It is thus obvious that
ecological value is also a survival value.

In a way, by polluting our environment we are digging our own grave. Nobody
else is to blame but ourselves. We cannot blame it on the stars or fate; nor can we say
it's God's will or kaloob ng Diyos, unless we have already developed a polluted notion of
God, too. It must be borne in mind that if and when we become affected by polluted air
and water and become sick, it is definitely we who will suffer and die, not the stars, fate,
or God. In short, as we mock ecological value and just take it for granted, we are the
ones who will suffer the consequences.

In the light of the foregoing, all undertakings like air pollution control, anti-
pollution campaign and projects, the Clean Air Act, the Anti-Smoke Belching Law, and
ecological engineering, including our own concern for cleanliness in our back yard and
surroundings, have an ecological value. This value undergirds the significance of
biodiversity and unity in diversity in nature for the survival of all living organisms,
including humans.

In discharging wastes or basura, an eco-gar den where biodegradable waste

materials are mixed with soil, water, air and additives which can be used as fertilizers or
soil conditioners, has a far-reaching ecological value; equally ecologically valuable is an
eco-shed or a warehouse where clean recyclables, like cans, metals, glasses, plastics,
rubbers, etc., are stored and can be sold to recycling companies.

Instrumental value.

The distinction between instrumental value and intrinsic value is of paramount

significance in environmental ethics. An object has instrumental value insofar as it is a
means to some other end. One's educational attainment or academic degree, for
instance, has an instrumental value; it is a means towards getting a good and high
paying job. A pencil, ballpoint pen, a piece of chalk, and a blackboard eraser have
instrumental value; a teacher uses them for his writing, teaching, and research.

The instrumentalist camp upholds that nature is a storehouse of resources to be

organized and used by humans and that it has no other value than the value some
people confer on it. It is maintained that non-humans can have only instrumental value,
and so the non-human world contains no intrinsic value at all. The only sources of value
are the evaluative attitudes of humans.
 In making humans the source of all value, the instrumentalist camp is committed
to the view that a world without humans contains nothing of value. In an imaginary
universe where no human mind is present, it is claimed that no one can find any good in
itself. Or, to say the least, without humans the world might have some, but only
insignificant value (John O'Neill 1992).

It can be recalled that the instrumentalist view is in essential points similar to the
subjectivist theory of value which states that without people values have no meaning in
themselves. For this reason, things (or non-humans, according to the instrumentalist) do
not contain or possess any value in themselves.

Intrinsic value.

Contrary to an instrumental value, an object has an intrinsic value if it is an end in

itself (O'Neill 1992). In environmental ethics, it is raised whether or not nature has an
intrinsic value. As expected, environmentalethicians maintain nature's intrinsic value, so
that the well-being of non-human life on earth has value in itself. This value is
independent of any instrumental usefulness for limited human purposes.

In other words, intrinsic value is taken to mean as an objective value, i.e., the
value that an object possesses is independent of the valuation of values. For example,
non-human beings are not simply of value as a means to human ends. To illustrate it:
Nature has an order, a pattern that humans are bound to understand and respect and
preserve. Such an order and vast design in nature has an intrinsic value. This means
then that not all values come from hu mans, that values can exist independently of us.

Contrary to what the instrumentalist and subjectivist camps would like us to

believe, the intrin sic value of nature is not something we bestow. The ecosystem, for
instance, is an intrinsic value in which its preservation is an end in itself. Humans did not
confer this intrinsic value upon nature, inasmuch as it exists independently of human
valuations; in fact, whether or not man admits or recognizes nature's ecosystem, it
nevertheless exists in itself. Whenever humans take the ecological system for granted
and mock it by polluting the air and water, they themselves will suffer for it; and even
when they are dead, the ecosystem stays. It seems clear that the intrinsic value of
nature is not man-made, nor its ecosystem arbitrary.

By way of implication, therefore, the ecological system of nature is an intrinsic

value that must be protected and preserved for the well-being of all in habitants of the
planet earth. This is the necessary key towards survival.

Relative value.

We shall make a distinction here between relative and ultimate value. The last
value in a particular series of values may be called relative. For example, one has to
finish his studies (a proximate value) in order to gain good employment and a se cure
source of income, in which case one's family can enjoy comfort and happiness. Here
the family happiness is the relative value which is the last value in the given series of
values.

Notice that the value of earning a degree and the value of employment are
referred to some ulterior value and that is the value of family happiness. So, an ulterior
value is the one to which other values may be referred; it is that for the sake of which
other values in a given series are undertaken. Hence, in every particular series of
values in a given situation, there is a relative, ulterior value to which other values in said
series are directed.
 This value being only relative may still be referred to other values. That is, the
relative value of family happiness is related to conjugal value, the value of fidelity
between husband and wife, the value of love, the value of unity, value of patience, value
of tolerance, and value of responsibility, among many others. It is not therefore an
enclosed or isolated value but a value in relation to other values. In short, a relative
value is not an end in itself.

Ultimate value.

A value to which one or more values are referred, while it is not itself referred to
any other value is called an ultimate value. An ultimate value is the last value of all
values in a series, so that no further value or meaning can be conceived for which to
tend. In this case, an ultimate value is the final and absolute value that one has to strive
for, which is the culmination of all human struggles and efforts.

Human life being a disturbing question that provokes further questions and there
being no final answers to quench man's thirst for meaning, humans feel an inner need
for grounding, a frame of reference, or an ultimate value. Thus over the years, people of
all climes and races have gradually formulated and conceptualized diverse explanations
that have now taken the many forms of religious beliefs, philosophical theories and
values.

Among these are materialism, hedonism, mightism, Marxism, Hinduism, Taoism,

God-ism (theism), and humanism (Timbreza 2000). The ulti mate values taught by
these views give the believers some feeling of security and certainty. They make them
feel at home in the world.

Advocates of materialism claim that the ultimate value is matter and this is the
only life we have. If only for this reason, we should enjoy life to the fullest for we live
only once. Let's enjoy our family and our material possessions as long as we live for
when we die, everything goes back to matter as if we did not exist at all. The
materialist's value preferences are material values.

For the hedonists, however, sensuous pleasure is the one and only good, hence
the ultimate value of earthly existence. Sensuous pleasure makes life worth living.
Sexual activity accentuates the humanity of every individual. Sex inspires a person to
bear all pains and sufferings and to continue living. For the hedonist, once sex is gone
there is nothing more worthwhile to live for. Most of all, without sex the human animal
will become extinct. Sex is thus the essence of life and the enjoyment of sensuous
pleasure is the only ultimate value of existence.

Mightism, on the other hand, teaches that life's ultimate value consists in power,
which connotes authority, domination, superiority, control, prestige, supremacy,
influence, leadership, mastery over others, compulsion, coercion, and might. Power is
the standard value by which to settle what is good and what is evil, strength and
weakness, success and failure, happiness and unhappiness, life and death.

Power is the moving force of life; without power, there is no change and without
change, there is no evolution; and without evolution, life becomes ex tinct. It goes
without saying then that power consists of the ultimate value of human existence.

For their part, the Marxists contend that the ultimate value of human life is
attainable only in a classless society, where men shall enjoy the real meaning of
freedom, justice, and equality amongst all men. In that future paradise, there will be no
more class antagonisms, insofar as there will be no more oppressor and oppressed.
Religion as an instrument of oppression will just wither away, insofar as man by then
shall have become truly human, thus possessing his own power of reason and freedom,
so that he will no longer rely upon a God to solve his own problems (which is the
Marxist's psychological theory of religion).

In Oriental thought, Hinduism professes nirvana as the ultimate value of human

existence. Described as a state of desirelessness, eternal bliss, and perfect joy, nirvana
marks the soul's final liberation from all pains and sufferings. One attains nirvana after
the soul shall have been completely purified from all sins through a long process or
cycle of rebirths or reincarnations, samsara. In nirvana, the soul loses its individuality
and merges with Brahma, the Ultimate Reality, or with the World Soul for Buddhism.
Sikhism and Jainism also up hold the ultimate value of nirvana.

Taoism, on the other hand, professes the Tao as the ultimate value, the center of
all meanings. The Tao is the one and only ultimate meaning of all that exists, insofar as
the Tao is 'the way of life", "the way of heaven", "the way of nature", "the universal
order", and "the way of the universe". The Tao being "the path of life" and the only
meaning of existence, he who lives and acts according to "the way of life" can attain
longevity that leads to immortality. For inasmuch as the Tao is eternal, whoever
possesses It (Tao), even though his body corrupts, will never die. In the Tao, therefore,
lies the ultimate meaning of life, according to the Chinese Taoist.

In Western thought, theism affirms the existence of God as the Alpha and the
Omega, the ultimate value of human life. Believed as the Ultimate Truth and the
Supreme Good, God alone, in the theist's view, can bestow the ultimate value, which
cannot be referred to any other value, that man is longing for. Theism teaches about
heaven as God's Kingdom where the human soul attains beatific vision of God and
shares in His eternal happiness. This is the absolute, final, and ultimate meaning of life
that Christianity and Islam promise the believer.

Finally, existentialist humanism professes man himself as the highest ideal and
he himself is the culmination of all strivings. Man is nothing but what he will make of
himself. He is no less than his own plans and how he is going to carry out and realize
his plans. There is no preconceived ultimate value or meaning of life. It is every
individual's responsibility to design and fashion the true value of life.

Every person should create his own values and should give meaning to his own
life. For the value of one's life is nothing but the meaning of one's own choices and
decisions. This is so precisely because man enjoys freedom of action; he is free to
create himself and makes history. Life's ultimate value or meaning, then, consists in the
very act of self-creation, making one's own history, and the totality of one's own
undertakings and achievements. Beyond this, man is nothing.

Author's Critique

King Solomon's life and love experiences would attest that material possessions,
sex, power, and human freedom fall short of the ultimate value that man is longing for.
Solomon was the wisest man who ever lived and was the richest of men of his time.
Everything that money could buy, he had. "Sex, wine, and song," for which many are
selling their souls, Solomon had in great abundance, but he was far from happy.

Bewildered by anxiety and restlessness, despite his unmatchable wisdom,

popularity, power, influence, and sexual exploration, Solomon lamented: "Man's life is
vanity of all vanities. All is vanity and vexation of the spirit. Everything vanishes and
goes to the wind; nothing remains. Everything is meaningless" (I Kings 11:3-8; Ecc. 1:1-
2; 7:26-27).

Solomon shared with us his experiences so that we could profit from them. In the
total engagement of two personalities in the sex-love experience, the other and I reach
the totality of transcendence and experience a sense of eternity, even if only for a
moment. And we expect that we should find the ultimate value we are striving for.
Unfortunately, however, not only does sex-love transcendence seem to contradict this
expectation, but its fulfillment even appears to be impossible among men.

For even if the sex-love encounter is totally and orgasmically consummated, it

always falls short of what one is looking for: a fulfillment that is ulti mate, lasting, and
without weakening. There exists in men a hunger for authenticity, an ultimate value that
cannot be satisfied by sex alone.

We can likewise share the restlessness of the young Augustine who, despite his
"illicit pleasures," "boiling over his fornications," "in a cauldron of il licit loves," became
disillusioned and anxious. When the madness of lust took control of him, Augustine
confessed: "I was in love with love. My longing then was to love and to be loved, but
most of all when I obtained enjoyment of the body of the person who loved me"
(1959:27-41).

Clearly enough, Solomon's and Augustine's life and love experiences confirm the
insufficiency of sex, wealth, power, and material possessions to satiate man's hunger
for ultimate value. There seems to be a dimension in the very depth of man unreachable
by any forms of inter human relationships or any status in life. The ultimate values of the
materialist, hedonist, and the mightist are therefore wrong. Wealth and power come and
go, and sex weakens over the years and finally vanishes in time; but what man is
looking for is something that will last.

The life experiences of several world dictators can also be mentioned: Adolf
Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy, Marshal Tito of Yugosla via, Duvalier of
Tahiti, and Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines. All of them became famous for their
iron hand and tyrannical rule in their respective countries. They perpetuated themselves
in power through Machiavellian principles of governance. For them the cruelty of their
power became the absolute law and the ultimate value.

But where are they now? They are all rotten bones, if not dust. Where now is
their much-vaunted power? Solomon was right, everything comes and goes, everything
is meaningless. The much sought after ultimate value is not found in power. In fact, it is
said that power corrupts, and more power corrupts more and corrupts absolutely. This is
a common among tyrants.

The Marxist's promise of a classless society is very appealing to the victims of

injustice, oppression, and other human right violations in any given society. For in a
capitalist state, many capitalists are really taking advantage of their workers, especially
the poor. That's why they hunger for true jus tice, freedom, and equality.

But even in a classless society where peace shall finally prevail, for there will be
no more class antagonisms, as prophesied, man would still be dis contented because
human sufferings would still remain: disease, old age, and death. Granted, then, that
the paradise of the future is attainable, it will not be the ultimate meaning of life.

For the existential humanist, freedom is the crowning glory of man, the ultimate value
that is attainable. Only man can fashion and design whatever value or meaning he
wants for himself in life. In short, man is his own ultimate value, insofar as he alone can
give meaning to his life. Let's give this an in-depth reflection.

It's true I am free. I am myself and I am prior to my essence. However, the

disturbing question is that, while I am free insofar as I can respond and can make
decisions, I am also given to my freedom. I did not give myself to myself. Hindi ako ang
nagbigay ng sarili ko sa aking sarili. Without this givenness to myself, I would not have
been free. Freedom arises from my givenness in the world. I am free but I did not
choose to be free.

Moreover, inasmuch as mine is a life that is aware of itself, I know, upon

reflection, that I participate in existence, but I cannot possess or monopolize it, for after
sometime I will lose it. I was born into it (existence), as it were, but then I shall be
stripped of it sometime, somehow, somewhere. For no matter how much I would cling to
my being, ultimately, I shall be dispossessed of it.

Thus, I exist and I shall cease to exist. I am, then I am not. Admittedly, I "make a
difference" as long as I exist, but when I perish, for certainly I will, I become nothing.
That I am not the lord of my being becomes apparent, insofar as I cannot account for
my own existence: There was a time that I did not exist and there will come a time that I
will cease to exist. In my solitude I perceive myself as a whole. Fear, anguish, suffering,
death-all force me to look deeper into the mystery of my life.

I can stand on my feet alone, yes, but I also feel I am neither the ground of myself nor
the ultimate value of existence, for later on I will surely die. I am my own existence but I
feel it does not come finally from me. The life that I know about seems not to be my own
making; it has come in a certain way, accidentally; and it has to end, ultimately, in
death.

Another option is, I can deny my nothingness and become indifferent to it: I am
the creator of myself and the maker of history. This is granted. But I am, first and
foremost, given to myself. I have found myself in freedom, hence I am not through
myself insofar as I have been given to myself. Marcel must referring to the same thing
when he said: "I preexist myself," which means that self-awareness evolves from
givenness or facticity.

Before I ever became aware of myself and my freedom, I already existed; hence,
while I am the creator of myself through freedom, I deem it to be an act of humility to
accept that my existential givenness is neither of myself nor by myself.

In a different vein, without man, there is no truth; for truth is taken as a disclosure
of value or meaning (Heidegger's insight), an unfoldment, or a discovery. Truth is the
unconcealedness of reality for me. Truth as disclosure implies a discloser and the
disclosed, an unfolder and the unfolded, a dis coverer and the discovered, an unveiler
and the unveiled. It is thus an "encounter" between the dis closer and the disclosed, and
this encounter is an "event," "a happening," "an occurrence."

The discloser (i.e., the conscious subject which I am) is the "letting-be" of the
world. From this let ting-be or disclosing of the world truth emerges and issues forth.
Truth is thus disclosed or known by profiles. This explains why learning is a never-
ending process vis-à-vis the disclosure of truth.

But over and above all the foregoing, as truth issues forth I cannot but recognize
and acknowledge it. In a manner of speaking, I surrender to truth, I am ruled by it. Truth
becomes a part of myself in as much as I grasp and apprehend it; yet it is beyond and
apart from me insofar as I cannot manipulate it without being distorted. Truth transcends
me, yet it is within me. Truth becomes an existential dimension of myself insofar as it
enriches my whole being.

Most of all, truth does not and will not perish with me nor with anybody else.
Truth will survive my death. When I die, truth remains. Truth persists. Truth prevails.
How come truth is imperishable whereas I am corruptible? I myself do not know the
answer; but, at least, I know that I am not the ground of truth, precisely because I shall
soon perish whereas truth will not.
 This imperishable dimension or transcendence of truth imposes itself upon me
and I regard it as the terminus of my search for ultimate value and meaning. It appears
to be a meaningful invitation that manifests itself through the disclosing consciousness
of man. One's response to this existential call can only be given through the exercise of
one's own freedom. It is a personal option towards the value of faith. Many believe this
to be the religious value of human experience; it is an echoing invitation arising out of
man's restlessness and unquenchable thirst for self-fulfillment and ultimate value.

It seems that this appeal keeps repeating: "Everyone who drinks the water of this world
shall thirst again; but whoever drinks the water that I give him shall thirst no more. For
the water that I give him will become in him a spring of water welling up into everlasting
life" (Jn. 4:13-14). This persistent call promises the believer: "I am the resurrection and
the life. He who believes in me, even if he dies will live again; and he who lives and
believes in me will never die" (Jn. 11:25-26).

An affirmative response to this call is a risk worth taking insofar as it inclines

more towards hope rather than despair, towards intelligibility rather than futility, towards
the will to meaning rather than the will to nihilism. It is a very crucial option which is both
foolish and wise; the former, because of its uncertainty; the latter, because it is an
affirmation of meaning rather than absurdity.

This is the crucial crossroad in man's existential quest for ultimate value. Every
individual has to make his own choice by and for himself.