Subject Code - Medium

BA521HISDSE(B)-E

B.A.
THIRD YEAR HISTORY
SEMISTER-V
DISCIPLINE SPECIFIC ELECTIVE COURSE -B
CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA

"We may forgo material benefits of civilization, but

we cannot forgo our right our right and opportunity
to reap the benefits of the highest education to the
fullest extent.."

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD
2022
 COURSE TEAM

Editor
Prof. Thallapally Manohar

Associate Editor
Dr. Gajula Dayakar

Writers
Prof.E.SudhaRani (Unit -8)
Dr.Vaddanam Srinivas (Unit -2)
Dr. G. Anjaiah (Unit -15)
D.Surya Kumar (Unit -13)
Dr. Gajula Dayakar (Unit -1, 7 &14 )
Dr. S. Venkataratnam (Unit -11&12)
Dr. A.Kumaraswamy (Unit -3&4)
Dr. J. Nageshwar (Unit -6)
Dr.P. Thirupathi (Unit -9)
I. Ravindram (Unit -5&10)

Cover Design
Venkata Swamy
First Edition : 2022

2022, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, Telangana State.

All rights reserved. No part of this book maybe reproduced in any form without
the permission in writing from the University

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 INTRODUCTION

The Culture of India is the heritage of belief systems, social norms, ethical values,
traditional customs, political systems, artifacts and technologies. Indian culture is
considered one of the oldest civilizations, which began long ago. The distinct and
diverse culture of India varies from region to region. Our Indian culture and tradition
are getting acknowledged and renowned all across the globe. The customs and traditions
of India are known for their diversity and uniqueness. These customs and traditions
originate from the ancient Indian scriptures and texts, thousands of years old.
Today, India is home to many invasions, and it is considered a powerful and
multicultural society. Indian people follow various traditions, cultures and customs.
They celebrate every festival according to customs. We still follow the epic lessons from
Mahabharata and Ramayana and still visit Gurdwaras, temples, churches, and mosques.
Along with time, Indian people turn modern by holding onto their moral values and
practices.
Indian culture is all about living, values, religion, customs, knowledge,
tradition, etc. Our Indian culture is the oldest civilisation where we still hold on to our
ancient practices, respect and humanity. We can also describe culture as how we behave
with people and understand ethics, beliefs and values.
New generation people get these values from the older generation, and it is
continuing accordingly. Also, here we can see culture in everything like fashion, music,
dance, social norms, foods, etc. Thus, India is one big melting pot for behaviours and
beliefs birthed in different cultures.
This book deals with the historical development of culture starting from Indus
Valley civilization to the Europeans. It also discusses the transformations that occurred
in the religious and cultural spheres in the respective periods. It examines the Vedic
religion, Jainism, Buddhism, Shaivism and Vaishnavism. The book thus traces the
sweep of Indian culture from Indus valley civilization to Mughal rule.
This book comprises the topics in Cultural Heritage of India included in the
syllabus for the third year of B.A Degree Semester Course, which generally cover the
core area of the subject. The syllabus, for the sake of convenience, is divided into 5
blocks each block comprises two to three units. The units are prepared by the experts in
accordance with the format designed to enable the students to read and understand them
without much difficulty. Each unit begins with a statement of its objectives and
introduction of the topic, to enable learner to check their understanding of the topics in
each unit. Check your progress questions are given as exercise, learners should write
answers for the questions in the space provided in the material. At the end of the unit,
model answers were given to cross check the title summery. The reference books for
further reading are given at the end of the unit. The model Examination questions
including objective type questions and the syllabus is given at the end of the material.
Technical terms are given under the head of glossary at the end of the book.
The university hopes that the course material now presented in a new form in
light of recent CBCS pattern. The Cultural Heritage of India will be more useful for the
students to learn the subject better and enhance their understanding in a more
comprehensive manner.
 CONTENTS

Block I : Introduction to Indian Culture

Unit 1 : Sources of Cultural History of India

Unit 2 : Definition, Nature, Scope and Evolution of Indian Culture
Unit 3 : Salient Features of Indian Culture

Block II : Ancient Indian Cultures

Unit 4 : Harappa Culture

Unit 5 : Vedic Culture and Brahmanic Traditions
Unit 6 : Sramanic Cultures, Ajivikas, Lokayats, Jainism and
Buddhism

Block III : Evolution of Composite Cultures

Unit 7 : Popular Hinduism and dissent sects, Savism and

Vaishnavism Unit 8
: Bhakti and Sufi Movements

Block IV : Modern Indian Culture

Unit 9 : Socio Religious Reform Movements

Unit 10 : Social Protest Movements
Unit 11 : Popular Culture and Folk Traditions

Unit 12 : Oral Traditions

Block V : Art, Architecture, Literature and Fine Arts

Unit 13 : Madhura, Gandhara and Amaravathi Art Traditions

Unit 14 : Hindu Architecture, Buddhist and Indo-Persian
Architecture
Unit 15 : Major Trends of Indian Literature and Fine Arts
 BLOCK-I
INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN CULTURE

The word culture derived from Latin word “Cultura”, which means harvesting
or cultivation. The writing of Cultural History is not an easy task, required the
reconstruction of the past culture as nearly as it had really happened. Nowadays
Cultural History emerged as a fascinating study and it also useful for to know our
great Indian Culture. Since the starting of civilization in India, the Indian Culture played
great role. India has great history, culture, science, technology, religion, fine arts, art
and architecture. Our culture started with Indus valley civilization. In this civilization
art, architecture and sculpture developed and is the contemporary of Sumeria, Persia,
Egypt and China civilizations. The reconstruction of cultural history of India through
the archaeological and literary sources. archaeological and literary sources are found
in different parts of the country. India is land of diverse cultures. The variations in
physical, climatic conditions and the extent of exposure to other cultures have greatly
influenced the traditions and culture of different regions. Culture is one of the three
most decisive elements for defining the long-range future. The other two are the
human genome and technology. The most important feature of Indian culture is its
deep underlying unity in spite of its great diversity. In India, differences can be noticed
in the racial ideological linguistic and religious cultures.
The present block consists of the following units:

Unit 1: Sources of Cultural History of India.

Unit 2: Definition, Nature, Scope and Evolution of Indian Culture.
Unit 3: Salient Features of Indian Culture.

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 UNIT-1: SOURCES OF CULTURAL HISTORY OF INDIA
Contents
1.0 Objective
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Sources of Culture History
1.2.1 Archaeological Sources
1.2.2 Inscriptions
1.2.3 Rock and Inscriptions
1.2.4 Numismatical Sources
1.2.5 Monuments
1.3 Literary works
1.3.1 Religious texts
1.3.2 Vedic literature
1.3.3 Buddhist literature
1.3.4 Jain literature
1.3.5 Secular texts
1.3.6 The scientific books
1.5. Foreign Literature
1.6. Cultural Sources
1.6.1 Architectural cultural
1.6.2 Art
1.6.3 Cave Art
1.7. Painting
1.7.1 Rajput painting
1.7.2 Mughal painting
1.7.3 Tanjore school of painting.
1.7.4 Mithila Painting
1.7.5 Madhubani painting
1.8. Sculpture
1.8.1 Temple Sculpture
1.8.2 Rock sculpture
1.9. Dance
1.9.1 Kathak
1.9.2 Kathakali

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 1.9.3 Kuchipudi
1.9.4 Bharathanatyam
1.9.5 Manipuri
1.9.6 Mohini Attam
1.9.7 Odassi
1.9.8 Yakshagaam
1.10. Music
1.11. Summary
1.12. Model Answers to check your progress
1.13. Model Examination Question
1.14. Books for Further Readings

1.0 OBJECTIVE
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the Sources of Cultural History
2. Examine the Sources of Cultural History
3. Explain the various sources of Cultural History
4. Discuss the importance of Sources
5. Analyze the significance of the Sources

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word culture derived from Latin word Cultura, which means harvesting or cultivation.
India has the great cultural History in the world. When the agriculture started the culture
developed in the world. The writing of Cultural History is not an easy task, required the
reconstruction of the past culture as nearly as it had really happened. Nowadays Cultural
History emerged as a fascinating study and it also useful for to know our great Indian Culture.
Since the starting of civilization in India, the Indian Culture played great role. India has great
history, culture, science, technology, religion, fine arts, art and architecture. Our culture started
with Indus valley civilization. In this civilization art, architecture and sculpture developed and is
the contemporary of Sumeria, Persia, Egypt and China civilizations.

1.2 SOURCES OF CULTURE HISTORY

To study the Cultural History, there are number of sources. They were inscriptions,
seals, coins, the literary books of religious, secular and foreign writers written books. Temples,
ashrams and religious scriptures are most important cultural centers.
1.2.1 Archaeological Sources
Among the archaeological sources the artifacts are foremost. Various sources like
stone tools, terracotta utensils, plant remains, Pottery pieces, bones of men and animals, ruined
monuments, paintings and sculptured can be included under artifacts. It helps to understand
pre-historic and early historical phases. Archaeological department conducted excavations at

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the places like Harappa, Mohenjadaro, Taxila, Lothal, Sthaneswar, Nalanda, Saranath, Pataliputra,
Hastinapur and Nagarjunakonda brought to light many facts of ancient Indian history. The art
and architecture developed at Kanhari, Bedsa, Ajanta, Ellora, Sanchi, Saranath, Amaravathi
stupas. Mahabalipuram, Tanjore, Konarka, Puri and Alampur are symbols of the religious beliefs.
1.2.2 Inscriptions
The study of Inscriptions is called Epigraphy these are the main source to reconstruct
the Indian history. These are engraved on stone and metals. During the Indus Valley people
used seals that mentioned some Alphabet. The Harappan seals are not treated as inscriptions
due to not deciphered by any archaeologists. Asoka’s inscriptions deciphered by James Pricep
in 1837. These inscriptions mentioned about the Dharama, ethics and moral code of conduct.
They contain information about the geography of place, economic, religious and cultural, genealogy
of the ruling family along with their regnal years, wars, sacrifices performed by the rulers,
ministers, generals and the people. These are one of the main sources to reconstruct the ancient
Indian history
1.2.3 Rock and pillar Inscriptions
The rock inscriptions are the most important, these are the largest inscriptions. Asok’s
14 inscriptions are rock inscription. These are available in lakhs. Among the notable in lakhs.
Among the notable in India are the Asokan edicts. Kharavela’s Hathigumpa inscription, Gautami
Balasri’s Nasik inscription, Rudradamana’s Junagadh inscription, Samudragupta’s Allahabad
inscription, Chandragupta-II’s Mehrauli pillar inscription, Pulakesin-II’s Aihole inscription etc.
in the context of south Indian history the Ikshvakas, Salankayanas, Vishnukundinas and eastern
Chalukyas are the important. Most of these inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali and Sanskrit and other
Dravidian languages.
Pillar inscriptions
The pillar inscriptions are the most important, these are the largest inscriptions. The
important inscriptions are Ashoka’s 7 pillar inscriptions. Allahabad Pillar inscription of
Samudragupta by his General Harisena. Aihole inscription by Ravikeerthi in the reign of
Pulakesin-II.
1.2.4 Numismatics (coins)
The Indian rulers issued gold, silver and copper coins. These expressed prosperity and
economic conditions of the empire. The Satavahana rulers issued coins of lead, pantin, copper,
silver and gold coins. The Karshapana (silver) and Suvarna (gold) are widely used coins of
Satavahanas. Some coins depicted the pictures of the rulers favourite gods and goddess and
their personal ability and their interests, for example Samudragupta issued playing lyre (Veena)
and killing lion type of coins issued. The Gupta rulers inscribed Garuda emblem and Goddess
Lakshmi. These coins expressed the devotees of Vaishnavism. Satavahana king Yagnasri
Satakarni issued ship marked coins. It reflects the trade relation between India and Roman
Empire.
1.2.5 Monuments
The Archaeological sources give us some knowledge of the cultural life of the ancient
people. India is rich cultural remains and monuments. The dancing girl of Indus Valley found at
Mohenjodaro, give the details of Indus people dancing activities. And also reflects the material
culture of Bronze. The ancient dockyard located at Lothal in present Gujarat. Kalibangan fire

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alters gave information about the Indus people religious beliefs, it said that they were the devotees
of fire (Agni). The Indus peoples are beliefs in Mother goddess, Pasupathi Shiva. The Painted
Grey Ware (PGW) Culture developed in 1000 B.C the cities at Ahichchatra, Hasthinapur,
Kausambi, Ujjaini, Sravasti, Vaisali and many more. The Gandhara Janapadha capital, Taxila
was the famous educational centre. Kautilya and Chandragupta studied here. During Buddha’s
time the great cities came into limelight, there are Kausambi, Kasi, Ayodhya, Vaisali, Bodhgaya.

1.3 LITERARY SOURCES

The secular literature is two parts historical and non historical. Among the historical
works Kautilya’s Arthasastra written in 4th century B.C. it speaks about the statecraft and
public administration. Another notable works on polity is Kamandaka’s Neethisastra, Kalhana’s
Rajatarangini (the history of Kashmir kings). Patanjali’s Mahabhashya though abook on Grammar
but it mentioned about Pushyamitrasunga’s administration and Indo- Greeks raids. Another
great work was BanaBhatta’s Harsha charitha about Harshavardhana life history. Bilhana’s
Vikramanka deva charita and Chandbardai’s Pridvirajraso also contained some historical
information. Hala’s Gadasapthasathi consisting of 700 stories and Gunadhya’s Brihatkatha about
the conditions of Satavahanas villages. The Tamil sangam literature Kurul by Tiruvalluvar. The
writings of Alvars and nayanars. Mahendravarma’s” Mattavilasa Prahasanam”about the socio-
religious conditions during Pallavas period. Harsha’s Ratnavali, Naganandam and priyadharshini
are another works.
1.3.1 Religious texts
These works are described about the religious conditions during every dynasty period.
The most important books are Epics, Vedas etc.
1.3.2 Vedic literature
The Vedic literature is the Vedas, Samhitas, Aranyakas, Brahmanas, Upanishads,
Upavedas, Vedangas, Puranas, Epics and Dharma Sastras. The Vedic literature was written in
Sanskrit language.
1.3.3 Buddhist literature
It is written in Pali language in early times from the 2nd century A.D., the literature
was written in Sanskrit. The sacred literature in Buddhism was Tripitakas of Vinayapitak,
Suttapitaka and Abidhammapitaka.The Srilanka Chronicals Deepavamsa and mahavamsa, the
Jatakastories, Acharya Nagarjuna’s Pragnaparamitha, Suhrullekha and Nagasena’s
Milindapanha.
1.3.4 Jain literature
It is written in Arthamagadhi language. The sacred literature of Jainism is the Angas;
these are twelve (12) and also twelve 12 Upangas, Hema Chandra’s parisistaparvan and
Bhadrabahu’s Kalpasutras. These works written in Prakrit and Arthamagathi languages.
1.3.5 Secular literature
The secular literature is two types they are historical and non historical. Among the
historical works Kautilya’s Arthasastra written in 4th century B. C. it speaks about the state
craft and public administration. Another notable work on polity is Kamandaka’s Neethisastra,
Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (the history of Kashmir kings) patanjali’s Mahabhashya though a

5
Grammar mentioned about Pushyamitra sunga’s administration and Indo- Greeks raids. Another
great work of Banabhatta was Harsha charitha, it describe about Hasrshavardhana. Bilhana’s
Vikramanka deva charita and Chand Bardai Pridviraj raso also contained some historical
information. Hala’s Gadasapthasathi consisting of 700 stories and Gunadhya’s Brihat katha
about the conditions of Satavahanas villages. The Tamil sangam literature Kurul by Tiruvalluvar.
The writings of Alvars and nayanars. Mahendra varma’s “Matta vilasa prahasanam”about the
socio-religious conditions during Pallava period. Harsha’s Ratnavali, Naganandam and
priyadharshini are notable works.
1.3.6 The scientific books
The scientific books describe about the changes in the ancient Indian Astronomy,
mathematics and Medicine. The most important among them are Varahamihra’s Brihatjatakam
and Brihatsamhita. Vagbhatta’s Astangana Samgrha. Aryabhatt’s Surya siddantham, Romaka
siddhantam and Brahmagupta’s writings.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Allahabad inscription belonged to the reign of
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2. Buddhist tripitakas are
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1.5. FOREIGN LITERATURE
The foreign literature is the most important thing to reconstruct the Indian history because
of its unbiased character. Herodotous was the father of history, who belonged to Greek. He has
written much about India and Indians. Megasthenese is the most important writer. He wrote
Indika, in this book he not only about Mauryan administration but also mentioned social conditions
and economic life during the Mauryan period. The Greek and Roman accounts of 1st and 2nd
centuries C.E. mention many Indian ports and enumerate items pf trade between India and
Roman empire. Fahien in his account he mentioned the Guptas followed a policy of religious
tolerance. I-Tsing came to India towads the end of 7th century. He stayed for a long in the
Universities of Vikramaditya and Nalanda.

1.6 CULTURAL SOURCES

Since the Indus valley period Language, literature, Art, Architecture, sculpture treated
as culture. These are developed in India enormously. The Indus valley people build citadel built
in the west side of the city. In the citadel area they built the great bath.
1.6.1 Architectural and cultural sources
Temples
The temples played important role in culture. The temple architecture is three types in

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i.e. 1. Nagara style 2. Dravida style and 3. Vesara style. Temple is centre of all socio-religious
activities. It worked as landlord, education center, play ground, exhibition centre. It became the
education centre during the ancient period. The dancer’s also performed their dance at the
temple. The caste panchayats also decided at temple. The rulers gave land grants to the temples
and Brahmanas.
1.6.2 Art
The Harappan people had a great involvement in the art and architecture. The art on
the stone, iron, pottery and seals available which gives the details of Harappan people’s life
style. The sculpture of Dancing girl and bearded man characterize a tendency that mark a high
level of refinement. In India Buddhism helped to the development of art and architecture. The
early human figures to be worshipped by Indians was Buddha. The practice of depicting various
events from Buddha’s life as at Bodh Gaya, Sanch and Bharhut helped to growth of fine school
of sculpture.
1.6.3 Cave Art
The development of cave architecture was an important phase in Indian art history.
More than 1000 caves having elegant. The Rashtrakutas followed the Chalukyan sculptural
tradition. The early stage during their period is Dasavatara cave temple at Ellora. The most
important cave temple during their period was Kailashanatha temple at Ellora by Krishna-I.
The Kailashanath temple at Ellora painting is the most important.

1.7 PAINTING
The origin of Indian painting goes back to 8,000 years during stone ages. The culmination
of Indian frescoes can be seen at Ajanta from the time of Sungas in the second century B.C.,
wall painting continued to be made until the 5th century. During the Gupta period the painting
developed at Ajanta and Bagh in central India, where entire settlements of rock-cut caves
were decorated with figures of men and women. In 7th, 8th centuries at Ellora the Hindu rock-
cut caves called Kailashnatha, artists painted scenes from Hindu epic Ramayana. The
Vishnukundinas, the Chalukyas, the Kakatiyas, the Vijayanagara and the Mughal rulers
encouraged. The painting centers at Hampi, Lepakshi and pillamarri.
1.7.1 Rajput painting
This painting developed in Rajaputana, Bundelkhand and the Punjab Himalayas. The
known example ranging from the later part of the 16th to 19th century fall into two terrain groups
Rajasyhani (Rajaputana and Bundelkhand) and pahari.
1.7.2 Mughal painting
The Baburnama or the story of Babur, the first ruler of Babur. Akbarnaama about his
own reign. Both these were done on paper and illustrated with a large number of beautiful
paintings. Akbar established Karkhanas for painters at his court at Fatehpuri Sikri, near Agra.
Under the guidance of Persian artist named Mir Sayyad Ali and a talented calligrapher named
Abdus Salam . the Hindu epic , the Mahabharata, which became known as Hamzanama or the
story of the Great war. It was illustrated with about 1400 paintinga on coarse cotton cloth. The
Baburnama and Akbarrnama both these are done on paper and illustrated with a large a large
number of beautiful paintings. Jahingir had an interest in fauna and flora that led to a large
number of lovely paintings of animals, birda and plants being done.

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1.7.3 Tanjore school of painting.
This painting came into prominence after the fall of Tippu Sultan and the re-establishment
the Wadiyars as the Rajas of Mysore. Under the patronage of Krishnaraja Wadiyar (1799-
1868) who was a lover of music, art, literature and theatre. In this painting red and green
colours used frequently.
1.7.4 Mithila Painting
In the Tulasida’s Ramacharitamanas gives an elaborate description of how the entire
Mithila region of Bihar was decorated for the marriage Sita with Rama. The decoration consisted
of vivid murals depicting mythological personages, deities of the Hindu pantheon and the flora
and fauna. This type of painting.
1.7.5 Madhubani painting
Developed in Mithila region, in the village around Madhubani, Bihar. Madhunibani literally
means a forest of honey. This style of painting has been traditionally done by the women of the
region, though today men are also involved to meet the demand. The work is done on freshly
plastered or a mud wall, for commercial purposes, the work is now being done on paper, cloth
etc.

1.8 SCULPTURE
Indian sculpture may truly be regarded as the characteristic national art of the country.
The images either stood in the open, as in the case of colossal statues like the Jain statue
Gomateswara Bahabali at Sravanabelagola near Mysore in Karnataka. Fine beared male figure
wearing a shawl with trefoil ormentation from 5000 years old city of Mohenja-Daro, and two
small nude torsos of male figures from Harappa. In 3rd century Asoka raised tall and polished
monolithic pillars surmounted by animal capitals. The most remarkable of them is the lion capital
at Sarnath. The capital consists of four figures of stately lions seated back-to-back and facing
the four cardinal directions. The round abacus is decorated with four dharmachakras, each
with 24 spokes and four animals an elephant, a bull, a horse and a lion moving Iclockwise
direction.
1.8.1 Temple Sculpture
The growth of structural temples can see at the places of Deogarh, Udaigiri and
Bhumara, here the temples are Dasavatara and Adivaraha temple and Siva temples respectively.
The group of temples at Badami and Aihole executed under the Badami Chalukyan period in 6th
and 7th centuries.
1.8.2 Rock sculpture
The rock sculpture developed during the period of Satavahanas, Pallavas, Rashtrakuta
etc. the Satavahanas rock sculpture found at Gudimallam in Chittor district in present Andhra
Pradesh. It is the largest shivalinga. The Pallavas rock sculpture found at Mahabalipuram. The
Rashtakutas sculpture found at Ellora caves in Aurangabad district Maharashtra.

1.9 DANCE
Dance is the very ancient performance in India; it was develop during the period of
Indus valley civilization. The dancing girl figurine found at Mohenjodaro. The classical dances

8
are in Indian is very famous in the world. They were Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi,
Bharathanatyam, Manipuri, Mohiniattam, odassi, Yakshagaam
1.9.1 Kathak
The Kathak dance form originated in north India. It is very similar to the Bharatanatyam.
The word Kathak is derived from Katha, which means story teller. In ancient times, story
tellers used song and dance to embellish their narration. This took the form of Kathakalashepam
and Harikatha in South India. Today the masters of this dance form are Birju Maharaju and
Uma Sharma.
1.9.2 Kathakali
It was the official classical dance of Kerala. It was originated at Kings court in Kerala.
It is scientific dance. It is performed with the characters of Ramayana, Mahabharatha and
Puranas. It is combining of dance and drama.
1.9.3 Kuchipudi
It was originated in Kuchelapuram village (Kuchipudi) in Krishna District of present
Andhra Pradesh.the style was formed by Theertha Narayana and Siddhendra Yogi.
1.9.4 Bharathanatyam
It is the most celebrated art from the south Indian state of Tamilnadu. It was originated
in temples in Tamil Nadu. The founder of the dance was Bharata Maharshi’s Natyasastra. It
was based on Karnataka tradition. It was performed by Devadasis in Indian temples.
1.9.5 Manipuri
It was developed in North-eastern state of Manipur. From 15th century to 18th century
the Vaishnava tradition entered into this dance. It is different dance form of other dances in
India. In this dance the performer the body moves with slow, sinuous grace and the undulating
arm movements flow into the fingers. Themes from the Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana and
compositions from the Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda predominate the repertoire.
1.9.6 Mohiniattam
It is performed with single person like Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi and Odassy. It is to
be older than Kathakali. It is only performed in the temple precincts of Kerala. The word
Mohini means a maiden who experts desire or steals the heart of the onlooker. There is well
known story of lord Vishnu taking on the guise of a Mohini to enthrall people, both in connection
with the churning of the milk ocean and with the episode of slaying Bhasmasura. Thus it is
thought that the Vaishnava devotee’s gave the name of Mohiniyattam to this dance.
1.9.7 Odassi
It is the classical dance of Orissa state. It was developed during the reign of Kalinga
King Kharavela in second century B. C. he himself also great dancer.
1.9.8 Yakshagaam
It is the classical dance in Karnataka. It was borrowed from the Hindu Puranas. It has
400 years history.

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1.10 MUSIC
The musical sounds give pleasure and happiness to the listeners. It might be said that
nature is the origin of music. Hindustani music has been influence by Arya and Dravidian
civilization and the Muslim invaders from Afghanistan and central Asia also exercised their
influence on it. During Gupta period Samudradupta and Kumaragupta minted veena playing
type coins. Kalidas describe about Taalam, Laya and Swaram in Maalavikagnimitram, the
contemporary mentioned about the musical instruments of veena, plute etc. Sri Krishnadevaraya
was the great player of veena.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Bharata Maharshi was the founder of
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2. Odissi classical dance developed during the reign of
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1.11 SUMMARY
History is the study of past events. It helps us to understand those processes that
enabled the early humans to successfully conquer their environmental and develop the present
day civilization. History is not just a study battles and kings as is normally understood by some.
It is analysis of society, economy and cultural trends over a long period as reflected in available
sources.

1.12 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your Progress Answers—I
1. Samudra Gupta
2. Sutta, Vinaya and Abiddhama.
Check your Progress Answers—II
1. Bharatanayam.
2. Kharavela

1.13 Model Examination Question

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Describe the important features of various kinds of paintings
2. Explain the archaeological sources of cultural history
3. Write the literary sources for reconstruction of cultural History

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II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each
1. Write about epigraphical sources of cultural history
2. Describe the features of Indian Dances
3. Write about the features of temple sculpture

1.14 BOOKS FOR FURTHER READINGS

1. V.A. Smith : Oxford History of India
2. Sathianatha Aiyar. R : History of India, Volume-I
3. Nilakanta Sastri K.A. : History of India, Volume-I
4. D.D. Kosambi : The cultural civilization of Ancient India, A
Historical outline
5. R.C. Majumdar., (ed) : The Vedic Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Series,
Vol. I
- Dr. Gajula Dayakar

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 UNIT 2: DEFINITION, NATURE, SCOPE AND EVOLUTION
OF INDIAN CULTURE
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definition of Culture
2.3 Background of Indian Culture
2.4 The Evolution of a Culture
2.5 Cultural Evolution
2.6 Indian Culture
2.7 Syncretic Culture
2.8 Mixed Heritage
2.9 Facets of Culture
2.9.1 Indian Languages
2.9.2 Festival Celebrations
2.9.3 Costumes and Food
2.9.4 Shelter
2.9.5 Sports & Games
2.9.6 Indian Art
2.9.7 The Stupas
2.9.7.1 Amaravati Stupa
2.9.7.2 Gandhara Stupa
2.10 Composite Culture
2.11 Summary
2.12 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
2.13 Model Examination Questions
2.14 Books for Further Readings
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the Definition, Nature and Scope of the Indian Culture
2. Explain the Evolution of Indian Culture
3. Discuss the Cultural differences in India
4. Describe the Facets of Indian Culture
5. Analyze the Composite Culture
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
India is land of diverse cultures. The variations in physical, climatic conditions and the
extent of exposure to other cultures have greatly influenced the traditions and culture of different
regions. There is an underlying basic factor common to the whole of India, with variations in the
practices based on their local needs and influences. Further, the greatness of India has been in
accepting the best from all the invaders and intermingle the new customs and style with the
existing –this is visible in all aspects- music, dance, painting, sculptures and architecture.
Culture is one of the three most decisive elements for defining the long-range future. The
other two are the human genome and technology. Because culture bears responsibility for the
history, traditions, formation and education of humankind, the evolution of culture is a history
with significant implications and ramifications for the long-term future of humanity. Indian Culture
has been unique in the world history because of its continuity on one hand and its vast diversity
on the other. The Hindu people have had an organized social system for more than three
thousand years. The Vedas the Upanishads the Dharma Shastras and the Grihya Sutras have
knit the people of India from the Himalayas to Cape Kanyakumari. Since the Indian Culture
has persisted through the ages an attempt must be made to find the source of this vitality. Life
implies not only survival but continuity and adjustment. It is necessary to understand the values
which have given the Indian Culture an identity and Continuity. The capacity of the culture to
adjust to a new situation is implicit in the Indian concepts of Kaladharma and Deshadharma.
The ancient Indians visualized that the time and place necessitate certain changes in culture.
They recognized by means of these concepts, that it is necessary for a culture, which adhering
to its basic principles, to modify some aspects to suit the needs of time and place. It is this
outlook which has enabled the diversities in the different regions to survive.

2.2 DEFINITION OF CULTURE

Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a
population that is passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been called “the way
of life for an entire society.” As such, it includes codes of manners, dress, language, religion,
rituals, and art. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO)
state that Culture is ‘the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional
features that characterize a society or a social group. It includes modes of life, the fundamental
rights of the human being, value systems, and traditional beliefs’. Culture evolves with a people
as a guidebook for living well with each other. Like biological species, the environment in which
it is housed and the resources available to it guided ‘culture’s evolution. Cultures are living
systems, the continually evolve as conditions, such as mounting population pressures and resources
and resource availability, change.

2.3 BACKGROUND OF INDIAN CULTURE

The origin of Indian culture goes back to the remote antiquity. Coir culture is the handiwork of
time. For its origin and development, one has to span through the history of several thousand
years, change and continuity is its attribute and flexibility its basic character. Every human
group that settled here in prehistoric times and later made their contribution to it. The Vedic
people produced a remarkable synthesis in the form of the Varnashrama Dharma and the
Purusharthas, and these remain the foundation of our culture. Karma and Punarjanma is accepted
as the exacting and inescapable law of causality.

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2.4 THE EVOLUTION OF A CULTURE :
The evolution of a culture also is influenced by its contact with other disparate cultures. When
cultures interact, there is an inevitable exchange of ideas, values, rituals and commodities,
ideally, the exchange is of the most effective and equitable elements of each society- those
elements that lend themselves to the attainment of a socially and environmentally sustainable
society. Cultural diversity represents the expanded opportunity for learning through intercultural
dialogue. Because each culture has evolved in a unique environment with a unique set of
physical and human resources, each has a distinct set of guidelines for living to add to the
cultural pool.

2.5 CULTURAL EVOLUTION

Cultural evolution as a theory in anthropology was developed in the 19th Century, and
it was an outgrowth of Darwinian evolution. Cultural evolution presumes that over time, cultural
change such as the rise of social inequalities or emergence of agriculture occurs as a result of
human adapting to some no cultural stimulus, such as climate change or population grow.
However, unlike Darwinian evolution, cultural evolution was considered directional, which is,
as human populations transformed themselves, their culture becomes progressively complex.
The theory of cultural evolution was applied to archaeological studies by British archaeologist
AHL Fox Pitt-Rivers and V.G.Childe in the early 20th Century. Americans were slow to follow
until Leslie White’s study of cultural ecology in the 1950s and 1960s. Today, the theory of
cultural evolution is an underpinning for other, more complex explanations for cultural change
and for the most part archaeologists believe that social changes are not only driven by biology
or a strict adaptation to change, but by a complex web of social, environmental and biological
factors.

2.6 INDIAN CULTURE

In 1972 the General conference of UNESCO adopted a resolution with overwhelming
enthusiasm creating thereby a Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and
natural heritage. The main objectives were to: (a) Define the World Heritage in both cultural
and natural aspects (b) Enlist sites and monuments from member countries which are of
exceptional interest and universal value the protection of which is the concern of all mankind
and (c) Promote co-operation among all Nations and people to contribute for the protection of
these universal treasures intact for future generations.
The various Indian monuments and sites included in the World Heritage List are the Ajanta
Caves. Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, Tajmahal, Sun Temple at Konark, the group of Monuments at
Mahabalipuram, Kaziranga National Park, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Keoladeo National Park,
Churches and Convents in Goa, Group of Monuments at Khajuraho, Group of Monuments at
Hampi, Fatehpur Sikri, Group of Monuments at Pattadakal, Elephanta Caves, Brihadeeshwara
Temple at Thanjavur, Sundarbans National Park, Nandadevi National Park, Buddhist Monastery
at Sanchi, Humayan’s Tomb at Delhi and Qutub Minar and associated monuments at Delhi.
The UNESCO world heritage committee has bestowed world heritage status on the Darjeeling
Himalayan Railway in December 1999.
Check Your Progress –I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

14
1. Who was applied cultural evolution to Archaeology?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. World heritage status gets the Darjeeling Himalayan Railways in the year?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
2.7 SYNCRETIC CULTURE
Indian Society has a rich diversity. Starting from the arrival of the Aryans, there was
an interaction with conflict, cooperation and synthesis of different cultural/ religious streams,
while Brahmanism imposed an exclusionist caste hierarchy on society, other streams like Jainism,
Buddhism, Kabir, Nanak and multiple local sects like Jotiba, Khandoba, Tukaram, Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu, Tantra etc., contributed to the synthesizing of local cultures. While Kings, Zamindars
and uppar castes exploited, irrespective of their religion, the lower castes intermingled and led
to the development of syncretic traditions.

2.8 MIXED HERITAGE

The most prominent element of the heritage of a nation is its culture. The culture of a nation
important place in our life. They help values like co-operation & Solidarity sport spirit. It is
more important than winning or losing. Finds expression in two ways: the visible elements are
dresses worn by the people, the food they eat, music, dance and architecture. The invisible
elements we the way people think the values they hold dear and their ideas and beliefs.
Culture is not something that has been there from time immemorial. It is also not something
that is frozen in time. Culture is in fact something that is dynamic and constantly changing if
absorbs new influences and modifies them to suit local requirements. It constantly appropriates
from other traditions and also gives to them in equal measure. It has always been so and will
continue to be so as long as human beings live. Almost everything that we see, taste, hear, smell
and touch, the buildings we have built the tools we use, the clothes we wear, the languages we
speak and even the ideas that we have are products of processes, discoveries, inventions and
developments that occurred at places far and near.

2.9 FACETS OF CULTURE

2.9.1 Indian Languages
Presently there are 22 languages recognized by Indian Constitution. Many languages are
spoken in India. Hindi & English are the two languages used in our country.
2.9.2 Festival Celebrations
People such as Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Christians, Jains and Parsis etc., belonging
to different religions live in India. Different festivals are celebrated in India with lots of joys and
happiness. Agriculture is the main occupation in our country. Many of our festivals are related
to agriculture and environment. In Maharashtra, Dussehra, Diwali, Holi, in Punjab Baisakhi, in
Andhra Pradesh Eruvaka Punnam, Telangana Bathukamma in Kerala Onam are celebrated.
Ramzan- Id, Christmas, Buddha Purnima. Samvatsari and Pateti are also important festivals.
Whatever religious festival all Indians happily participate in it. They greet one another. It increases
the feeling of unity among them.
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 2.9.3 Costumes & Food
We find diversity in the clothing and food habits of Indians. Clothing depends upon the
climate, physical feature &traditions of the respective regions. There is diversity in our foods
habits too, due to climate conditions crops and other geographical factors. For e.g. the people of
Punjab eat dal-roti whereas people living in the coastal areas eat rice and fish.
2.9.4 Shelter
In respective of constructions of houses also there is diversity. In the rural areas many
houses have wattle and daub walls. Some houses have tiled roofs. In areas of heavy rainfall,
the houses have slopping roofs. In the places with scanty rains have houses with terraced
roofs. In big cities, multi storey buildings are seen.
2.9.5 Sports and Games
Many kinds of games are played in India since ancient times. We play different games
such as Chess, Wrestling, Phugadi, Malkhamb, Lagori, Kabaddi & Kho Kho. Modern games
are such as hockey and cricket are the two popular games played in India. Sports &Games
have an important place in our life. They help values like co-operation, solidarity sport spirit. It
is more important than winning or losing.
2.9.6 Indian Art
Different arts such as dance, handicrafts, painting and sculpture have flourished in India.
Since days of old, India had different styles. There are two main styles of Indian classical
music. They are Hindustani music & Carnatic music. There are many types of folk music
played in India and tradition of dances is also very ancient. We have different variety of folk
dances in different parts of India. The art of painting & sculpture has long tradition. It is
originated from the stone age period. Historical monuments are the wealth of our country.
2.9.7 The Stupas
Sanchi Stupa: The early stupas were hemispherical in shape with a low base. The
hemispherical shape symbolized the cosmic mountain. Later Stupas assumed an increasingly
cylindrical form. The early stupas were known for their simplicity. Apart from the than ruins
stupa at Piprahwa (Nepal), the core of Stupa No.1 at Sanchi can be considered as the oldest of
the Stupas. Originally built by Asoka, it was enlarged in subsequent centuries.
2.9.7.1 Amaravati Stupa
Amaravati Stupa, built in second or first century BC was probably like the one at Sanchi,
but in later centuries it was transformed from a Hinayana shrine to a Mahayana Shrine. Amaravati
Stupa is different from the Bharhut and Sanchi Stupas. It had free-standing columns surmounted
by lions near the gateways. The dome was covered with sculptured panels.
2.9.7.2 Gandhara Stupa
The Gandhara Stupa is a further development of Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut. In Gandhara
stupas the base, dome and the hemisphere dome are sculpted. The Stupas of Nagarjunakonda
in Krishna valley were very large. At the base there were brick walls forming wheel and
spokes which were filled earth. The Maha Chaithya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in the form
of Swastika, which is a sun symbol.

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2.10 COMPOSITE CULTURE
Composite culture is celebrated by some and denounced by others. The purists of all
religions denounce the concept of composite culture. They accept nothing short of ‘Pure Hindu’
or ‘Pure Islamic’ culture. The pure culture, needless to say divides while composite culture
unites the people of a country. The separatists are quite comfortable with composite culture
and hence culture develops its own politics. And in democracy culture is highly politicized until
the advent of the British, composite culture was the ruling culture in India, particularly at the
level of the masses. Even at the level of ruling elites composite culture was widely prevalent
particularly during the Mughal period with the advent of the British Rule in 19th century a new
politics of culture started. The elites of the two community’s i.e the Hindu and Muslim
communities began to assert purity of their respective culture in order to generate separate and
sharply defined identities. The Mughal rulers used to celebrate various Hindu festivals with
great fanfare. The Holi was celebrated on grand scale by the Mughal emperors. All the nobles
of the Mughal court used to participate in these celebrations. If we read the poetry of Nazir
Akbarabadi, a noted Urdu Poet from Agra we see that as late as nineteenth century the Muslim
courtesans, nawabs and feudal lords used to observe the festival of Holi in particular. The
composite culture is far more widespread even today than is generally realized. This has been
vividly brought out in a study conducted by the Anthropological survey of India under the
‘People of India Project’. According to its findings, Indian Muslims share a very high percentage
(96.77) of material and cultural traits relating to ecology, economy and occupation with Hindus.
And the ratio of shared traits between Muslims and Sikhs is 89.95 percent and between Muslims
and Buddhists 91.95 per cent. This empirical study of our composite society clearly proves that
the project of cultural nationalism is without any roots in our society and can hardly carry
conviction with the common people.
Check Your Progress Answers II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. How many languages recognized by the Indian Constitution?
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Which festival celebrates the people of Punjab?
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2.11 SUMMARY
India is blessed with rich cultural heritage. The culture of India is one of the oldest cultures
in the world. Right from the medieval period there prevail diverse cultural diversities in form of
dances, languages, religions, people, their customs and festivals. Every state of India has its
own distinct cultures and has carved out its own cultural niche. In spite of so much of cultural
diversities, Indians are closely bond and makes India as a great country perhaps because of its
common history. Dating back to over 5000 years old civilization, India’s culture has been adorned
by migrating population, which over a period got absorbed into the India way of life. This great
Indian culture comprises of Indian Music, Indian dance, Indian cuisine, costumes and Indian
festivals.

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2.12 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress Answers I
1. AHL Fox Pitt-Rivers.
2. 1999.
Check Your Progress Answers II
1. 22 languages.
2. Baisakhi.

2.13 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Discuss the concept of evolution of culture
2. Explain the features of evolution of Indian Culture
3. Write an essay on Composite Culture
II Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each
1. Write the different Indian Languages
2. Explain the Mixed Heritage in India
3. Discuss the important Buddhist Stupas

2.14 BOOKS FOR FURTHER READINGS

1. Albert William Hughes : Outlines of Indian History
2. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan : The History & Culture of Indian People
3. ilkanta Sasthri : A History of India
4. Romila Thapar : History of India
5. Sarma R S : Ancient India
- Dr. Vaddanam Srinivas

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 UNIT: 3 SALIENT FEATURE OF INDIAN CULTURE
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Huge extent area
3.2.1 Sub-Tropical Area:
3.2.2 Dominance of the north:
3.2.3 Great rivers
3.2.4 Position of Urban area:
3.2.5 Coast-Line
3.2.6 The scenes of Indian history:
3.2.7 Fortresses:
3.2.8 Sea- Power:
3.2.9 Diversity:
3.3. Unity in Diversity:
3.3.1 Political Unity:
3.3.2 Fundamental unity of Hinduism:
3.3.3 Limitations of Unity:
3.3.4. History of Indian thoughts:
3.3.5 Lack of political evolution:
3.3.6 Extinction of tribal constitutions:
3.3.7 Village and Municipal institution:
3.4 History of Indian Culture
3.5 Summery
3.6 Model Answer to Check your Progress
3.7 Model Examination Questions
3.8 Further Readings

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should able to:
1. Know the geographical conditions of India
2. explain the dominance of North
3. Discuss the fundamental unity of Hinduism
4. Analyse the Indian culture and heritage
5. Describe the unity in diversity
19
3.1. INTRODUCTION:
The sub-continent of India stretching from the Himalayas to the sea is known to the
Hindus as “Bharathavarsha” or the land of “Bartha” a king famous in puranic tradition. It was
set to from past of a longer unit called Janbudhwipa. Which was considered to be the innermost
of seven concentric island Continents in to which the earth conceived by Hindu cosmographers,
was supposed to have been divided. The puranic account of these insular continents contains a
good ideal of what is fanciful, but early Buddhist evidence suggests that Jabudwipa was a
territorial designation. Actually in use from the 3rd century B.C at the latest and was applied to
that part of Asia. Outside china throughout which the powers of the great imperial family of
the Mauryas made itself felt.
The Name of India was applied to the country by the Greeks. It corresponds to the
“Hindu” of the old Persian epigraphy’s, like “saptha sindhavah”, Haptha sindhu the appellations
of the country of the Aryans in the Veda and the Vedanta. It is derived from the Sindhu (the
Indus) the great river which constitutes the most imposing feature of that past of the sub-
continent which seems to have been the cradle of the its earliest known civilization closely
connected with Hindu are the later designation Hindu and Hindustan as found in the pages of
medieval writers.
The fundamental unity of India his emphasised by the name “Bharathavarsha “or land
of ‘Bharatha’ given to the whole country in the epics and the Puranas and the designation as
Bharatha santhathi or descendants of Bharatha applied to its people the country that lies north
of the ocean and south of the Himalayan mountains is called “Bharathavarsha” their war well
non descendents of Bharatha.

3.2. HUGE EXTENT AREA

Formal technical descriptions of the geographical and physical features of India may
be found in many easily accessible books, and need not be reproduced here, but certain
geographical facts with a direct being on the history require brief comment, because as ‘Richard
Hakluyt’ truly observed long ago, geography and chronology are the sun and the moon. The
right eye and the left eye of all history. The large extent of the area of India. Which may be
correctly designated as a sub-continent, is a material geographical fact. The history of a region
so vast bounded by a coast –line of about 7516.5km, more or less and a mountain barrier on the
north some 2400km in length and inhabited by a population numbering nearly 121 crores.
Necessarily must be long and intricate. The detailed treatment suitable to the story of a small
country cannot be applied in a general history of India.
3.2.1 Sub-Tropical Area:
Another geographical fact, normally that India comprises both a large continental, sub-
tropical area, and an approximately equal peninsular tropical area, has had immense influence
upon the history
Three territorial compartments:
Geographical conditions divided Indian history until the nineteenth century, into three
well marked territorial compartments, not to mention minor distinct areas such as the Konkan,
the Himalayan region and others. The three are
1) The northern plains forming the basins of the Indus and Ganges.

20
2) The Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narbada and to the north of the
Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers: and
3) The far south beyond those rivers, comprising the group of Tamil states ordinarily
each of those three geographical compartments has had a distinct highly complex
story of its own. The points of contact between the three histories are not very
numerous
3.2.2 Dominance of the north:
Usually the northern plains, the Aryavarta of the Hindu period, and the Hindustan of
more recent times, have been the seat of the principal empires and the scene of the events most
interesting to the outer world. The wide waterways of the great snow-fed rivers and the festive
level plains are natural advantages, which have inevitably attracted a teeming population from
time immemorial. The open nature of the country, easily accessible to martial invaders from the
north-west, has given frequent occasion for the formation purposeful kingdoms ruled by vigorous
foreigners.
The peninsular the peninsular, tropical section of India, isolated from the rest of the
worker in its position and in content with other countries only, by sea – borne commerce has
pursed its own course little noticed by and caring little for foreigners. The historian of India is
bound by the nature of things to direct his attention primarily to the north and is able to give only
a secondary place to the story of the Deccan plateau and the far south.
No southern power could ever succeed in mastering the north but the more ambitions
rulers of Aryavarta or Hinduism often have extended their sway for beyond the dividing.
3.2.3 Great rivers
The foregoing general observations indicate broadly the ways in which the geographical
position and configuration of India have affected the course of her history. But the subject will
bear a little more elaboration and the discussion of certain less conspicuous illustrations of the
bearing of geography upon history .let us consider for a moment the changes in the great rivers
of India which , when seen in full flood, suggests thoughts of the ocean rather than of inland
streams. Unless one has battled in an open ferryboat with one of those mighty masses of
surging water in the height of the rains, it is difficult to realise their demonise power. They cut
and carve the soft alluvial plains at their will, reeking of nothing. Old beds of the Sutlej can be
traced across a space. Eighty-five miles wide the Indus the Ganges, the Kosi, the Brahmaputra,
and scores of other rivers behave, each according to its ability, in the same way, despising all
barriers, natural or artificial.
Professedly learned are not afraid to race his course minutely through the Panjab and
Sind by the help of some modern map, and to offer pretended identifications of sites upon the
banks of rivers, which certainly were somewhere else twenty-two centuries ago. We know
that they must have been somewhere else. Though, where they were no man can tell. So with
the Vedic rivers. Several of which bear the ancient name the rivers of the rishis were not the
rivers of today. The descriptions prove that in the old. Old days their character often differed
completely from what it now is and experience teaches that their cones must have been widely
divergent, commentators in their arm-chairs with the latest edition of the Indian atlas opened
out before them are not always willing to be bothered with such inconvenient facts.
3.2.4 Position of Urban area:

21
 In connection with that topic another point may be mentioned. The founders of the
more important old cities almost invariably belt, if possible on the bank of a river and not only
that, but between two rivers is in the triangle above the Confluence. Dozens of examples might
be citied, but one must suffice. The ancient Imperial capital, Pataliputra represented by the
modern Patna. Occupied such a secure position between the guarding waters of the son and
the Ganges. The existing City, twelve miles or so below the confluence, has lost the strategical
advantages of its predecessor. Historians who forget the position of Patliputra in relation to the
rivers go hopelessly wrong in their comments on the text of the ancient Indian and foreign
authors.
3.2.5 Coast-Line
Changes in the coast-line and level of the land have greatly modified of the causes of history,
and must be remembered by the historian who desires to avoid ludicrous blunders. The story of
the Voyage of Nearchos for instance, cannot be properly appreciated by any student who fails
to compare the descriptions recorded by the Greeks with the Surveys of modern geographers.
The changes in the coast-line are understood. Statements of the old authors which locked
erroneous at first sight are found to be correct. the Destructions of the once wealthy commercial
cities of korkai and Kayal on the Tinnevally coast, now miles from the sea and buried under
sand dunes, ceases to be a mystery when we know as we do that The coast level has risen. In
other localities some not very distant from the places named, the converse has happened and
the sea has advanced ‘or’ in other words. The land has sunk. The careful investigator of
ancient history needs to be continually on his Guard against the insides deceptions of the modern
map, many Lamed professors’, German and others have tumbled headlong into the pit. The
subject being a hobby of mine I must not ride the steed too far.
3.2.6 The scenes of Indian history:
Emphasis has been laid on the fact that most of the notable events of Indian history occurred in
one or other of the three great regions separated from each other by natural barriers. Hindustan
the Deccan and the far south continued to be thus kept apart until the Rapid progress of
scientific Discovery during the 19th century other view the boundaries set by nature. The
Mighty Indus and Ganges are now spanned by railway bridges as security as flirty water
sources is crossword by Foot it Dinno Man’s Land of Gondwana the wild country along the
banks of the Narbada and among the neighbouring Hills - no longer hides any secrets. Roads
and Railways climb the steepest passes of the Western Ghats, which more than one tried the
nerves of British soldiers in the old wars. The magnificent natural haven of Bombay always
was as good as it is now, but it was of no use to anybody as long as it was cut off from the
interior of India by creeks swamps and mountains.
3.2.7 Fortresses:
The progress of modern science has not only destroyed the political and strategical value of
the natural barriers offered by mountains, rivers and forests. It has also rendered useless the
ancient fortresses, which used to be considered impregnable, and were often won by bribery
then by assault. Asirgarh in Khandesh, which is the 16th and 17th centuries was reckoned to be
one of the Wonders of the World so that it was Impossible to conceive a stronger Fortress;
defied the arms of Akbar yielding only to his gold. Now it stands desolate, without a single
soldier to guard it. When Lord Dufferin decided to pay India the compliment of restoring Gwalior
Fort to his keeping. The transfer could be affected without the slightest danger to the safety of
the Empire. The numberless strong holds on the top of the Hills of the Deccan before which

22
Aurangzeb wasted so many years are now open to any sightseer. The strategic points which
dominated the military action of the Hindu and Muslim sovereigns are for the most part of no
account in these days. the sieges of fortresses which occupy is so large a space in the earlier
history will never occur again modern generals think much more of a railway junctions from
then of the most in accessible castle.
3.2.8 Sea- Power:
The arrival of “Vasco da-Gama” 3 little ships Calicut in 1498 revolutionized Indian history by
opening up the country to bold adventure. Coming by see the earlier Maritime visitor to the
coast had come slowly for purpose of commerce without any third offer occupation or conquest
it is needless here to recall how the Portuguese pointed out to their success year. Dutch French
and English the path of conquest and so made possible the British empire of India the strategy
karaikal per dance of the North Western passes has deserved somewhat as that of Mumbai
and Karachi has risen.
3.2.9 Diversity:
The endless diversity in the Indian subcontinent is apparent and has been the subject of many
trite remarks. From the physical point of view, we find every extreme of altitude temperature
rainfall and the elements of climate. The variety of the flora and fauna largely dependent upon
climatic condition is equally options from the human point of view India has been often described
as an ethnological museum. In which numberless races of humankind may be studied. ranking
from savages of low degree to polish philosophers the variety of races languages manners and
Customs is largely the Thames of the innumerable political subdivision which character Indian
history before the unification affected by the British supremely e megastar nice in in the 4th
century BC e Herald 118 Kingdoms. Moreover, the actual number Many well have been more.
in all ages the corner of principalities and powers has been almost past counting from the time
to time strong Paramount power has arisen and succeed for a few years in introducing a
certain amount of political Unity, but such a occasions were rare. When no such power existed.
The states hundred in numbers might be likened to a swarm of free, mutually repellent now
flying apart and again coalescing.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. The Hindu name came from the river
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. When Vasco-da-Gama arrived in India
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

3.3. UNITY IN DIVERSITY:

How then in the face of such bewildering diversity can a history of India be written and
compressed into a single volume of moderate bulk? The difficulties arising from the manifold
diversities summarily indicated above are real and present serious obstacles to both the writer

23
and to the Reader of Indian history. A chronicle of all the kingdoms for thousands of years is
manifestly impracticable. The answer to the Query is found in the fact that India offers unity in
diversity. The underlining Unity being less obvious than the super is fix Diversity. Its nature and
limitations merits exposition. The more fact that the name India conveniently designates a sub-
continental area does not help to Unity history any more than the existence of the name of the
Asia could make a history of that continent feasible. The unity sought must be of a nature more
fundamentally then that employed in the currency of geographical term.
3.3.1 Political Unity:
Political Union attained by the subjection of all India to one monarch of Paramount authority e
world of course, be sufficient to make smooth the path of the historian. Search political Union
never was enjoyed by all India until the full establishment of the British sovereignty. And Lee
which is may be dated in one sentence as recently as 1877 when Queen Victoria become
impress of India in another sense from 1858.
When her majesty assumed the direct government of British India; and in a third sense
from 1818 when the marquis of Hastings shattered the Maratha power and openly proclaimed
and the fact that the East India Company had become the Paramount authority throughout the
whole country. Very few rulers Hindu or Muslim attained sovereignty even as extensive as that
claimed by the marquees of Hastings. The Mauryas who defeat the Cellulose Nikator in the
country now called Afghanistan as per as the Hindu Kush surprise authority more or less direct
over off all India. Proper to all north and spots of Mysore but even Asoka did not attempt to
bring the Tamil Kingdom under is domination the empires of the koshas and Gupta where
confined to the north in the 14th century Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq for a few years exercise and
I’m perfect showing power over very nearly the whole of India. Akbar and is historians, never
mention the Tamil States or even the powerful Hindu empire of Vijayanagara which broke up in
1565. But the great mogul cherished passionate desire to the Kingdoms of the Deccan Plateau
his success however was in complete and did not extended beyond Ahmednagar in the latitude
of Bombay. His descendants pursued his policy, and at the close of the eighteenth century
Aurangzeb’s officers levied tribute two or three times from Tanjore and Trichinopally. Thus,
Aurangzeb might be regarded as being in a very loose since the suzerain of almost all India.
The Kabul territory contained to be part of the empire until 1739. The periods of partial political
unification thus summarily indicated afford welcome footholds to the historian, and are far
easier to deal with than the much ling intervals when no power with any serious claim to
paramountcy existed.
The political unity of all India, although never attained perfectly in fact, always was the
ideal of the people throughout the centuries, the conception of the universal sovereign as the
chakravarty in raja runs though Sanskrit literature and is emphasized in scores of inscriptions.
The story of the gathering of the nations to the battle of Kurukshetra, as told in the Mahabharata,
implies the belief that all the Indian people, including those of the extreme south, were united by
real bonds and concerned in interests common to all. European writers, as a rule have been
more conscious of the diversity than of the unity of India. Joseph Cunningham, an author of
unusually independent spirit, is an exception, when describing the Sikh fears of British aggression
on 1845. He recorded the acute and true observation that Hindustan, moreover, from cube to
the valley of Assam, and the island of Ceylon, is regarded as one country and domination in is
associated in the minds of the people with the predominance of one monarch or one race. India
therefore possesses, and always has possessed for considerably more than 2000 years, ideal
political unity, in spite of the fact that actual complete union under one sovereign, universally
acknowledged by all other princes and potentates, dates only from 1877. The immemorial

24
persistence of that ideal goes a long way to explain both the long acquiescence of India in
British rule, and the rapid growth of the all India national congress, under the leadership of
mahatma Gandhi, from a small party of intellectuals to a mighty mass movement covering the
whole sub-continent.
3.3.2 Fundamental unity of Hinduism:
The most essentially fundamental Indian unity rests upon the fact that the diver’s peoples
of India have developed a peculiar type of culture or civilization utterly different from any other
type in the world. the Civilization maybe Summed up in the term Hinduism India Primarily is a
Hindu country the land of the Brahmana’s who have succeeded by means of peaceful penetration
not by the sword in carrying their ideas into every corner of India. caste the characteristics
Brahman Institution utterly unknown in in Burma, Tibet and other border lands dominates the
whole of Hindu India, and exercises no small influence over the powerful Muslim minority
nearly all Hindus reverence Brahmana’s and all may be said to venerate the cow. Few deny the
authority of the Vedas and the other ancient scriptures. Sanskrit everywhere is the sacred
language. The great Gods Vishnu and Shiva are recognized and more or less worshipped in all
parts of India. The pilgrims, when going the round of the holy places, are equally at home
among the snows of Badrinath or on the burning sands of Rama’s bridge. The seven sacred
cities include places in the far south as well as in Hindustan. Similarly the cult of rivers is
common to all Hindus. And all alike share in the affection felt for the tales of Mahabharata and
Ramayana.
India Beyond all doubt processes a deep underling fundamental Unity far more profound
than that produced either by geographical isolation or by political suzerainty. That Unity terms
transcend the innumerable diversities of Blood colour language dress manners and seat.
3.3.3 Limitations of Unity:
But the limitations are many caste which looked at broadly unites all Hindus by
disintegrates them by breaking them up into thousands of mutually exclusive and often hostile
sections. It has tended make combined political or social action difficult and in many cases
impossible. Why it shuts off all Hindus in large Measure from sympathy with the numerous non
Hindu population. The Muslims far largest part of that population being largely converts from
Hinduism are not entire strangers to Hindu ideas. Yet, a Hindu Muslim may be and often is
more in sympathy with and Arab or Persian fellow believers than he is with his Hindu neighbours.
The Rapid growth of Muslim Nationalism in India the foundation of Pakistan or clear evidence
of the every real difference between the two communities in the similar communities Christians
Jews paresis and others are still more distant from the Hindu point of view.
Nevertheless, when all allowances are made forth limitations the fundamental unities
of Hindu culture alone make a General history of India feasible.
3.3.4 Dravidian culture:
The Brahminical ideas and Institutions although universally diffused in every province
have not been wholly victorious. Pre historic forms of worship and many quite un Aryan social
practice survive especially in the peninsula among the peoples speaking Dravidian languages
we see there the strange specked of exaggerated regard are caste co exciting with all starts of
weird Nations and Customs alien to Brahmin tradition. The materials available for the study of
easily Dravidian Institutions are not it sufficiently explored and the historian’s attention necessarily
must be directed chiefly to the Indo Aryans Institutions of the north. Which are much more fully

25
recorded them those of the south an enthusiastic Southern scholar has expressed the opinion
that the scientific historian of India..... ought to being his study with the basin of the Krishna,
basin of the Cauvery of the Vaigai (in Madura and the Pandya country) rather than with the
gangetic plain as it has been now long Too long the Fashion that advice ever found it may be in
principle cannot be followed in practice at presents and so far as one can see it is not likely that
for the present it will be practicable to being writing Indian history in the manner suggested.
3.3.5 Lack of political evolution:
The interest attaching to the gradual evocation of political institutions lacking in the
Indian history, the early tribal constitution of a Republican or at any rate oligarchical character
which are known to have existed among the Malavas, kshudrakas and other Nations in the time
of Alexander the great as well as among the lichhavis and Yudheyas at much later dates all
perished without leaving a trace autocracy is substantially be the only form of Government with
which the historian of India is concerned. Despotism does not admit of development individual
monarchs very infinitely in ability and character but the nature of the deposit government reminds
much the same it all times and in all places whether the rules be a saint or a tyrant
Nevertheless when all allowances are made forth limitations the fundamental unity of
Hindu culture alone makes a General history of India feasible.
3.3.6 Extinction of tribal constitutions:
The reason for the extinctions of the tribal constitutions appears to be that they were a
Mongolian institution the term Mongolian. Being used to mean tribes racially allied to the Tibetans
Gurkhas other Himalayan Nations. The Mongolian element in the population of Northern India.
Before and after the Christian era was believe much larger then is usually admitted the Mongolia
people and ideas where overgrown in in course of time by the strangers who followed the Indo
Aryans brahmanical cult and custom the tribal constitutions disappeared along with many other
non-Aryan institution the brahminical people always where content with autocracy I use the
term auto cracy or the equivalent despotism without qualification intentionally because I do not
believe in the theory advocated by several modern Indian authors that the ancient Indian king
was a limited our constitutional monarchs those authors have been misled by talking too seriously
the admonitions of the test book writers that the king should be endowed with all the waiter and
should follow the advice of sage counsellors. In reality every Indian despot who was strong
enough exactly what he placed it any limitations on his authority. Where Cooperative they took
effect only because he was weak a strong sovereign light. Chandragupta Maurya was not to be
bound by the power of text now afterwards Akbar not withstanding his taste for sentence
sheens moral a Prism was equally self-willed.
3.3.7 Village and Municipalities:
Much sentimental rhetorical with little relation to the actual facts has been writing
about the supposed indescribable constitution of the Indo-Aryan village in the north the student
of highly developed village institutions involving real local self-government administered on
elaborately organised system should turn to the south and examining the constitutions of the
villages in the Cholas Kingdom recorded for the period from the 10th century and the twelfth
centuries of the Christian era and no doubt of extremely ancient origin those institutions like
the tribal constitutions of the north reset long ago killed by ruler who had no respect for the old
indigenous modes of Administration development of municipal Institutions which precious

26
material for so many interesting chapters in European history is almost a blank page in the
history of early and mediaeval India.

3.4. HISTORY OF INDIAN CULTURE:

The limitations in the subject matter of Indian history pointed out in the foregoing
observations undoubtedly tend to make the political history of the country rather day reading.
The more attractive story of the development of Indian thought was expressed in religion and
philosophy, literature art and science cannot be written intelligibly unless it is built on the solid
foundation of dynastic history, which alone can furnish the indispensable chronological basis.
Readers who may be disposed to turn away with weariness from the endless procession of
kingdoms and despots may console themselves by the reflection that a working acquaintance
with the political history of India is essential as a preliminary for the satisfactory treatment of
the story of the development of her ideas.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Indian two epics are
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Gurukhas belonged to the region of
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

3.5 SUMMARY
The most important feature of Indian culture is its deep underlying unity in spite of its great
diversity. In India, differences can be noticed in the racial ideological linguistic and religious
cultures. For many races like Dravidians, Austroloids, Mangoloids and Mediterranean’s India is
the homeland. this was the reason for some historians commenting India as exhibition of races.
This diversity is natural.

3.6 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress Answers-I

1. Sindhu
2. 1498
Check Your Progress Answers-II
1. Ramayana and Mahabharata
2. Tibet (Nepal)

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3.7 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.
1. Discuss the salient features of Indian culture.
2. Explain the political unity in India.
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. write a note on extent of area of India
2. Examine the Unity and diversity in India
3. Explain the coastal line of India.

3.8 FURTHER READINGS

1. Iswari Prasad : History of Medieval India from 647 to 1526 AD.
2. Majummdar. R.C(Ed) : History and Culture of the Indian People.
3. Panikkar K.M. : A survey of India.
4. Tarachand : Influence of Islam on Indian Culture.
5. Yousuf Hussain : Glimpses of Indian Culture.
- Dr. A. Kumaraswamy

.........................................................................................................................................

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29
 BLOCK II
ANCIENT INDIAN CULTURES
Harappa Civilization was discovered in 1920-1922 when two of its most important
sites were excavated. These were Harappa on the banks of the river Ravi and Mohenjo-
Daro on the banks of the Indus. The first was excavated by Dayaramsahani and the
second by R. D. Bannerji. Based on the archaeological findings the Harappa Civilization
is one of the oldest civilizations of the world. It is the first urban culture of India and is
contemporary with other ancient civilizations of the world such as those of Mesopotamia
and Egypt. Our knowledge of the life and culture of the Harappa people is based only on
the archaeological excavations, as the script of that period has not been deciphered so
far.

The Vedic age broadly corresponds between 1500 B.C.E to 600 B.C.E. the
early Aryans lived in the regions of eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and Western part of
Uttar Pradesh. The economy primarily based on cattle rearing and agriculture, so the
wealth is in the form of cow. In the political system the Rajan was the head of the
family. The women participated in Sabha and Samithi activities. In the Rigvedic period
they spread between Sindhu and its tributaries to Yamuna and in the later Vedic period
they spread to Ganga River. Their literature is in Sanskrit language.

The conflict between the Vedic practices and aspirations of the rising social groups led to
the search for new religious and philosophical ideas which would preach against Vedic
religion. Not surprisingly, the Buddhist sources speak of as many as sixty two religious
sects and the Jain texts refer to three hundred and sixty three sects in the sixth century
BC. Many of these were based on regional customs and rituals. But, some of them might
have formed the basis of later philosophical ideas.

The present block consists of the following units:

Unit 4: Harappa Culture.
Unit 5: Vedic Culture and Brahmanic Traditions .
Unit 6: Sramanic Cultures, Ajivikas, Lokayats, Jainism and Buddhism.

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 UNIT-4: HARAPPA CULTURE
Content
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Origin, Extent and Chronology
4.3 Cultural Uniformity of the Harappan Sites
4.4 Indus Script
4.5 Town Planning and Structures
4.5.1 The Great Bath and Granaries
4.6 Political System
4.7 Economical Conditions
4.7.1 Agriculture
4.7.2 Technology and Crafts
4.7.3 Trade
4.8 Society and Religious Practices
4.9 Art
4.10 Decline of Civilization
4.11 Other Chalkolithic Cultures in India
4.12 Summary
4.13 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
4.14 Model Examination Questions
4.15 Further Readings
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. know the origin, extent, scope and period of the Harappan Culture
2. explain the political and Governmental organizations of Civilization
3. Discuss the structural remains of the Civilization
4. describe the social and economic conditions of Indus people
5. analyse the religion, customs and art in Indus culture

4.1 INTRODUCTION
India pre-history which is marked by the first extensive use of metals and the first evidence of
writing. Harappa Civilization was discovered in 1920-1922 when two of its most important
sites were excavated. These were Harappa on the banks of the river Ravi and Mohenjo-Daro
on the banks of the Indus. The first was excavated by Dayaramsahani and the second by R. D.

31
Bannerji. Based on the archaeological findings the Harappa Civilization is one of the oldest
civilizations of the world. It is the first urban culture of India and is contemporary with other
ancient civilizations of the world such as those of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Our knowledge of
the life and culture of the Harappa people is based only on the archaeological excavations, as
the script of that period has not been deciphered so far.

4.2 ORIGIN, EXTENT AND CHRONOLOGY

Harappan Civilization is an urban civilization. The whole period of Harappan culture is in fact
divided into three phases. First one early Harappan phase (3500-2600 BC)- it was marked by
some town-planning in the form of mud structures, elementary trade, arts and crafts etc.,
second one called mature Harappan phase (2600 BC-1900 BC)-it was the period in which we
notice well developed towns with burnt brick structures, inland and foreign trade, crafts of
various types etc. And third one is late Harappan phase (1900 BC-1400BC)- it was the phase
of decline during which many cities were abandoned and the trade disappeared leading to the
gradual decay of the significant urban traits.
This civilization was clearly marked by an urban character, and by the use of not only copper,
but also bronze. This civilization is not only confined to Punjab but also some prominent places
like Sind, Baluchistan, Gujarat and Rajasthan and some parts of Western Uttar Pradesh.
Moreover, one of the most prominent Harappan Civilization site by the archaeologists is Mohenjo-
Daro. This is 480 km away from Harappa. In 1947, after the partition of India, all the well-
known Harappan sites, Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Chanhudaro and Jhukar (Near Larkana, Sind,
Pakistan), went to Pakistan, leaving only two outposts, Kotla Nihang Khannear Ropar on the
Sutlej in Punjab and Rangapur on the Bhadar in Kathiawar, Gujarat within the territory of India.
After that a famous archaeologist named A. Gosh explorations on the Gagger (Saraswathi)
riverside in I951- 1952 declared that there are 25 Harappan sites. Among then Kalibangan
(Ganganagar district in Rajasthan) is most important site. After that, Ropar and Bara (1952-
55), Bhagwanpura (1956-76), Mithal(1968), Banwali (1975-77) Manda (1976-77) and Hulas
(1978-80). Simultaneously, Dr. S.R. Rao explored a large area in Gujarati including Kutch and
Kathiawar, bringing the total number of Harappan sites in Gujarath to over 190. Most noteworthy
sites which have been excavated in Gujarat are: Rangapur (1953), Lothal (1955-63), Prabhas
patan (1956-57), Rojdi (1957-58), Desalpur (1963-64), Surkotda (1972-75) and Dholavira (1990-
91). The last mentioned site located in Kutch district, is one of the four largest Harappan
settlements in the Indo-Pak sub-continent. Prior to it, the excavations at Diamabad (1974-79)
on the Pravara, a tributary of the Godavari, extended the distribution limit of the Indus Civilization
further South in the Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra.
Some prominent scholars discovered many unknown facts regarding the Indus Valley civilization
by their valuable research. Recent excavations in Sind, Punjab and Baluchistan gives the details
of Harappan Civilization which was indigenous. Indus Valley Civilization, people had a trade
relationship with the Sumerians and Mesopotamians that means the trade and the cultural
relations had been highly evolved between the two civilizations.
The ancient agricultural tools were discovered in South Baluchistan and Sind in B.C. 4300-
3000 were mostly belongs to the pre-Harappan civilization. Tile artifacts are like Kulli and Rana
Ghundai in Beluchistan, Mundigak and Quetta in Afghanistan, Amri and Kot diji in Sindh Valley
and Kalibangan in Rajasthan were belongs to the pre-Harappan layer of settlements. There are
different opinions among the archaeologists about the chronological extent of Harappan civilization,

32
when the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were first discovered. It was stated by scholars
that the civilization extended from 3,250 B.C. to 2,7ssot B.C. However, in recent times, since
many more Harappan sites have been discovered and new methods of dating have been adopted,
the Harappan civilization is now firmly Placed’ between 2,300 B.C. and 1750 B.C.

4.3 CULTURAL UNIFORMITY OF THE HARAPPAN SITES

An outstanding feature that distinguished the pre-Harappan phase from the Harappan
phase is the striking cultural uniformity over the vast area that the latter occupied. Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro may each have contained between 30000 and 60000 people water forms was
crucial for the providing of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of the people lived
in rural areas. At the heights of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained4-
6 million people. This overall similarity of style is apparent to us from the material and structural
remains from the various cities. It is clearly seen in such aspects as town-planning, the use of
standardized brick sizes, in many of the technological aspects like pottery types, the use of a
standard range of copper and bronze tools, seal- cutting, bead-making, in a single writing system
and in a uniform system of weight and measures. The excavated material is not identical in
every city, nor is the basic layout of each of them exactly alike. All the same, it can be asserted
that the Harappans had achieved a certain pattern of technical uniformity. Thus, the process
that made the urban culture of the Harappan possible, caused the various little village communities
and small towns to come under a single powerful economic system. This system determined
the character of the complex and mature Harappan phase.

4.4 INDUS SCRIPT

The Harappans were literate people thousands of steatite seals have been recovered, and their
physical character is consistent. In size they range from squires of side 2 to 4 cm in most cases,
they have a pierced boss at the back to accommodate a cord for handling or for use as personal
adornment. Harappan seals are engraved with various signs or characters. Recent studies
suggest that the Harappan script consists of about 400 signs and that it were written from right
to left. The Harappan script is not alphabetical, but mainly pictographic. Attempts have been
made to compare it with the contemporary scripts of Mesopotamia and Egypt. However, it is
the native product of the Indus region and does not show any connection with the scripts of
Western Asia. It is believed that they used ideograms i.e., a graphic symbol or character to
convey the idea directly. We do not know the language they spoke, though scholars believe that
they spoke ‘Brahui’, a dialect used by Baluchi people in Pakistan today. However, the script
has not been deciphered as yet. So, further research alone can unveil the mystery and enable
us to know more about the Harappan script.

4.5 TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES

A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus
valley civilization, making them the first urban centere in the region. the quality of municipal
town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments
which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious
ritual. The most interesting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its town planning. It is
marked by considerable uniformity, though one can notice some regional variations as wells
The uniformity is noticed in the lay-out of towns, streets, structures, brick size, drains etc.
Almost all the major sites (Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan) are divided into two parts” a
citadel on higher mound on the western side and a lower town on the eastern side of the
settlement. The citadel contains largest structures which might have functioned as administrative

33
or ritual centers. The residential buildings were built in the lower town. The streets interest
each other at right angles in a criss-cross pattern. It divides the city in several residential
blocks. The main street is connected by narrow lanes. The doors of the houses opened in these
lanes and not the main streets.
The houses of common people, however, differed in size from a single-room house in Harappa
to bigger structures. The houses were largely built of burnt bricks. The bigger houses had many
rooms surroundings a square courtyard. These houses were provided with private wells, kitchens
and bathing Platforms. The difference in the size of the houses suggests that the rich lived in
the larger houses whereas the one-room buildings or barracks might have been intended for the
poorer section of the society. The drainage system of the Harappans was elaborate and well
lay out. Every house had drains, which opened into the street drains. These drains were covered
with manholes bricks or stone slabs (which could be removed for cleaning) were constructed at
regular intervals by the side of the streets for cleaning. This shows that the people were well
acquainted with the science of sanitation.
4.5.1 The Great Bath & Granaries
At Mohenjodaro, the Great Bath, a rectangular tank, 39 feet by 23 feet (11.88 by 7.01 metres)
and 8 feet deep (2.43 metres), constructed of bricks, is the most striking structure. This was
perhaps used for some ritual purpose. To its West lay a large granary, 150 feet. (45.71 metres)
long from East to West and 75 feet (15.23 metres) wide. At Harappa, on the other hand, we
find as many as six granaries, each 50 feet by 20 feet (15.23 by 6.09 meters). To the south of
the granaries lay working floors (probably for threshing the grain) in rows of circular brick
platforms. Nearby were also found two-roomed barracks where probably the labours lived. At
Kalibangan too, some brick platforms were excavated which may have been used as granaries.
At Lothal, besides the dockyard, the raised brick platform representing the foundation of some
sort of a granary is found. The large size of these granaries reflects the importance of strong
grains the distribution of which was probably in the hands of an administrative authority.

Check your Progress-I

Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. The Harappan Civilization script written from?
.....................................……………………………………………………………

34
 .....................................……………………………………………………………
2. What measures of great bath?
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

4.6 POLITICAL SYSTEM

Although total excavations of many of the cities have not been done, we can draw broad
conclusions about the type of life that must have prevailed. For instance, people living in the
citadel area must definitely have been an elite group. They must have been people who were
vested with some authority, Secondly, from the excavation as a whole, the methodical manner
in which aspects of town planning were carried out, indicates that the Harappan people had
developed some type of Municipal Administration which was under an overall state organization.
Any idea about the Harappan state as such as based on guess work since there is no written
evidence to tell us about who controlled the economy, the civil Government and the religious life
of the state. Though archaeologists have recovered about 2500 Harappan inscriptions engraved
on seals, they have not been able to decipher the script. Thus, we can only speculate the
mechanism of this Government and how it was able to control the various aspects of life in the
individual cities that we have described above. Next, we turn to examine the ways in which the
economic and social organization made it possible for the cities to survive for at least a thousand
years.

4.7 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

4.7.1 Agriculture
Besides structural buildings, there are other material objects found at the various Harappan
sites. With regard to outlining the agrarian base, we have evidence to indicate that wheat and
barley were the main food crops. Two varieties of wheat were produced. Other items that
were grown were sesame, mustard, dates, peas and evidence for rice is only from Lothal,
where rice husks imprinted in clay and pottery have been discovered. The huge granaries
found at these cities indicate clearly that there was enough surpluses produced, and probably
taxes must have been received in cereals. Since a major part of the area where the Harappan
sites are situated is regarded as a low rainfall area, agriculture must have been dependent on
irrigation. This was largely determined by the floods that inundated the banks of river Indus.
Unlike Mesopotamia, no evidence of irrigation channels has been found around the Harappan
sites. On the other hand, walls of burnt bricks at most of the cities situated on the bend of the
river, were in all probability, built to protect the cities from the floods that took place annually.
No hoes or ploughs have been found. However, recently at Kalibangan, furrows were re
discovered in the pre-Harappan phase, indicating that fields were ploughed. One may postulate
that ploughs similar to modern ones were used by Harappan villagers. For harvesting, stone
sickles may have been used. Most of these food-producing areas had village settlements on the
flood plains. It was the villages that met the demand for food from the cities where the merchants,
artisans, politicians, priests and so on resided. We cannot conclude that the Harappans were
dependent one on agriculture. Enough evidence has also been found to show that they must
have domesticated animals to supplement their largely agrarian economy. Undoubtedly, they
must have had a pastoral economy in the hilly regions. Depiction of oxen, buffaloes, goats,
sheep, and humped bulls on a large number of terracotta’s indicates the familiarity of the Harappan
with these animals. Other animals known to them were dogs, elephants and to some extent,

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camels and horses. The evidence for the later is still uncertain, indicating that they were still not
in regular use. Wild animals too, have been depicted on seals and one can imagine that they
were also hunted for food.
4.7.2 Technology and Crafts
Without highly developed technological skills, they would have been unable to carry on agriculture
and trade. The people of these Bronze Age cities were still familiar with many tools and implements
made of stone. However, the main techniques developed by them were in the sphere of metal-
working. Copper was in plentiful supply during this period, and a large variety of copper tools
like flat axes, knives, saws and spears have been found at the excavated sites. Brick kilns
associated with copper working have also been discovered. The manufacture of bronze needed
tin, which was then mixed with copper to produce bronze. The bronze tools discovered from
Harappan sites contained a small percentage of tin, which indicates that it was probably not
very easily available.
Numerous other arts and crafts flourished in the Harappan towns. Seal-cutting seems to have
been a very common occupation. Nevertheless, significant in that these were probably used for
both religious and commercial purposes. Another very popular craft must have been bead
making. The Harappans were experts in bead making. Chanhudaro and Lothal were probably
the important centres for their manufacture, at large numbers of them have been found in
certain structures situated at these sites. The materials used to make them were gold, silver
faience, steatite, shells, and pottery and semi-precious stones. The long carnelian beads stand
out as one of the technical skills of the Harappans. Textile impressions on several objects have
been found reflecting the weaver’s craft. The most common yarns used were wool and cotton.
Among the major crafts, in terms of quantity, brick laying and making of burnt bricks were
significant, simply because of the large amount of such structures found all these sites. Stone
was indeed used, but only for sculptures, of which eleven has been found at Mohenjodaro and
two from Harappa. The statue of the ‘dancing girl’ has become famous as an indication of the
fine quality in which bronze could be worked. The crafts of raking terracotta and pottery
flourished on a large scale. The popularity and utilitarian nature of these objects for ritual
purpose and daily use suggests the immense familiarity of the Harappans with these two crafts.
4.7.3 Trade
Indians had the trade relationship with foreigners from the time of Indus Valley Civilization.
Indus people were encouraged foreign trade and commerce. They imported Silver from
Afghanistan, Copper from Baluchistan. In Harappan cities there are some seals available were
belongs to Mesopotamia. The Harappans had not developed the use of metallic money and
therefore, these goods were probably exchanged for either the finished goods they produced or
with food grains. Harappan people has been followed Barter System in the trade. Plentiful
evidence from terra-cotta models of bullock carts indicates that this was a common mode of
road transport. Communication was also carried on by boats along the river.

4.8 SOCIETY AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

The main character of the Indus Civilization is the urban life. The rural areas not only supported
but often contributed to the socio-cultural development at the urban-rural level. The Indus
civilization reflects a highly developed civic life. City settlements are spread over an area of
five to seven kilometers in circumference. In the social and political life, there is a uniformity of
pattern. The extensions of the houses were in a proper way. The existence of religious-cum-
political leadership of the priestly class is more likely than any secular political authority. The
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society mainly consisted of middle class urban people. The Indus Civilization was highly disciplined
and intellectual dominated society. The Indus society, class-ridden as it was, included
administrators, officials, priests, traders, merchants, craftsmen, landlords, peasants, herdsmen
and labourers.
The rich and the influential people lived in big and palatial buildings, others in smaller
houses; while the labourers etc, lived in barrack-like residences, wheat, rice, milk, vegetables
are part of the Harappan. fruits and People food. They were interested in eating non-vegetarian.;
Remains of stag, buffalo, pig, tortoise, goat, ox and fish have been found. Animal sacrifice was
in practice. Cock-fighting is seen on one seal. Fishing was a regular occupation. A number of
fish hooks have been traced. Traps were used for catching mice.
Harappan people were maintained proper dress. They used cotton regularly. Men and Women
had a special hair style. They were used bronze mirrors generally. They were used”:’ different
types of ornaments, chains, rings and some others which gives the evidence of minute technical
skills of Harappan people. Mohenjo-Daro women were interested in the beauty. They used
some cosmetics for their face. Harappan people had some association with pets, birds for the
passing time. Toilet jars were made of ivory, metal, earthenware, and stone. Small decorated or
glazed earthenware e or porcelain vessels having four compartments were used for keeping
expensive perfumes or cosmetics. The large numbers of toys and objects used in games have
been unearthed from all the important sites. The favorite toy was the baked clay cart. Singing
birds were kept in cages. Dice were used in gambling. Chess Men of stone have been found.
A drum hangs from the neck of a figure in pottery. Some of the signs of script look like harps
(harmonium) and lyres (Violin or Veena). Music and dance were both secular and religious.
Except for the discovery of the fire platforms and small other objects at Kalibangan, we have
not found any religious objects, temple or place of worship at any of the Harappan sites. On the
basis of our meagre knowledge, we can say that the Harappan people had many features of
later Hinduism, such as worship of the Mother Goddess, Pashupati Shiva, sacred animals,
trees, etc. here we can refer to a few leading religious beliefs of the Harappan people Worship
of mother goddess is the prominent religious practice in Harappan society. The large number of
naked female idols are available. Among the Male Gods, the most remarkable is a three-faced
God wearing a horned head-dress, seated cross-legged on a throne, and surrounded by elephant,
tiger, buffalo and rhinoceros, with deer appear in under the seat. It wears a number of bangles
and an inscription of seven letters appears at the top. This representation has at least three
concepts which are usually associated with Shiva viz., that he is 1.Thrimuka (three faced)
2.Pashupati(Lord of animals) 3. Yogisvara or Maha Yogi. The first two aspects are apparent
from the seal itself. The God is sitting cross-legged in a Padmasana posture with eyes turned
towards the-tip of nose which evidences the Yogisvara aspect of the God. When the
excavations were started under Sir John Marshal in Mohenjadaro, there is some evidence on
Phallic (Lingam). The evidences on the idols gives the details of Harappan people worshipped
Agni, water and trees. There is a dance posture inscribed on the seal which gives the importance
of dance. The famous historian Dayaram Sahani opined that this dance leads to the Devadasi
system in the temples after some days. Animal sacrifice is also animal sacrifices. highly evolved
in Harappan society. The Kalibangan and Mohenjodaro are evidences for animal sacrifices.
Although definitive evidence about the religion of the Harappan Civilization still escapes
us, it would appear that the religious beliefs and practices of the Harappan people varied from
region to region. Like religion, different practices are present in burial practices as well. From
the discovery of a grave yard containing at least 67 graves at Harappa by Martimer Wheeler,
it appears that burial was the usual rite. But the burial practices differed from site to site.

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4.9 Art
Harappan people had a great involvement in the art and architecture. The art on the stone, iron,
pottery and seals available, which gives the details of Harappan people’s lifestyle. For instance,
the seals of this civilization can be understood in terms of their economic importance or in terms
of their religious significance. However, to us, these are the most impressive examples of
Harappan Art. Animals were particularly portrayed with great sensitivity, while the examples
of human figures like the sculptures of the dancing girls and the bearded man characterize a
tendency that mark a high level of refinement.

4.10 DECLINE OF CIVILIZATION

Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and some other cities were destroyed in 1750 B.C. and some other
extinct as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh. Mohenjo-Daro people were migrated to other
places due to the frequent floods of Sindhu River. Due to the floods the agricultural, irrigation
system were declined. At Mohenjodaro, it was opined that constant floods destroyed the city
and the people were forced to migrate from there. At Harappa, on the other hand, is believed
that barbarians attacked it and destroyed the-city. Human skeletons hurriedly buried at
Mohenjadaro and Harappa indicates that there was some sort of invasion that destroyed these
sites. But this was not the case with the other Harappan sites. Kot Digi. Kalibangan, Lothal do
not show signs of sudden end. Here, floods caused violent changes in the lower Indus region
and obstructed the usual system of irrigation, thereby bringing, about economic decline of the
cities. This too affected the economic order of many of the Harapran sites. Thus, we find that
in case of some of the cities, particularly the Northern ones, there was total disruption. In
others, although the Harappan culture continued, signs of its decline every clearly visible. And
also some scholars opined that the Harappan Civilization was declined due to the Aryan invasion
from the north-east frontier of the country. The causes of the end or Harappan civilization were
thus many.

4.11 OTHER CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES IN INDIA

There were many cultures which we have described above as Chalcolithic that co-existed with
the later phase of the Harappan Civilization. The important non-Harappan chalcolithic cultures
lay mainly in western India and Deccan. There must be viewed along with the Harappan
civilization, since they tell us about the cultural diversity of Indian pre-history. There are 40
Chalcolithic sites available in Gange Valley and Chota Nagpur Plateau. The similar quality of
the culture is black and red pottery was used.
The importance of these chalcolithic cultures is that, they evolved in a region which
essentially was dry, away from alluvial plains and thick forested areas. This culture characterised
by the use of tools made of copper as Well as stone. The major tools used were long parallel-
sided blades, pen knives, lunettes, triangles and trapezes. Sonic of the blade, tools were used in
agriculture. The people of these settlements subsisted on agriculture and cattle rearing. However,
they also practiced hunting and fishing. The main crops of the period include, rice, barley,
lentils’, wheat, jawar, coarse gram, pea, green grain etc. Skeletal remains from the sites suggest
the presence of domesticated and wild animals in these cultures. And e Chalcolithic cultures
were characterised by rural settlements. The people lived in rectangular r gular land circular
houses with mud walls and thatched roofs.

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Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Which crop was cultivated by the people of Lothal.
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Animal sacrifices evidence were found in the cities of .
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
4.12 SUMMARY
The Harappan Civilization was the first urban civilization of the Indian Subcontinent.
Archaeological discoveries show that this culture evolved from the earlier rural communities. -
Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Banawali, Rakhigaithi and Dholavira
were some of the important sites of the Harappan civilization. Well-planned towns can be
observed at some Harappan centres. These towns were characterised by two broad divisions-
a citadel on a higher mound and the lower town. Burnt bricks were used for building houses.
The towns had good drainage system. Some major buildings at the Harappan towns were the
Great bath at Mohenjodaro, a granary at Harappa, and a dockyard at Lothal. The Harappans
practiced agriculture along with pastoralism. Though there were skilled craftsmen who worked,
in copper and other metals, the stone tools were still in common us-e. They produced beads,
terracotta figurines, potteries and seals of various kinds. The Harappans carried out trade, both
internal and external.-They had commercial links with Mesopotamian cities through Oman and
Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. The Harappan society seems to have been matriarchal in nature.
The people followed different professions such as priests, physicians, warriors, peasants, traders
and artisans. The Harappans worshipped. The Mother Goddess , Pashupathi, trees and animals.
They also followed different kinds of burial practices and rituals associated with them. The
Harappans were literate and their script is in the form of ideograms. However, the script has
not been deciphered so far.
The Archeological sources reflect that the non Harappan chalcolithic cultures were characterized
by regional variations. The use of stone and copper tools was the distinct feature of these
cultures. The chalcolithic cultures outside the orbit of the Harappan Culture did not possess
Harappan traits of urbanity and prosperity. These were nonurban cultures with certain elements
of their own such as the housing pattern, pottery types, religious practices etc. they still subsisted
on agriculture and hunting gathering economy combined with pastoralism.

4.13 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your Progress Answers—I
1. Right to Left.
2. 39 feet by 23 feet and 8 feet deep.
Check your Progress Answers—II
1. Rice
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2. Kalibangan and Mohanjadaro

4.14 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Bring out the main features of the Harappan Civilization.
2. Describe the structural remains of the Harappan sites
3. State the chief characteristics of the economic life of the Indus people
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each
1. Examine the origin and spread of the Harappan Civilization
2. Write about the cultural uniformity of the Harappan sites
3. State the religious practices of the Indus people
4. What are the causes for decline of the Harappan Civilization?
.........................................................................................................................................
4.15 FURTHER READINGS
1. Alkhin, B&R : The Birth of Indian Civilization
2. Jha. D.N. : Ancient India-An Introductory Outline
3. Romilla Thaper : History of India, volume I
4. Sharma R.S : Ancient India
5. Wheeler, R. F. M : The Indus Civilization and beyond
- Dr. A. Kumarasway

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UNIT-5 VEDIC CULTURE AND BRAHMANIC TRADITION
Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Geographical expansion of Vedic Culture
5.2.1 Rivers during Vedic period
5.2.2 Mountains
5.3 Racial Culture
5.4 Literary Culture
5.4.1 Vedas
5.4.2 Upaveda
5.4.3 Later Vedic Literature
5.4.4 Allied literature
5.4.5 Asthadasa Puranas
5.5 Vedic culture contribution to the Indian society
5.5.1 Literary Culture
5.5.2 Linguistic Culture
5.5.3 Inscriptions
5.5.4 Literature
5.5.6 Racial Culture
5.5.7 Religious Culture
5.5.8 Traditional Culture
5.6 Science and Technological Culture
5.7 Ideological Culture
5.8 Summary
5.9 Model Answers to check your progress
5.10 Model Examination Question
5.11 Further Readings
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the meaning of Vedic Culture
2. Examine the Geographical expansion of Vedic Culture
3. Explain the various Cultural impact on History

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4. Discuss the importance Linguistic Culture
5. Analyze the significance Religious Cultural

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Before 1921 the Indian culture started with Vedic Culture, it is opposed to the Indus
Valley Civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization belongs to Urban but the Aryan culture purely
rural culture. The Aryans were immigrant people, whose first arrival in India is dated between
2000 and 1500 B.C.E. After settled in Sapthasindhu they composed a series of religious hymns,
which were eventually compiled into a text known as Rigveda. The German scholar Max
Mullar believed that the Aryans belonged to a race.

5.2 GEOGRAPHICAL EXPANSION OF VEDIC CULTURE

It has long been a matter of controversy as to what region the Indo-Europeans inhabited
before the arrival of India. Many scholars such as L.D. Kalla opined that the Aryans birth
place is Kashmir and Himalyan etc. tried to prove that the Vedic Aryans neither foreigners nor
they did not migrate into India. They were indigenous people, whose original home is Sapta
Sindhu. Ganganath Jha opined their birth place is Brahmarshi-desha (the country of holy sages,
India). According to D.S. Triveda, the Aryans birth place is River Devika in Multan, Pakistan.
The European scholars who assign the Baltic sea region as the original home of Aryans. Bal
Gangadhar Tilak suggested the polar region as the original home of the Aryana.
5.2.1 Rivers during Vedic period
The Rigvedic hymns were written the focus of Aryans culture was the region between
the Yamuna and Sutluj (Sutudri) and along the upper course of the river Saraswathi.
The Rigvedic poets knew the Himalayas, but not the land of the Yamuna and they did not
mention the Vindhyas. The Aryans used the term Sapta Sindhava as the region where they
settled down. In these seven rivers five rivers of the Punjab along with Indus and Saraswati.
The word India corresponds to the Sindhu or the Hindu of the old Persian epigraphs, later the
Hind transformed as Hindustan by the medieval Muslim Historians. The five major tributaries
of the Sindhu are Jhelum (Vitasta), Chenab (Asikni, Ravi (Parusni), Sutlej (Satadru) and Beas
(Vipasa).
5.2.2 Mountains
The Aryanas knew the knowledge of Himalayas or Himavanta but not the Vindhya
and Satpura. The ridges in the Himalayas are Arjika, Mujavant, Silament (Suleman range) etc.
5.4.1 Vedas
The Rigveda is the world oldest religious text and therefore also the first testament of
mankind. It must have been composed around 1700 B.C.E. The Rigveda contains 1028 hymns,
it is neither a historical nor a heroic poem but is mainly collection hymns by a number of priestly
families. The Rigveda purushasukta tenth mandal explains that the four varnas of Brahmans,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.
The Sama Veda derived from the root word Sama, which means melody (collection of
melodies). The verses sung at the time of Soma sacrifice by the Udgatri priests.
The Yajurveda is a ritual Veda. It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifices.

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It was manual of the Adhvaryus who prepared the ground and the altar, offered the sacrificial
victims and poured out the libations.
The Atharvaveda is important and interesting as it describes the popular beliefs and
superstitions of the humble folk
5.4.2 Upavedas
These are continuing nowadays as in different field such as medicine, warfare, music,
architecture and sculpture. These are four in number. They are
1. Dhanurveda:—Deals with the artware.
2. Gandharvaveda:—Deals with the music.
3. Shilpaveda:—Deals with the architecture.
4. Ayurveda:—Deals with the science of life.
5.4.3 Later Vedic Literature
The Atharvaveda, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads all together
constitute the later Vedic literature.
The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas in orthodox manner. They are written
in prose and ritualistic nature. The Aitareya Brahmana and Kausitiki Brahmana composed by
Hotri and Sankhyayana. The Sama Veda has Jaiminiya and Tandyamaha (Panchavimsa)
Brahmanas.
The Aranyakas the word aranyaka means the forest and these are called forest books
because they were written mainly for the hermit and student living in the jungles. These are the
concluding the portion of Brahmanas. They deal with philosophical doctrines and mysticism
and not with rituals. They lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on meditation. Their stress is on
moral values.
The word Upanishad is derived from the root word Upanish, which means to sit down
near someone and denotes a student sitting near his teacher to learn. These are the culmination
of ancient Indian philosophical ideas. There are 108 Upanishads and were composed by several
learned saints. They used classical Sanskrit and not Vedic Sanskrit.
5.4.4 Allied literature
The Smriti means remembrance. These are regarded as a part of the revelation.
Vedangas, these are six Siksha (pronunciation), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta
(etymology), Chhanda (metre) and Jyotisha (astronomy).
Kalpa is the most important, including three groups of Sutras. 1. The Srauta Sutras
(deals with sacrifices), 2. The Grihya Sutras or Smarta Sutra (ceremonies connected with
family life), 3. Dharma Sutras (rules of conduct for various classes)
Darshanas, there are six schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshans. These
are Nyaya (by Gautama), Vaishesika (by Kanada Rishi), Sankhya (by Kapila), Yoga (by Patanjali).
Purva Mimansa (by Jaimini) and Uttara Mimansa (by Badarayana).
Upavedas, the Vedangas and Darshanas claim to have derived inspiration from the Vedas.

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5.4.5 Asthadasa Puranas
The meaning of history in Sanskrit is Ithias-Purana. These are also sources to Indian
history up to Gupta age. It describe about the Varna system and socio, economic and cultural
conditions. These are 18. They are Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Matsys Purana,Agni, Braha
Purana, Brahma Vaivarta, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Bhavishya Purana,
Linga Purana, Naradeya Purana, Shiva Purana, Markendaya Purana, Garuda Purana.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Which is the first Veda?
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Who was written Kausitiki Brahmana
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
5.5 VEDIC CULTURE CONTRIBUTION TO THE INDIAN SOCIETY
The contribution of Vedic culture in Indian society is rituals and sacrifices. With these
religious activities the priesthood also developed in the religious culture. And also gave the
development of science and technology. After the decline of Vedic the religious movements
started in north India in 6th century. In the political field Magadha emerged among 16
Mahajanapadas.
5.5.1 Literary Culture
The word Veda comes from root vid, which means to know, signifying knowledge. The
Sanskrit root word Vid appears in the Latin Videre, which means to see, the Vedas are said to
have been passed from one generation to the next generation through verbal transmission,
therefore known as Shruti (to hear) literature. Vedic literature means four Vedas, Samhitas,
Brahmanikas, Arayaka and Upanishads. The epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata were
written in Sanskrit language.
5.5.2 Linguistic Culture
With the advent of Aryans the Sanskrit language language came to India. The Vedas,
Vedangas, Sruti and smriti literature and the Samhitas, Aryanakas, Brahmanikas and Upanishads
are written in Sanskrit. The Indo-Aryans languages developed in India. The Aryans used Sanskrit
language in their every literature. The sacred literature of the Hindus are Bhagavatgita is the
most important. The Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata are the ideal scriptures. The Puranas
also highlights the Indian literature.
5.5.3 Inscriptions
With the impact of Vedic Culture and Sanskrit language number of inscriptions have
written in Sanskrit. Panini was the father of the Sanskrit language. He wrote Astadayi. The
first Sanskrit inscription Junagarh has written by Rudradamana in 150 C.E. Ehavala Santamula’s

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Nagarjunakonda inscription is the first Sanskrit inscription in south India.
5.5.4 Literature
The Vedic literature is in Sanskrit language. Rigveda is the earliest Sanskrit text in
India. Kautilya wrote Arthasastra in Sanskrit. The first Historian Kalhana wrote Rajatarangini
(History of Kashmir Kings) in Sanskrit. Kalidas writings are in Sanskrit language.
5.5.6 Racial Culture
The Bharatas were in the Rigvedic age, settled in the region between the Saraswathi
and Yamuna. The Purus is another important tribe they, were close connected Tritsus and
Bharatas and lived on either side of the Saraswati. The allies of the Purus were The Anus,
Druhyus, Yadus and Turvasas against the Bharatas. According to Zimmar, these five are
Panchjanah of the Rigveda. The Gandharis lived in North-west of India. The Yadu and Turvasa
closely allied tribes lived in the southern Punjab.
5.5.7 Religious Culture
People in the Vedic age were solely theists. The Indian people believed idol worship
and polytheists. Downtrodden people also followed the Indian traditions and customs. During
Rigvedic period the Varna system originated, from this system the traditions and customs continued
from here. On the based on the part of Hindu religions the Buddhism. Jainism and Sikhism
originated in India. These are considered as Hindu religion. The Vedic people worshipped the
natural phenomena such as the sky, thunder, rain, air etc. for the different appearance of the
sky different deities were imagined such as Varuna, Indra, Mitra, Dyu were the principal sky
gods and among them Indra was the producer of rain.
5.5.8 Traditional Culture
The Rigvedic Purusasuktha tenth mandal describe about varna system. Now it is this
fourfold division of Varna system in the society continuing nowadays also. In the family the
father is the head. The father is the head of the family. Daughter has been described as a
source of misery. A guest (atithi) was welcomed at all times and special guests like the teacher,
the king, the father-in-law etc. cleanliness was not merely a habit, it was a passion. The Aryan
peoples were warlike.
In India all the traditions originated from Varnasrama system. Since rigvedic period
these traditions are followed by all Hindu classes. This system also followed by Jains and other
non-Vedic religious believers. Music also very important element to the Hindus not only
entertainment but also devotional.

5.6 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGICAL CULTURE

The Vedic people contributed science and technology to the world. Mathematics,
Astronomy and Medicine has great progress during this period. The term Ganita (Mathematics)
meaning the science of calculation. The Vedic people contributed practical Geometry for the
construction of fire altars, which used for sacrifices. Astronomy was studied as Jyotishaya,
developed mainly for the purpose of auspicious time to perform various sacrifices. It details
several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, Eclips,
Ritus (seasons) and Yugas (Time period) are also described. In the later period it was very well
developed by our Indian astronomers like Aryabhatta, Varahamihira etc.

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 The famous Physician Susrutha wrote a book on surgery, there he mentioned about
cataract surgery and operating tools. Another Physician Charaka wrote Charaka Samihita,
which describes various diseases, medicinal plants and herbs. Scientific techniques were used
in Metallurgy, making of fire altars, coins, jewellary and pottery.

5.7 IDEOLOGICAL CULTURE

The Indians expressed different opinion about one thing. This opinion not belongs to
religion but also social issue. With the impact of Vedic rituals and sacrifices the animal sacrifices
began and with the impact of Jainism and Buddhism the idea of non-violence developed. The
Indians treated Buddhists and Muslims are the same. The Indians learnt protection of own
religious dharma from Muslims and they established political societies by the Rajputs and
Vijayanagara rulers. The muslims translated famous Indian literature and science into Arabic
and Persian. The Indian historian Kalhana impressed by Muslim histography writers.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Ehavala Santamula’s Nagarjunakonda inscription was first Sanskrit inscription in
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Rain produced God was
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
5.8 SUMMARY
The Vedic age broadly corresponds between 1500 B.C.E to 600 B.C.E. the early
Aryans lived in the regions of eastern Afghanistan, Punlab and Western part of Uttar Pradesh.
The economy primarly based on cattle rearing and agriculture, so the wealth is in the form of
cow. In the political system the rajan was the head of the family. The women participated in
Sabha and Samithi activities. In the Rigvedic period they spread between Sindhu and its tributaries
to Yamuna and in the latervedic period they spread to Ganga river. Their whole literature in
Sanskrit language.

5.9 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your Progress Answers—I
1. Rigveda
2. Sankhyayana
Check your Progress Answers—II
1. South India
2. Indra

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5.10 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION
I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Write an essay on Vedic culture
2. Describe about the Linguistic culture
3. Explain about the allied literature
II. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Allied literature in Vedic period
2. Describe about traditional culture
3. Describe about the Later Vedic literature

5.11 BOOKS FOR FURTHER READINGS

1. A.L., Basham : The Wonder that was India
2. B.N. Luniya : Life and culture in Ancient India
3. R.S. Sharma : Advent of the Aryans in India
4. D.D. Kosambi : The cultural civilization of Ancient India, A
Historical outline
5. R.C. Majumdar., (ed) : The Vedic Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Series,
Vol. I

I.RAVINDRAM

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 UNIT 6: SRAMANIC CULTURES, AJIVIKAS, LOKAYATS,
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM
Contents
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Emergence of New Religious Sects
6.3 Ajivikas
6.4 Lokayatas or Charvakas
6.5 Jainism
6.5.1 Parshvanath
6.5.2 Mahavira Life
6.5.3 Teachigsn of Mahavira
6.5.4 Spread of Jainism
6.5.5 Jain literature
6.5.6 Jain Architecture
6.5.7 Decline of Jainism
6.6 Buddhism
6.6.1 Teachings of Buddha
6.6.2 Spread of Buddhism
6.6.3 Buddhist Sangha
6.6.4 Decline of Buddhism
6.7 Summery
6.8 model Answers to Check Your Progress
6.9 Model Examination Questions
6.10 Further Readings

6.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the principles of Ajivikas and Lokayats .
2. Examine the foundation Jainism in India.
3. Discuss the contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture.
4. Explain the foundation of Buddhism in India.
5. Describe the contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture.

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6.1 INTRODUCTION
The changes, such as the expansion of the agrarian base, the growth of towns, and the
emergence of a rich and powerful land-owning class, the increase in the number of the artisan
class and so on, were closely linked with changes in the sphere of religion and philosophical
speculation. The sixth century BC witnessed the spread of a wide range of philosophical
speculation that ranged from determinism to materialism. The Upanishad thought of the earlier
period had maintained a tradition of unorthodox thinking in that, its writers had rejected the
emphasis on rituala and sacrifice.
We have thus to see the growth of Buddhism amidst the general ethical and religious
movements of the period. We are familiar with the names of Gautama Buddha and Vardhamana
Mahavira, the asceticism they practiced had become a widespread phenomenon during this
period. They had a wide implication as the many groups who took to religious protest, all rejected
the Vedas as a source of knowledge. Thus, apart from the generation of new religious and social
ideas, they had a strong basis in protest, the results of which were seen more in the social sphere
than in the religious one.

6.2 EMERGENCE OF NEW RELIGIOUS SECTS:

The conflict between the Vedic practices and aspirations of the rising social groups led
to the search for new religious and philosophical ideas which would preach against Vedic religion.
Not surprisingly, the Buddhist sources speak of as many as sixty two religious sects and the Jain
texts refer to three hundred and sixty three sects in the sixth century BC. Many of these were
based on regional customs and rituals. But, some of them might have formed the basis of later
philosophical ideas.

6.3 AJIVIKAS
The Ajivikas belonged to an ancient Indian sect of naked wandering ascetics who
believed in karma, fatalism and extreme passivity. They were a popular sect during the reign of
Bindusara, the Mauryan emperor. He and his wife were said to be followers of this section.
The sect is also mentioned in the edicts of Asoka. One of the most popular was the Ajivika sect.
Though it had been around for ages, its most important leader Makkhali Goshala was a
contemporary of both the Buddha and Mahavira.
The Ajivikas’ central belief was that absolutely everything is predetermined by fate, or
niyati, and hence human action has no consequence one way or the other. According to them,
each soul’s course was like a ball of thread that is unravelling. It will go as it has to go, and
similarly each cycle of life and death will have to be experienced, as will joy and sorrow. Once
the ball of thread is fully unwound, its journey will end, and so the soul will be liberated through
nirvana.
Like Jains, Ajiviks wore no clothes, and lived as ascetic monks in organised groups.
They were known to practice extremely severe austerities, such as lying on nails, going through
fire, exposing themselves to extreme weather, and even spending time in large earthen pots for
penance. There was no caste discrimination and people from all walks of life joined them.
Interestingly, the oldest rock-cut caves in India, the Barabar Caves in Bihar during the Mauryan
Empire, were made for Ajiviks and Jains to retreat and meditate.
The Ajivikas had rich lay disciples such as potters and bankers. The Ajivika sect spread
across the length and breadth of the country, though their influence was much less compared to

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that of Buddhism and Jainism. Ajita Kesa kambalin was a materialist. He believed that every
human was made of four primary elements: fire, water, wind and sense. After death, these
elements return to the earth. There is no life after death.

6.4 LOKAYATAS OR CHARVAKAS

Charvaka, are also known as Lokayata, emerged as one of the earliest materialist
schools of thought. Lokayata, as the name infers, is the ‘philosophy of the real world’. The
Charvakas denied the existence of God. It’s true that traditionally the Carvaka meaning, ironically,
“agreeable speech” or “sweet talkers” school of thought, was not tolerated within pro-Vedic
schools. Brihaspati laid the groundwork for this school, which was supposed to be one of the
first to develop a philosophical theory. Brihaspati is considered as the traditional founder of the
Charvaka system. Charvaka, after
whose name this school is so called, is said to be the chief disciple of Brihaspati. According to
another view, Charvaka is the name of the founder of this school.
The Charvaka School was a major proponent of the materialistic approach to salvation.
According to Charvaka philosophy, sensual pleasure is the only end of human beings. Charvakas
do not believe in Hell as a separate state of being but only as earthly suffering. Liberation is the
dissolution of the body. Death is the end of all. After death, the body and consciousness cease
to exist. Charvakas believe that there are four elements: earth, water, fire and air. Everything is
composed of these four elements, and it is the combination of these elements which produces
consciousness. Charvakas do not believe in abstract concepts such as vice and virtue. The
Charvakas have emphasised that pleasure and pain are the central themes of life and it is not
possible to separate life from all these. They have also claimed that virtue is nothing more than
a delusion and enjoyment is the only reality.
As suggested by the philosophical ideas of the Charvaka, the education needs to prepare
the individual for the happiness and peace in the present life. The present life and its betterment
in all possible forms were ascribed as the aim of the education system. The Charvaka rejected
the notion of the existence of the other worlds, thus did not give any sort of importance to doing
penance for the attainment of Moksha.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Who was the founder of Ajivika Sect?
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Brihaspati was the traditional founder of
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

6.5 JAINISM
The origin of Jainism shrouded in mystery. In the Rig Vedic hymns there are clear
references to Rishaba and Arishtanemi, two of the Jaina Thirthankaras. The Jains believe
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that their religious system is the outcome of the teachings of the 24 Thirthankaras all Khatriyas,
coming one after the other. The 23rd Thirthankaras named Parsavanatha. The next and the last
Thirthankaras was Vardhmana Mahavira. Thirthankara (for-finder) is the title of Jain partriarchs
of the highest order. They are also known as JINA, “CONQUEROR”, most of the
Thirthankaras are known only by their names and symbols.
6.5.1 Parshvanath
The Jaina tirthankara Parshvanth was the real founder of the Jainism. According to the
Kalpasutra, he was the son of Asvasena, king of Varanasi, by his wife Vama. charpentier
writing in the Cambridge History of India observes that no such person as Asvasena is known
from Brahmana records to have existed. He probably belonged to an aristocratic Ksatriya
family. Parshvath married Prabhavati. He led the householder’s life up to the age of 30 and
then renounced the world. After practicing penance for 83 days Parshvanath obtained
Omniscience. Thereafter he remained a kevalin for 70 years and died at the age of 100 on the
summit of Sammeya Mountain.
Parshvanath was the first historical prophet of ancient India to clearly understand the real
significance of ahimsa. The concept of non-violence is, no doubt, he strongly expressed in his
teachings. The Parshvanath ahimsa means something more concrete. it was his whole existence.
His other teachings are not to lie, not to steal, and not to own physical possessions. According
to the Jain sources Dinna was male disciple and pupphacula the female disciple of Parshvanth.
Other sources are mentioned Suvayya was male lay votary and Sunanda female lay votary of
Parshvanath.
6.5.2 Mahavira Life
Vardhamana Mahavira born at Kundagrama near Vaisali about 540 B.C. His father
Siddhartha was the head of the Jnatrika clan and his mother Trisala was the sister of Chetaka,
one of the foremost men in the oligarchical government of the Lichchavis. chetaka’s daughter
married Bimbisara, the emperor of Magadha. Thus Vardhamana Mahavira came of very
influential Kshatriya family. Vardhamana received education in all branches of study. He married
Yashoda and had by her a daughter Priyadarsana, who became wife of Jamali, one of Mahavir’s
chief disciples. But the grave spiritual problems of the times turned Vardhamana away from the
family life. On the death of his parents, at the age of 30, Vardhamana became an ascetic.
During the next 12 years he led life of the hardest asceticism, subduing all his senses by continuous
meditation, by chastity and by very strict observance of the
rules concerning food. at times, he wandered nacked and
was mocked at by people who pelted him with mud, stones
and sticks. but “like a hero in the fore-front of the battle,
Mahavira with-stood all.” at the age of 42 he received
perfect enlightenment and came to be known as Kevalin
(omniscient), Mahavira (the great hero) and Jina (the
conqueror).
Mahavira moved from place to place and preached
the doctrines he developed. he spent the rainy seasons at
Champa, Sravasti, Mithila, Vaisali and Rajagriha. he
frenquently met Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the emperors of
Magadha. Finally he passed away at Pava near Rajagriha
at the age of 72 about 468 B.C.

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6.5.3 Teachings of Mahavira
Mahavira codified the existing mass of beliefs into a set of rigid rules of conduct and
added a few doctrines to those of Parsva. According to him, a man has tow-fold nature, one
perishable and the other eternal. Good and bad deeds have their effects on man’s rebirth and
ultimate salvation. There is no place for a supreme Creator in Jainism and therefore there is no
need for worship or ritual. It is essentially a religion of self-improvement and Vardhamana
insisted upon virtue and morality. Right Faith, Right Knowledge and right Action are three
Ratnas for the Jains. Mahavir insisted on the four vows of Parsva and added to them the vow
of celibacy. Jainism gave a wide extension to the doctrine of Ahmasa by attributing souls not
only to birds and beasts but also to plants, metals and water.
According to the famous Buddhist text, Majjimanikaya, the Nigranthas believed: “what
so ever an individual experiences…. all has been caused by previous actions. and thus by
cancelling of old actions by tapas and by abstaining from doing new actions there is no influx
into future life, by this non-influx Karma is destroyed, and so ill is destroyed and so feeling is
destroyed, and so all pain will become worn away..”. Thus Vardhamana preached that by tapas
or severe austerities one can annihilate Karma and can become Kevalin, the omniscient, and
reach the highest stage. Salvation according to Vardhamana is achieved by freeing the soul
from earthly bondages. It is a stage of pure and blissful condition (Siddha Sila).
6.5.4 Spread of Jainism
The simple doctrines of Jainism with insistence on ascetic practices have always been
an attraction to the Indian mind. During the life time of Mahavira himself, his royal relations
Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha extended patronage to Jainism. after Mahavira’s death,
his disciple sudharman became the pontiff and propagated the religion. according to Jain tradition,
Udayin, the successor of Ajatasatru and the Nanda kings were patrons of Jainism. Chandragupta
Maurya was converted into Jainism by Bhadrabahu and spent last years at Sravana Belagola in
Mysore. Samprati, the grandson of Asoka promoted Jainism. Kharavela, the Cheta king of
Kalinga was also a follower of Jina Dharma and his Hatigumpha inscription mentions that he
recovered the idol of the first Jina (Rishabha which the Nandaraja (Mahapadmananda) had
carried away from Kalinga. thus it is clear that Jainism was prevalent in the North and it was
even more popular than Buddhism before Asoka.
At the opening of the 3rd century B.C, a great schism occurred in Jainism. During the
last years of Chandragupta Maurya, a terrible famine devastated Bengal and Bihar. A large
number of Jain Monks led by Bhadrabahu migrated to the South and stayed at Sravana Belagola
for some time. The monks that remained in Magadha were under the guidance of Sthulabhadra.
After the famine passed off, Bhadrabahu proceeded to Nepal leaving behind his discipline in
Magadha. The latter could not tolerate the laxity in discipline among the followers of Sthulabhadra.
Therefore a great Council was convened at Pataliputra about 300 BC to collect and revise the
scriptures. Sthulabhadra was sent to Nepal to learn the Purvas (old texts) from Bhadrabahu.
But Sthulabhadra returned with only 10 Purvas out of the original 14. Therefore the canon
established at Pataliputra was only fragmentary and new scriptures took the place of the old.
All the literature was organized into 12 Angas or Limbs. The monks that had returned from the
south did not participate in the Council and became Digambaras. They condemned the practice
of wearing white garments by monks of Magadha. They regarded the Svetambara text as
unorthodox, being compiled very late by a Valabhi monk, Jinachandra, and thought that the
original canon was lost.

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 From the time of the schism, Jainism lost ground in Magadha but it found new patrons
in the Sakas of Ujjain and Western India. Gradually, Rajputana and Gujarat became strongholds
of Svetambara Jainism. But meanwhile, the canon had fallen into confusion. Therefore in 512
A.D, a Council was held at Valabhi in Gujarat. Devardhi Kshamadhara presided over the
Council which reduced the sacred texts to 12 Angas.
In the South, Jainism of the Digambara type was favoured . The Chalukyas, the
Rastrakutas and the early Kakatiyas, contributed richly to the Jain Church. Some of the caves
at Ellora are dedicated to the Jains. Andhra and Karnataka abound in Jain sculptures and ruins.
The Jains made rich contributions to South Indian literatures, especially to Tamil and Kannada.
6.5.5 Jain Literature
During Mahavira’s time the Jain philosophers used Ardha Magadhi Prakrit script for
their literature. Later Jain writers had written their works in different regional languages. The
principle works are 12 Angas, Upangas, Purvas, Prakirnas, Cheda sutras and Mula sutras. Jain
writer Kundakundacharya written Samaya-sara, Pravacana-sara and Panacastikaya-sara,
Umasvati has written Tattvartha-adhigama-sastra, Somadeva Yasas-tilaka and Jinasena
Parsvabhyudayakavya. Other writers Devasena, Hemachandra, Amarakirti and Dhanapala
are most important inJainism.
6.5.6 Jain Architecture
Jain temple at Rajgir, Girnar, Mount, Abu, Mathura and Bundelkhand are fine examples
of art and architecture. Seated Jain image at Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneshwar, carvings at
Satghava are best examples of art and iconography traditions.
6.5.7 Decline of Jainism
The secret of survival of Jainism at least in some parts of India like Gujarat is that it did
not completely break away from Hinduism. Jainism gave a prominent place to lay disciples who
could practice the three Ratnas and go a long way towards the goal. The Jain Sangha consisted
of both monks and lay followers of both sexes. “This organic social bond is a matter stroke of
Mahavira’s genius for organization. in prosperity and adversity the clergy enjoyed the unstinted
support of the laity. More than all “Jainism was never a powerful missionary religion and therefore
it was comparatively free from the hostility of other religions”.

6.6 BUDDHISM
Gautama Buddha, the founder of the Buddhism, was one of the greatest and noblest
teachers that the world has ever seen. if some like to call him the Light of Asia, others prefer
to describe him as the Light of the World. Gautama was the son of Suddhodana, the el;ected
Raja of the Sakya Republican clan of Kapilavastu. his mother, Mayadevi was a princess of the
neighbouring Koliya clan. He was born in 563 BC Lumbini (now in Nepal) a few miles from
Kapilavastu and was named Siddhartha. Gautama was his family name. as Mayadevi died a
few days after his birth, Gautama was brought up by his stepmother Mahaprajapati, who was
his mother’s sister as well.
Siddhartha was trained in all the princely arts in which he excelled the other princes of his age.
From his early boyhood he developed a compassionate nature and gradually grew indifferent to
worldly pleasures. Fearing that Siddharatha would turn into an ascetic, Suddhodana filled his
life with the choicest material of luxury and at a very early age of 19 married him to a handsome

53
princess, Yashodhara. In due course, a son named Rahula was born to the young couple. But all
these did not satisfy the spirit of Gautama which was after eternal truths. Tradition would have
it that one day Siddhartha saw in the streets of Kapilavastu scenes of disease, old age and
death and he was attracted by the serene appearance of an ascetic. He realised that the world
was full of sorrow and the ascetic life only was suitable to find out the cause and remedy of
sorrow. Therefore one night Siddhartha left his home and everything behind and went into the
forests with the resolve of finding out the Truth.
Siddhartha became an ascetic and studied Sastras and Philosophy under a Brahmin
teacher but they did not help him in his search. Then
he went to Rajagriha and practiced the most severe
austerities which also failed to satisfy him. Thus after
six years of fruitless efforts, Siddhartha went to Gaya
where under a papal tree after a deep meditation of
40 days, he received Supreme knowledge. Gautama
became the Buddha or the Enlightened. At the time
of Sambodhi, Gautama was only 35 years old.
Then the Buddha went from Buddha Gaya to
Banaras. There in Deer Park at Saranath, he gave to
a group of five disciples his first religious discourse
which is described as Dharmachakra Pravartana.
From that time for 45 years he toured all over north
India, preaching his gospel to the princes and peasants.
At the age of 80 in 483 B.C., the Buddha attained
Mahaparinirvana at Kusinagara.
6.6.1 Teachings of Buddha
According to Buddhism the existence of the being is like a wheel of causes and effects.
Ignorance gives rise to desire; desire to Karma and Karma leads to the impulse to be born
again and again to satisfy desire which is the source of suffering is to be destroyed, the primary
cause-ignorance must be destroyed; it can be achieved by the realization that the world is
impermanent. Such a realization is the result of the comprehension of the four Noble Truths
(Arya Satyani): 1. the worldly existence is full of misery (dukha); 2. desires is the cause of the
worldly existence (Samudaya); 3. the worldly existence can be ended (Nirodha) and 4. the
means (Marga) of achieving it is the destruction of desire. This is the Astangamarga, which
consists of right view, right resolution, right speech, right action, right livehood, right effort, right
mindeness and right meditation, the practice of which leads to physical control (Sila), mental
control (Samadhi) and intellectual development (Prajna).
There is no place for a personal god (Atma) in the doctrine of the Buddha. The chain of
births is caused by action and it is ended by knowledge. Therefore cessation of Karma leads to
Nirvana. Hence the attainment of Nirvana does not depend upon prayers and sacrifices but
requires constant spiritual exercise and contemplation. Buddhism rejected the infallibility of the
Vedas, condemned the sacrifices as misleading and meaningless and challenged the superiority
of the Brahmin in caste. Thus it is not a “dogmatic and elaborate system of rites, rules or
prayers but a way of life purity in thinking, speaking and acting”. The Buddha was the first
rationalist of the world who asserted that “one was one’s own savior and master without
reference to any outside power”.

54
6.6.2 Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism made rapid progress in a short time. The secret of its success was the
magnetic personality of its Prophet, Buddha. His unparalleled self-sacrifice, genuine piety, untiring
energy, sincerity and capacity to practice what was preached, won for him the love and
administration of all sections of people. The personality of Buddha and his preachings attracted
large number of followers. The lower classes that were exploited under varna system joined
him in large number. Women for the first time admitted to Sangha. the Buddha preached his
religion in the language of the common man. It enjoyed the royal patronage. During the life time
of Buddha himself, the rulers of Magadha, Kosala and Kausambi and the Republican States of
the Sakyas, Vajjis and Mallas accepted Buddhism and made rich contributions to the Buddhist
Church. Under the great monk monarch Asoka, Buddhism became almost the national religion
of India and attained the status of a world religion. One of the primary causes for the rapid
progress of Buddhism was the devoted and selfless missionary activity of the Sangha.
6.6.3 Buddhist Sangha
The first council was held in the Sattapana cave near Rajagriha, a few days after the passing
away of the Buddha. Mahakassapa presided over the Council which was attended by 500
monks. The teachings of the Buddha were collected and classified and adopted as authoritative
canonical texts. they were the two Pitakas-Vinaya and Sutta, dealing with the discipline of
monks and the doctrine respectively. Upali and Ananda took leading part in the preparation of
the above texts.
In course of time, the Vajjian monks (monks of Vaisali) adopted certain practices which
were contrary to the rules of the Vinaya Pitika. Therefore the convocation of the Council
became necessary and it met at Vaisali, 100 years after the Parinirvana. The Vajjian monks
stuck to their views and th result was a schism in the Sangha. The orthodox monks were called
the Sthaviras or Theras while the supporters of the changes came to be known as the
Mahasanghikas.
The third Buddhist Council was convened by Asoka. According to a Ceylonese tradition
it met 256 years after the Parinirvana (c.251 B.C). It met at Pataliputra under the chairmanship
of the learned monk, Moggaliputta Tissa. The Council classified again the Buddhist Texts and
added to them the Abhidhamma Pitika which contains philosophical interpretations of the doctrines
of the earlier Pitakas. Henceforth the teachings of the Buddha became popular as the Tripittakas.
Having thus definitely settled the canonical literature, the Council tried to eliminate all disruptive
tendencies in the Sangha.
The great Kushan Emperor, Kanishka summoned the Fourth council at Jullandhar in
Kashmir. The elder Vasumitra presided over it and Asvaghosha assisted him. Already different
schools of Buddhism came into existence and the Council met to settle certain controversial
questions that arose between the Sarvastivada monks of Kashmir and those of Gandhra. the
council caused the composition of three large commentaries on the Tripitakas, known as the
Vibhashas.
6.6.4 Decline of Buddhism
Buddhism was divided into a number of groups like Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana and
tantrayana ultimately it lost its originality. The Mahayana Buddhists started worshipping Buddha
as a God. This image worship was a clear violation of the Buddhist doctrines which opposed
the critical rites and rituals of Brahmanical Hinduism. With the gradual march of time, Buddhism

55
lost the royal patronage which it received during the period of Asoka, Kaniska and
Harshavardhana. Most parts of Northern India were ruled by the Rajput’s from eight to twelfth
century who found great pleasure in fighting. They discarded the Buddhist principle of non-
violence. They patronized Hinduism which was a martial religion. The Muslim invasion practically
gave a death blow to Buddhism in India. The riches of Buddhists Viharas attracted the attention
of the Muslim invaders. So the Buddhist Viharas became the targets of Muslim invasion whose
sole intention was to plunder the wealth. The revival of Brahmanical Hinduism also served as
a cause for the decline of Buddhism. The rites and rituals of Hinduism were simplified. It also
incorporated Buddhist principle of non-violence and accepted Buddha as a Hindu incarnation.
The Gupta rulers were great patrons of Brahmanical religion and did a lot for it. The important
cause of the decline and fall of Buddhism was the decline of Buddhist Sanghas. The Sanghas
became centres of corruption. The discipline of Vinay pitaka was violated.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Where is Mahavira was born?
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. The Third Buddhist Council was held in the reign of
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
6.7 SUMMERY
In the Indian Society, there was a reaction to the domination of the Brahmins, particularly
from the Kshatriyas, due to economic and social changes in the society. The sixth century B.C.
in the field of religion, was an age of protest against orthodox and old beliefs and practices.
Ajivakas, Charvakas and Jainism are an important religion sects which became prominent in
the 6th century B.C., Ajita Kesakambala, Brihaspati and Vardhamana Mahavira were laid emphasis
on the principles of non-violence. Buddhism is another religion which arose in the 6th Century
B.C. Buddha advocated the middle path. Jainism and Buddhism contributed richly to the
intellectual and cultural traditions of India. Several other heterodox sects arose, some of which
laid emphasis on materialist philosophy.

6.8 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress Answers-I
1. Makkhali Goshala
2. Charvakas
Check Your Progress Answers-II
1. Kundagrama near Vaisali
2. Asoka

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6.9 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.
1. Write a note on Jainism and its contribution to Indian Society.
2. Discuss the principles and spread of Buddhism in India.
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Explain the Ajivikas Sects Principles.
2. Examine the Charvakas Sects Principles

6.10 Further Readings

1. Bapat (Ed) : 2500 Years of Buddhism
2. Coomarswamy, A : Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism
3. Jain, M.C : Life of Mahavira.
4. Rhys Davids : Buddhist India
5. Thompson, E.J : History of Buddhist Thought
- Dr. Nageshwar Joolu

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58
 BLOCK III
EVOLUTION OF COMPOSITE CULTURES
The rise and spread of different sectarian religions, notably Vedic religion,
Bhagavata cult, Shaktism Vaishnavism and Saivism radically changes the whole
religious outlook of India. The Vedic pantheon and the sacrificial form of worship
gradually recede into the background, and the sacrificial form of worship gradually
recedes into the background and lineaments of Vedic gods become dimmer and
dimmer. Many of them are lost in oblivion, some are transformed beyond
recognisation, the remaining few evoke at best memories of respect and reverence
rather the spiritual fervor or even religious enthusiasm. The religious movement
definitely swings forward from the abstract to the concrete.

The Bhakti movement was the most important religious movement of the Medieval
period in Indian History. Like Buddhism and Jainism, it was a reform movement. It
was also a reaction against the predominance of rituals in the Hindu religion. It is
said that the Bhakti cult is as old as the fifth century B.C. and that; the Bhagavad
Gita also contains the philosophy of the Bhakti cult. But, the Bhakti cult, as preached
by Ramananda, Chaitanya, Kabir and others, originated in 11th century. The
fundamental principle of the Bhakti cult was Bhakti or complete devotion and love of
God. Those who preached this philosophy criticised the elaborate rituals, and
proclaimed that God could be reached through Bhakti alone. Bhakti, it was said, is
the final stage in the spiritual development of man.
The present block consists of the following units:

Unit 7: Popular Hinduism and dissent sects, Savism and Vaishnavism.

Unit 8: Bhakti and Sufi Movements.

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 UNIT: 7- POPULAR HINDUISM AND DISSENT SECTS,
SAIVISM AND VAISHNAVISM
Contents
7.0 objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Vedic Religion
7.3 Vaishnavism
7.3.1 Avataras of Vishnu
7.3.2 Alwars
7.4 Bhagavata Cult
7.5 Shaktism
7.6 Saivism
7.6.1 Pashupata Saivism
7.6.2 Kapalikas and Kalamukhas
7.6.3 Virasaivism
7.6.4 Kashmiri Saivism
7.6.5 Nayanars
7.7 Summery
7.8 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
7.9 Model Examination Questions
7.8 Further Readings

7.0 OBJECTIVE
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know about the various religions in India
2. Explain the salient features of Vaishnavism.
3. discuss the contribution of Alwars.
4. Describe the Shaivism and its branches.
5. Analyse the prechings of Nayanars.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The rise and spread of different sectarian religions, notably Vedic religion, Bhagavata
cult, Shaktism Vaishnavism and Saivism radically changes the whole religious outlook of India.
The Vedic pantheon and the sacrificial form of worship gradually recede into the background,
and the sacrificial form of worship gradually recedes into the background and lineaments of
Vedic gods become dimmer and dimmer. Many of them are lost in oblivion, some are transformed

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beyond recognisation, the remaining few evoke at best memories of respect and reverence
rather the spiritual fervor or even religious enthusiasm. The religious movement definitely swings
forward from the abstract to the concrete. The ceremonial worship of the images of Vishnu,
Siva and other gods, installed in numerous temples, sometimes of magnificent proportions takes
the place of scarified offerings to the host of unseen Vedic gods of vague personality.

7.2 VEDIC RELIGION

The Vedic Aryans religious practices were very simple. They worshipped nature Gods,
who were predominantly male. We find them as Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya, Soma, Pushan and
Savitri. Agni occupies a unique place in this gradation as he got nurtured in the homes of the
ordinary people, and acted as an intermediary between Gods and men. Agni importance increased
with the performance of sacrifices. The sacrifices became very common. The priests were
skilled in the performance of sacrifices, conducted them, where animals were killed for offerings.
The position of Brahmans became very strong and powerful. The theory of Karma and
transmigration of soul became the dominant aspect of philosophy of life. The Upanishads may
be regarded as opposed to sacrifices and killing of animals. The Upanishads also preached the
need for understanding Atma (soul) and its relation with Paramatma (super soul). During this
period the asceticism became popular. Dharma Shastra prescribed asramas such as
Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa as four stages in the life of man.

7.3 VAISHNAVISM
The origin of Vaishnavism can be traced back to the Rigveda the oldest religious literature
of the world. Tradition, however, ascribes its origin to the oral teachings imparted by Vishnu
himself to goddess Lakshmi and in turn to Visvksen, the divine angel. Judged on the basis of the
extant recorded literature, we can find in the Rigveda adequate and unquestionable evidence
for the basic tenets of Vaishnavism. There is sufficient number of hymns in the Rigveda, some
of which are also repeated in the Yajurveda and Samaveda, which speak of Vishnu as the
highest personal god, who is the sole creator and controller of the universe and the savior of
humanity.
In the post –Vedic period, a fuller development of the important tenants of Vaishnavism
can be found in the Agamas, a body of religious treatises devoted primarily to the modes of
worship of God. The term agama generally means sacred texts and refers in particular to the
revealed scripture.
The Vaishnava agamas uphold the exclusive worship of Vishnu as Supreme Deity. The
concept of Vishnu as the Supreme Deity as found in the Rigveda was developed into a cult in
the Vaishnava Agamas emphasizing the exclusive worship of Vishnu as a means to salvation.
Realizing the need of offering worship to one deity in a concrete from these Agamas have
evolved the concept of worshipping it in an image form (arca). As a follow up of this form of
worship, the consecration of icons, the construction of temples for this purpose and the observance
of certain prescribed daily rituals and other festivals in the temples have all been formulated in
the Agamas. All these have influenced the development of Vaishnavism.
The Mahabharata, which is almost the encyclopedia of Vaishnva philosophy and religion.
The identity of Vishnu, with Vasudeva, Narayana and Bhagavan as well as with Krishna is
established in the Mahabharata. The devoted worship of Vishnu or Vasudeva as the sole means
of Moksa is brought out emphatically in this Itihasa. The contribution of the Puranas in general
and Visnupurana of Sage Parasara in particular is significant in developing the Vaisnava doctrine.
The Vishnupurana is acknowledged as the oldest and the most authoritative Purana.
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 The next stage of development of Vaishnavism comes with the era of the advent of the
three eminent acaryas-Nathamuni, Yamuna and Ramanuja, who are regarded as the three
principle pontiffs of Vaishnavism. Nathamuni was born in 824 A.D, Yamuna also known as
Alvandar was born in 916 A.D and Ramanuja in 1017 A.D. the Vaishnavim teachings have
been found scattered in the Vedas including the Upanishads, Ramayana and Mahabharata, the
Puranas, the Agamas and the hymns of the Alvars. During this long period of its growth,
several other rival schools of thought-both philosophical systems as well as religious cults have
come up. We have had Buddhism, Jainism, Pasupata and other forms of Saivism and Saktaism.
On the philosophical side we have had Sankya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimamsa and Advaita
as well as Bhedabheda schools of thought.
7.3.1 AVATARAS OF VISHNU
An important feature of the Bhagavata religion in the Gupta Age was popular worship
of the Avataras, i.e. Descents or incarnations, of Vishnu. Epigraphic and literary records of the
period throw light on the evolution of the theory of Avatara, the germ of which is however to be
traced in the later Vedic literature. The conception of the Vamana (Boar), Matsya (Fish) and
Kurma (Tortoise) avataras not yet connect with that god, are to be found in the Satapatha and
other Brahmanas. The Satapatha Brahmana tells a story about the contest between gods and
Asura for a place of sacrifice, in which the Asura agreed to concede as much land as was
equal to the size of the dwarf. Vishnu, the dwarf, was made to lie down; but he grew so large
as to encompass the whole earth which, therefore, passed to the gods. In Taittiriya Aranyaka
the earth is said to have been raised from the waters by a black boar with a hundred arms. This
work also alludes to the Narsimha or Man-Lion. Later mythology, however, has transferred the
functions of the Boar, Fish, and Tortoise from Prajapati Brahman to Vishnu, the most benevolent
gods.
In the passage of the late Narayana section of the Mahabharata mention is made only
of four avataras, viz, Boar, Dwarf, Man-Lion and Man (Vasudeva-Krishna). in another passage
of the same section, the list making a total of six avataras, while a third passage gives the list of
ten incarnations, by adding Hamsa, Kurma, Matsya and Kalki (Kalkin) to the above six. According
to the Matsya Purana, which also gives a list of ten incarnations, there were three divine
avatras, viz, Narayana, Narasimha and Vamana, as well as seven human avataras, viz Dattatreya,
Mandhatri, Rama son of Jamadagni, Rama son of Dasaratha, Vedavyasa, Buddha and Kalki.
The same section occurs in the Vayu Purana with the substitution of Krishna for Buddha. The
Harivamsa gives a list of ten incarnations which omits Matsya, Kurma, one of the Ramas, and
Buddha, but adds Lotos, Datta, kesava and Vyasa.
The early worship of Parasurama in Western India is indicated by an inscription of the
second century A.D although his conception as an avatara of Vishnu might not have been so
early. the Nasik inscription of Saka Rishabhadatta (A.D 119-24) speaks of the Ramatirtha,
which was known to the Mahabharata as the holy abode of Rama, son of Jamadagni, and was
situated in the suburbs of Supraka not far to the north of modern Bombay. the poet Kalidasa
(400 A.D) describes in the Raghuvamsa canto X, Vishnu lying on the great serpent in the ocean
of milk with Lakshmi rubbing his feet, was born as Dasaratha’s son for Ravana’s destruction,
while the Vakataka queen Prabhavati gupta, the atyanta-bhagavad-bhakta daughter of
Chandragupta-II, was a worshipper of Bhagavat Ramagirivamin (literally, the lord at Ramagiri
i.e. modern Ramtek near Nagpur) who seems to be no other than Rama, son of Dasaratha.
In a large number of epigraphs, including the Gadhwa inscription of Kumaragupta I,
Vishnu is mentioned only as the Bhagavat without reference to his name. In the Eran inscription

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of 484 A.D the god is called Janardana and described as “the four armed lord whose couch is
the broad waters of the four oceans, who is the cause of the continuance, production and
destruction of the universe and whose ensign is Garuda”. There is reference to Hari as jagat-
pravritti- samhara-srishti-mayadhara in a Kadamba inscription of the sixth century. the god
Changu-Narayana, i.e. Narayana on Changu or Garuda, in a temple of the demons called
Punyajana, as the supporting pillar of the three worlds (in the boar or tortoise form), as the
slayer of Madhu and Mura, and as the bearer of the discus, of the club, of the bow of horn, of
the sword called Nandaka, of the jewel known as the Kaustubha, and of the garland of lotuses.
There is an allusion to the slumber of Madhusudana during the four months of the rainy season
in the Gangdhar inscription of 423 A.D. the Alina grant of 766A.D. probably refers to the
parijata-harana episode. The Bhitari inscription of Skandagupta refers to Krishna approaching
his mother Devaki after having slain his enemies. In an inscription from Mandasor dated 404
A.D there is probably a reference to the Sakra festival described as dear to Krishna.
The Varaha, Narsimha, and Vamana avataras are also found in the sculptures of the
rock-cut caves at Udayagiri and Mamallapuram. A temple at Deogarh in the Jhansi District,
U.P, probably to the sixth century, has the representation of Vishnu the Eternal reclining on
ananta with the gods watching from above, and also that of Nara and Narayana. The Dasavatara
and Kailasanatha temples at Ellora, ascribed to the eighth century, also contain representations
of the avataras and other deities of the Vishnu pantheon.
Among the early Chalukyan rulers, Mangalesa built a Vishnu griha and he is described
as paramabhagavata. The title of Sri Prithvi Vallabha assumed by the chalukya and the
Rashtrakuta kings, probably refers to the claim of the kings as incarnations of Vishnu. The
worship of the Avataras became a notable feature of Vaishnvasm. the Narayana aspects of
Vaishnavism became popular in the south India. Standing, seated and reclining forms of Vishnu
attained great popularity.
7.3.2 ALWARS
The Alwars (those immersed in God”) were Vaishnava poet-saints who wondered
from temple to temple singing the praises of Vishnu. They established temple sites (Srirangam
is one) and converted many people to Vashnavism. Their poems were collected in the 10th
century as the four thousand Divine compositions. The poems by the Vaishnava saints were
compiled by a theologian Nathamuni in a text called Naalayira Divya Prabhandham. It
contained 4,000 verses in praise of Vishnu. It also referred to as Dravida Veda or Alwar
Arulisheyalgal or Divya Prabhandam. The total number of Alwar saints 12, Poygai, Peyalvar,
Kulasekhar, Andal and Namalvar etc are prominent saints.

7.4 BHAGAVATA CULT

The cult of the Bhagavatas or the Pancharatras and thus come to enjoy high recognition
all over India by the end of the 3rd century C.E. It had to contend with many rival creeds like
Ajivikism, Jainism, Buddhism, Saivism and different form of animism before it was to overshadow
them.
The Bhagavadgita cult is the earliest and finest exposition of the Bhagavata system.
During the time of the Bhagavadgita, Vasudeva the hero of the Yadava clan was identified
with the Vedic god Vishnu. Later, the deified sage Narayana, whose followers were originally
called Pancharatras, was assimilated, and, still later, the pastoral and amorous Krishna was
added to the multiplicity of traditions. The Bhagavata sect originated among the Yadava people

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of the Mathura area in Northern India. From there it was spread as the tribes migrated to
western India and then into South India.

7.5 SHAKTISM
The five well known Brahmanical sects (panchopasakas) were the Vaishnava, Saiva,
Sakta, Saura and Ganapatya. These sects worshipped respectively Vasudeva-Vishnu-Narayana,
Rudra, Sakti (the female principle conveniently called Durga-Parvati) Surya (the sun god) and
Ganapati (the elephant headed and pot-bellied divinity) the lord obstacles. Shaktism was one
cult, they worship mother-goddess must have been vogue in India from a very early day. The
Indus valley remains the shape of ring stones and terracotta figurines probably symbolizing the
female principle seem to indicate that it enjoyed some prominence among the early Indian
settlers. The female deities are sometimes collectively named as the wives of the Gods, but the
two goddesses that stand out prominent in the hymns of Rigveda are Ushas (the goddess of
dawn) Vak (the goddess of speech).
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Naalayira Divya Prabhandham was compiled by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Shaktism was worship
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
7.6 SAIVISM
The study of Shaivism has seen a great surge the last few decades. While it has
always been recognized that Shaivism, together with Vaishnavism, constitutes one of the major
traditions of Hinduism, it has become increasingly clear that Shaivism, in fact, played a key role
in the development of Brahmanical Hinduism. The roots of early Shaivism can be traced back
to the worship of the Vedic deity Rudra, but it is only in the centuries after the start of the
Common Era that there is clear and reliable evidence for the existence of organized sectarian
worship of Rudra-Shiva, with the appearance of the Pâúupatas, or “followers of Paúupati.” In
the subsequent centuries, the Pâúupata movement rapidly spread throughout the north of India
and different forms of Shaivism arose, giving rise to tantric traditions. In the south of India, the
Shaiva religion acquired a distinctive devotional character. During the early medieval period,
Shaivism became the dominant religious tradition of many Hindu regional kingdoms and practically
functioned as a state religion in many areas of the Indian subcontinent, while also having a
noteworthy impact upon processes of state formation in Southeast Asia.
Saivism is one of the branches of Hinduism it worships Shiva as the supreme deity. It
is one of the major branches in Hinduism. The followers of Saivism are called Saivas. They
believe that Shiva is the ultimate being and supreme god. According to them he is the creator,
destroyer, preserver, concealer and revealer. It is one of the oldest and one of the four major
sects in Hinduism. It is popular religion in most of the south Asian countries such as Nepal, Sri

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Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Cambodia and Indonesia. It is the most prominent religion in India.
Many dynasties in India such as the Kushanas, the Guptas, , the Satavahanas, Cholas, Pallavas,
and Kakatiyas were ardent worshippers of Shiva. They played an important role in preserving
the traditions of Saivism and spreading it.
7.6.1 Pashupata Saivism
Saivism organized worship of the Indian god Shiva and, with Vaishnavism and Shaktism,
one of the three principal forms of modern Hinduism. Saivism includes such diverse movements
as the highly philosophical Saiva-siddhanta, the socially distinctive Lingayat, ascetics such as
the dashnami sannyasins, and innumerable folk variants.
The Pashupata are the oldest Saivist group made of ascetic monks. The name is derived
from the word ‘Pashupati’ which means lord of animals. It is said that the members of the
Pashupata Saivism wandered across the country, making the dust of the roads rise, having with
them their iron tridents or solid cans, their hair oiled and wild, or kept in a loop, their faces
burning with intense devotion, and having keen eyes that see Shiva more than the surrounding
world. They wore deer leather or bark on their hips. The philosophy of the Pashupata sect was
systematized by Lakulish (also called Nakuliúa) in the 2nd century A.D. The main texts of the
school are GaGakârikâ, Pañchârtha bhâshyadipikâ and Râúikara-bhâshya.
They were the devout bhakts of Lord Shiva and were considered to be his white
magicians estranged from priest dominated Vedic society. The Pashupata accepted members
from any cast but preferred Brahmin caste over any other. Their path was tough and blessed
the members with karunya or Lord Shiva’s grace. The sadhana they performed usually begun
with the deepening of an ethical code, the accent being laid on brahmacharya, ahimsa and
tapas. It was a means of self-purification, of removal of the ego, of elimination of the need to be
accepted in society, and to implant into the subconscious the idea that liked or disliked, good or
bad, all the opposites are equivalent if ones love for Shiva is truly powerful. This stage of the
practice was designed to break the ties with the society and their own self.
7.6.2 Kapalika and Kalamukhas
Several Sanskrit commentators critisie on the Brahma-sutra, the doctrines and practice
of religious sects which were preach devotion to Siva and philosophical dualism. It is clear from
his discussion that they are the same as Pasupatas. Vacaspati Misra (c.850) repeats this division
but replaces the Karunika-siddhantis. Yamunacharya (c.10500, the teacher of Rmanuja, lists
together Saivas, Pasupatas, Kapalas and Kalamukhas in his Agama-pramanya. Ramanuja
(c.1017-1137) repeats his preceptor’s comments, in large part verbatim, in his Sri-bhasya. the
Buddhist connection is found in the vernacular songs(caryas) of the Sahajiya Buddhist saint
Kanhapada. He elevates the Kapalika to the rank of perfected yogin. Vajrayana literature also
refers to ritual paraphernalia typical of Kapalika worship-such as bones, blood, flesh and skulls-
more often than Hindu Tantras do.
Nonetheless, all Sanskrit sources claim that the Kapalikas worship the Hindu deity
Bhairava-siva and his consort. There is little doubt, therefore, that the Kapalika were a Saivite
sect. the Kalamukhas are “Black-Faced,” or wore the black mark, or tilak. Yamunacharya
believed to have spent most of his life in Kanchi. His disciple divided most of his time between
this city and Srirangam, about 150 miles to the south. he also made pilgrimages to other parts of
India. Contemporary Kalamukha monasteries in the Madras region existed at Tiruvanakkoyil in
Chengleput District, Vedal in North Arcot district, Koyil Tevarayanpettai in Tanjore District,
and Kodumbalur in Tiruchinapalli district-none very far from Kanchi or Srirangam. Only two

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items are associated with the Kalamukhas in other sources- the bath and ashes and the staff
(laguda). The bath in ashes is one of the central rituals prescribed in the Pashupata-sutra. The
Kapalikas normally carry a khatvanga or a trident (trisula).
In Agama-pramanya, Yamunacharya speaks of a fourfold division of the tantras: Saiva,
Pasupata, Saumya, and Laguda. This clearly corresponds to the four sects: Saiva, Pasupata,
Kapala and Kalamukha. Eating from a skull bowl and worshipping the gods with a pot of wine
are items especially associated with the Kapalikas, not the Kalamukhas. Sanskrit sources usually
portray Kapalikas as charlatan ascetics who wander about with a skull begging bowl and drink
liquor freely for mundane as well as ritual purposes. They also were the ashes of the dead
although no source claims that they eat them.
7.6.3 Virasaivism
Vira Shaivism is prominent during the medieval period in Karnataka and the adjoining
areas of Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. Vira Shaivism derives its name from the heroic nature
of Shiva Himself in his ferocious aspect as Virabhadra. The sect is also known as Lingayata
sect, since its followers wear a Shivalinga around their necks or on their bodies. The sect was
made popular by Basavanna in the Karnataka region in the 12th century C.E. Basavanna who
lived from 1105 AD to 1167 AD in Karnataka. Basavanna is considered by his followers both
as a religious guru and great social reformer. According to this sect, God and the individual
souls are aspects of the same reality. Individual souls make up the body of God, held together
by the power of Shakti, while God is its Soul. Shiva is the efficient cause of creation. He
remains constant and immutable in creation, while Shakti evolves and transforms into the
phenomenal world. The concepts figure prominently in Vira Shaivism, namely Guru, Jangama
and Linga. The guru is the spiritual teacher, a Jangama is a self-realized soul, higher than guru,
and Linga is none other than Para Shiva. Those who aspire for liberation should acknowledge
these three entities and observe eight rules (astavarana) of virtuous conduct, which help them
in their purification and transformation and their final union with Shiva.
7.6.4 KASHMIRI SAIVISM
Some archaeologists have discovered traces of Shiva worship in the proto-historic
Harappan culture. It is not known, whether the Shiva of Kashmir was an immigrant from the
neighboring Indus valley or was of local origin. The conception of Rudra Shiva of the Vedic
Aryans perhaps might have had some influence on the development and early growth of Saivism
in the valley.
The Karkotas came to occupy the throne of Kashmir in the 7th century. Some members
of this family were devoted to the cult of Shiva. Lalitaditya erected a lofty temple of stone for
Shiva Jyestharudra and made a grant of land and villages for the maintenance of the temple.
Shaivism received patronage also from the Utpalas, who succeeded the Karkotas.
Avantivarman’s minister Sura built at Suresvarilsetra a temple in honour of Shiva and his
consort.
In 8th century A.D. the School of Trika Saivisam was founded by Vasugupta. In the
ninth century a monistic form of Saivism developed in Kashmir. The sect is known as trikasastra
or simply trika saivism. The basic texts of the Trika are Siddhatantra, Mâlnîtantra and the
Vamakatantra. These texts are revelatory in character, containing certain theological rather
than philosophical thoughts. It was Vasugupta who first explained systematically trika philosophy
in his Sivasûtra. Later, it was developed by Úaivite thinkers like Somânanda, Utpaladeva,
Bhaskaracarya, Abhinavagupta and Ksemaraja and so on. Kashmir saivism treats the absolute

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under the three principles of God, soul and matter.
Kashmiri Saivism also goes by other names such as Trika Saivism, Spanda Saivism and
Pratyabhigna Saivism. These are representing three distinct approaches within Kashmiri Saivism
without disagreeing on the fundamental concepts such as the unity of the soul and Siva. Trika
Saivism emphasizes the three main principles of, pati, pasu and pasa or Siva, Shakti and
anu, as one reality. Spanda Saivism refers to the dynamic power (Shakti) of Siva, or the first
impulse (spanda), which is responsible for the manifestation of the pluralistic worlds. Pratyabhigna
Saivism refers to the realization by an individual soul of its true identity with Lord Siva. Notable
among the devotees of Lord Siva who lived during this period and contributed to the growth of
Saivism in Kashmir was Lallesvari or Lalla. She lived in the 14th Century AD. Like Mirabai
who excelled in her devotion to Lord Vishnu, Lallesvari represented the highest form of devotion
to Lord Siva. She composed several devotional poems of high standard on L0rd Siva in Kashmiri
language and contributed to the popularity of Saivism among the masses.
According to Kashmiri Saivism, Siva is the one, indivisible, eternal, ultimate, absolute
self, the highest reality, infinite consciousness and a state of unfettered freedom. He is the
absolute, supreme lord, beyond which there is nothing else. Kashmiri Saivism does not emphasize
the need for devotional worship of Siva as a personal god for self-realization. The relationship
between Siva and the individual soul is not that of a servant and master but of equality and
essential identity.
7.6.5 Nayanars
Nayanars were the Tamil poet musicians of the 7 and 8th century who composed
devotional Hymans of beauty in honour of the Hindu god Shiva. Saiva Nayanar poets were
softer the distinctions of caste and gender. The Tirumurai, a completion of Hymans by sixty
three Nayanars poets, is still of great importance in south India. Early Tamil-Siva bhakti poets
quoted the Black Yajurveda specifically. Appar, Sundar and Tirujnanasambandar are requested
as the great among the male Nayanars. The earliest work Thevaram (or Devaram) consists of
about 800 verses and is regarded as the source of Saiva Siddhanta philosophy and the Saints
associated with composition of the above 800verses were Tirugnanasambandhar, Appar and
Sundaramurti Nayanar, the trinity constituting the original exponents of the Saiva Siddhanta
doctrine. The completion of Nayanar poetry and literature is called Tirumurai. It comprises
18,426 songs dedicated to Shiva.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. The School of Trika Saivism was founded by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. The completion of Nayanar poetry and literature is called
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

7.7 SUMMERY
India is the laboratory of the religions. Most of the religious are origin and spread in the
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country. Several Indian rulers propagated various religions in the different parts of country. The
Vaishnavism and Saivism are most important religions in the country. These religions have
given moksa marga. The Alwars and Nayanars are propagated these religious philosophy in
India general and South India particular. Several writers are written various scripts for expose
the religions path and moral issues. Both the Vaishnavism and Saivism played an important role
in the history of Indian religions.

7.8 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your progress answers-I
1. Nathamuni
2. Mother-goddesses
Check your progress answers II,
1. Vasudeva
2. Tirumurai

7.9 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.
1. Write a note on Vaishnavim and its importance India.
2. Discuss the Saivism and its important features
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Write a short note on Shaktism in India
2. Explain Pasupata Saivism and its importance.
3. Write about the origin of Kashmiri Saivism.
4. Discuss the contribution of Nayanars to Saivism

7.10REFERENCE
1. Aiyangar, S.K : Contribution of South India to India Culture,
Calcutta, 1923.
2. Ayyar, C.V. Narayana : Origin and Early History of Saivism in South
India, Madras, 1936.
3. Chanda, R.P : Archaeology and Vaishnava Tradition, Calcutta,
1920.
4. Rao, T.A.G : History of Sri Vaishnavas, Madras, 1923.
5. Raychaudhuri, H.C : Materials for the study of the Early History of the
Vaishnava Sect, Calcutta, 1936.
- Dr. Gajula Dayakar

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 UNIT - 8: BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENTS
Contents
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Bhakti Movement
8.2.1 Features of Bhakti Movement
8.2.1.1 Rise of Bhakti Movement
8.2.2 Bhakti Saints
8.2.2.1 Ramanuja
8.2.2.2 Nimbarkar
8.2.2.3 Madhva
8.2.2.4 Ramananda
8.2.2.5 Vallabhacharya
8.2.2.6 Chaitanya and Namadeva
8.2.2.7 Kabir
8.2.2.8 Gurunanak
8.2.2.9 Tulsidas
8.2.2.10 Surdas
8.2.3 Women Bhakti Saints
8.2.3.1 Meera Bai
8.2.4 Preachings of Bhakti Saints
8.2.5 Organisation of Bhakti Movement
8.2.6 Limitation of Bhakti Movement
8.3.7 Causes for the Decline of Bhakti Movement
8.3 Sufism
8.3.1 Sufi Orders in India
8.3.2 The Growth of Sufism
8.3.3 the Chishtis
8.3.4 Suharward Silsilahs
8.3.5 Impact of Sufi Movement
8.4 Summary
8.5 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
8.6 Model Examination Questions
8.7 Further Readings

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8.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you will be able to
1 Know the features of the Bhakti Movement
2 Explain the important leaders of the Bhakti Movement.
3 Discuss the Principles of Sufism.
4 Describe the Sufi orders.
5 Analyze the impact of Bhakti and Sufi Movements.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The tenth century is important to medieval history for the important changes in the
realm of ideas and beliefs. The religious movements of the medieval period like the Bhakti cult
and Sufism played an important part in Indian history. The nature, importance and impact of
these movements will be explained in this Unit.

8.2 BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The Bhakti movement was the most important religious movement of the Medieval
period in Indian History. Like Buddhism and Jainism, it was a reform movement. It was also a
reaction against the predominance of rituals in the Hindu religion. It is said that the Bhakti cult
is as old as the fifth century B.C. and that; the Bhagavad Gita also contains the philosophy of
the Bhakti cult. But, the Bhakti cult, as preached by Ramananda, Chaitanya, Kabir and others,
originated in 11th century.
8.2.1 Futures of Bhakti Movement
The fundamental principle of the Bhakti cult was Bhakti or complete devotion and love
of God. Those who preached this philosophy criticised the elaborate rituals, and proclaimed that
God could be reached through Bhakti alone. Bhakti, it was said, is the final stage in the spiritual
development of man.
8.2.1.1 Rise of Bhakthi Movement
The concept of monotheism and attainment of salvation through ‘Simple Bhakti’
comprised a significant feature of the ancient Hindu philosophy, i.e. Bhagavad Gita and the
Upanishads. Gradually, however, as Brahmanism became bound by the shackles of rituals,
superstitions, caste system and blind worship of God, the various sects (mainly Shaivites and
Vaishnavas) willingly set aside the monotheistic concept. Consequently, in the 8th century A.D.,
when Sankara stressed the Advaita philosophy (i.e. except formless God there is no reality), it
was interpreted as an influence of Islam on Southern India. Similarly, the practice of Bhakti him
too, was familiar to Hinduism and after Karma Yoga and Gyan Yoga was the last stage of
attaining God. It was also practised by Vaishnavites in their monostic orders which were spread
over the whole country. Over the years, however, the concept and the practice of ‘Bhakti’ had
degenerated.
The rise and spread Islam with its gospel of monotheism and equality of brotherhood
undoubtedly reawakened the latent features of Hinduism and gave the Bhakti cult a new
perspective.

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Consequently, the Bhakti cult was not a reform that arose from within Hinduism but was a
movement against “social repression and religious bigotry of all religions”. It aimed to eradicate
the existing, evils in both Hinduism and Islam.
Secondly, the teachings of the various reformers were a galaxy of dedicated reformers,
who belonged to the poor and the middle classes and were fully conversant and deeply disgusted
with the prevalent social and religious evils, arose all over the country (North, South and Bengal)
and in spite of the distance that separated them, projected identical thoughts and advocated
thorough socio-religious reforms. Far from being an intellectual wave that should have confined
itself to a minority of intelligentsia, the reformers used. the easy vernacular media to express
the Bhakti cult.
However, the real development of Bhakti took place in south India between the seventh
and the twelth century. As has been noticed earlier, the Shaiva Nayanars and the Vaishnavite
Alvars disregarded the austerities preached by the Jains and the Buddhists and preached personal
devotion to God as a means .of salvation. They disregarded the rigidities of the caste system
and carried their message of love and personal devotion to God to various parts of south India
by using the local languages.
8.2.2 Bhakti Saints
Apart from the no-sectarian movement led by Kabir and Nanak, the Bhakti movement
in north India developed around the worship of Rama and Krishna, two of the incarnations of
the God Vishnu. The childhood escapades of the boy Krishna and his dalliance with the milk-
maids of Gokul, Especially with Radha, became the themes of a remarkable series of saint-
poets who lived and preached during the 15th and 16th centuries.
The approach of these saint-poets was broadly humanistic. They emphasised the
broadest human sentiments -the sentiments of love and beauty in all their forms. However, they
softened its rigour and built a platform for unity which could be apprehended by wider sections.
8.2.2.1 Ramanuja
Ramanuja was perhaps the first philosopher and priest of the Bhakti cult in the Medieval
period. He imbibed the spirit of Bhakti from the Alvars or Tamil saints of Ancient period.
Ramanuja tried to dislodge the doctrine of Advaita of Shankaracharya, according to which God
is form- less. Ramanuja encouraged the worship of God who is endowed with a form, and a
number of virtues. This conception of God provided scope for Bhakti towards God.
8.2.2.2 Nimbarkar
A contemporary of Ramanuja, Nimbarkar also preached the Bhakti philosophy. He
went from South India to North India, and preached his doctrines there. Nimbarkar was a great
devotee of Krishna. He said ‘the way to reach the lotus-feet of Krishna is the path of devotion’.
8.2.2.3 Madhva
Another great teacher of this period, Madhva, who was born about 1200 AD. in the
Udipi district of South Karmataka, also laid emphasis on Bhakti. According to him, knowledge
leads to Bhakti, and at the final stage of man’s spiritual evolution, complete devotion to God will
lead to liberation.
8.2.2.4 Ramananda
Another great exponent of the Bhakti cult was Ramananda. There is much controversy
about the period in which he lived. According to some scholars, he belonged to the 14th century,
Some others say that, he belonged to the first half of the 15th century. He opposed the doctrine

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of maya and encouraged people to worship Rama and Sita. Although he was a Brahmin, he
opposed of all castes to become his disciples. He was movie the first among the reformers of
the Medieval period to denounce the caste system. It can be said that he began what is known
as the religious renaissance in North India. Ramananda had many followers in North India.
Kabir was the greatest of his disciples.
8.2.2.5 Vallabhacharya
Vallabhachary of the 15th century was also a distinguished leader of religion. But, as
stated by Monier Williams, Vallabhacharya’s cult became in its degenerate form, ‘the epicurianism
of the East’.
8.2.2.6 Chaitanya and Namadeva
A contemporary of Vallabhacharya was the famous Bengali reformer and saint,
Chaitanya, who was born in 1484 AD. became a sanyasi at the age of twenty five, and toured
several parts of the country. Like Vallabhacharya, Chaitanya also preached the doctrine of love
of Krishna. He said the individual soul can reach Krishna, the supreme lord, by Bhakti and
Bhakti alone. Chaitanya also denounced the caste system and proclaimed the universal
brotherhood of man. The futility of ceremonial rites was also emphasised by him. It was his
staunch belief that love is the supreme regulating principle of this universe, which gave strength
to his preachings. He told his disciples that the message of love for Krishna should be taught to
all men, including the chandalas. Chaitanya had thousands of his followers in Bengal and Orissa.
The religious reformers, who were influenced by Islam, preached monotheism and condemned
the caste system and idol worship. The first among such reformers was Namadeva, who belonged
to the 13th century. He said that God is one and deprecated idol worship. He was a saint of
Maharastra, and wrote in the language of the people, simple poems condemning caste distinctions
and also all types of rituals.
8.2.2.7 Kabir
Kabir was perhaps the greatest of the socio-religious reformers of the Medieval period.
Facts about his birth are shrouded in mystery. He was born in about 1398 AD. According to
tradition, he was born to a brahmin widow, who cast him off near a water tank to escape social
tyranny. The child, it seems, was picked by Niru, a weaver, and was brought up by his wife,
Nima, with great love and affection. Kabir’s philosophy represents the process of assimilation
which has taken place in his age between Hindu and Muslim thought. He sincerely preached
Hindu-Muslim unity. He condemned all kinds of rituals and preached pure devotion.
He declared that there is only one God, although he is called by different names - Ram, Rahim,
Allah, Khuda, Hari, Govind and so on.
“ Kabir strongly denounced the caste system, especially the
practice of untouchability, and emphasises the fundamental unity
of man. He was opposed to all kinds of discrimination between
human beings, whether on the basis of castes, or religion, race,
family or wealth.
8.2.2.8 Gurunanak
Another great reformer in the North was Guru Nanak, the
founder of Sikhism Born in 1469 A.D. at the village of Talwandi

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in Lahore district of Punjab. Nanak showed a mystic contemplative bent of mind, and preferred
the company of saints and Sadhus. Sometime later, he had a mystic vision and forsook the
world. He composed hymns and sang them to the accompaniment of the rabab, a stringed
instrument played by his faithful attendant, Mardana. It is said that Nanak undertook wide tours
all over India and, even beyond it, to SriLanka in the south and Mecca and Medina in the West.
He attracted a large number of people towards him and his name and fame spread far and wide
before his death in 1538. He stressed equality of mankind-”Religion consists not in mere words;
he who looked on all men as equal is religious.”
Gurunanak teaching in the form of verses were collected in a book,called the Adigranth,
which is the sacred book of the Sikhs. The mission of Nanak’s life was Hindu-Muslim unity. In
course of time, the ideas of Nanak gave birth to a new creed Sikhism, and the followers of
Kabir shrank into a sect. the Kabir Panthis. The importance of the mission of Kabir and Nanak
should.
however. be assessed from a broader point of view. They created a climate of opinion
which continued to work through the succeeding centuries.
8.2.2.9 Tulsidas
He was another famous Bhakthi Saint from North. He was a devotee of Lord Rama
and wrote Ram Charitra Manas in the year 1574 AD. He also wrote Gitawali, Vinaya Patrika.
He considered Rama as his model and believed man could reach him only through Bhakthi.
8.2.2.10 Surdas
He was another important poet and devotee of Lord Krishna and Radha. He believed
that salvation can be achieved only through the devotion of God Krishna. His three popular
works Sur Sarawali, Sahithya Ratna and Sur Sagar are very popular in the entire country.
8.2.3 Women Bhakti Saints
8.2.3.1 Meera
Mira Bai was one of the women Bhakti Saints of the early sixteenth century. She was
the only child of Ratan Singh Rathore of Merta. She was married to Bhojraj son of Rana Sanga
in the year 1516 at the age of 18. She was highly religious from her ancestors. After her
husband’s death, she was tortured by her in-laws. Finally she dedicated her life to worship
Krishna and sing his name. She settled at Brindavan and lived till her death. In the year 1546
AD. Mirabai composed a large number of poems in praise of Lord Krishna. They are in Brijbhasha
(partly Rajastani and partly Gujrati).
8.2.4 Preachings of Bhakthi Saints
(1) Unity of Godhead and fundamental equality of all religions as different means to attain
the common goal.
(2) Equality of mankind and condemnation of castehood, for dignity of man depended on his
actions and not on his birth.
(3) Condemnation of rituals and protest against the priestly class who divided the communities
and embittered them against one another.
(4) Adoption of ‘Simple Bhakti’ by all, as a means of attaining Salvation.

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8.2.5 Organisation of Bhakti Movement
(1) Use of Maths and Monasteries which had been earlier used by Shankaracharya were
continued to be used by different cults. They could be compared to the ‘Khankas’ of the
Sufis and were governed by their own principles of law and discipline.
(2) Institution of Guru was yet another important feature. “Guru Bin Hoy Nahin Gyanya’ or
Guru was the chief agency through which salvation could be attained. Consequently a
Guru Mantra like the ‘Wasl’ and ‘Yahu’ of the Sufis, was imparted at the time of initiation
and was even practised by Kabir.
(3) ‘Bhajans’ and ‘Kirtans’ (devotional singing) was yet another important feature of the
Bhakti Marg and its parallel could be found in the practice of music and dancing in
Sufism.
8.2.6 Limitations of Bhakti Movement
Although the Bhakti movement had a good impact on religion, society and the languages of the
people, we should not overlook the limitations of the movement. The preachings of the reform
leaders unfortunately did not bring about any change in the attitudes of the high caste and
orthodox people.
Further, the effect of their propagation regarding social equality and religious unity, was , only
short-lived. After the death of the reformers, their ideas were forgotten, and the same old
conditions of social inequality and misunderstanding continued.
8.2.7 Causes for the Decline of Bhakti Movement
(1) The fundamental cause can be traced to the distorted teachings of the so-called exponents
who after the first series of leaders had passed away rapidly deviated from the true path
of Bhakti and incorporated those very evils which their predecessors had condemned
and tried to eradicate. Their monastic orders and the institution of ‘Guru’ succumbed to
rigidity where the Guru himself no longer remained a medium to attain the ultimate but
assumed the form of God. Moreover gradually, the Gurus started leading a life of luxury
and materialistic comforts.
(2) The Brahmans, in order to reinstate their glory and lost power, cleverly exploited the
‘Bhakti cult’ as ‘Brahman Raksha.’ Gradually it was narrowed down to the revival of
Brahmanism and was later even politically exploited by leaders like Shivaji to strengthen
their position.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Who preached the Advaita Philosophy
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Meera Bai married with?
.....................................……………………………………………………………

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 .....................................……………………………………………………………
8.3 SUFISM
`Sufism was an important religious force in India during the medieval period. Like the
Bhakti movement among the Hindus, Sufism exercised considerable influence on the people of
India, in the social and religious spheres. The Sufis came to India after the establishment of the
Turkish rule in India.
The Sufis became prominent in Persia in the 10th century, and from there they came to
India. Their important doctrine is that, union with God can be achieved through the love of God.
In their emphasis on love, they resembled the Bhakti saints. Because of their emphasis on love,
they were tolerant of other religions and sects. They believed that there can be many paths to
God Because of their tolerance; they did not try to convert the Hindus to Islam. Some of the
Sufi saints were influenced by the Hindu philosophy.
Sufism was also a kind of revolt against orthodox Islam, just as the Bhakti cult was a
revolt against, orthodox Hinduism. The Sufis said that the Ulemas misinterpreted the Quran.
They also declared original democratic and egalitarian principles of the Quran. While the Ulemas
accused the Sufis of being liberal, the Sufis alleged that the UIemas succumbed to temporal
temptations. The Sufis were far away from rebellion. The Sufis were organised into different
religious orders under the leadership of a Pir or Shaikh who can be compared to the Hindu
guru. The members of such orders were called fakirs or dervishes. Some of the Hindu customs
like fasting and meditation, were practised by the saints,
8.3.1 Sufi Orders in India
There were three chief orders of the Sufis in India. The first among them was that of
Chisti. Its leader was Moinuddin Chisti of Ajmir. He belonged to the 13th century. He said that
God can be reached through devotional music. Among the followers Khusrau, the famous poet,
were there. The Chisti order had many followers in the region of Delhi. The second order was
suhra wardi founded Shaik Shihabuddin Suhrawardi, whose following was mainly in Sind. The
third order was that of Firdausi, who was popular in the region of Bihar. Nizamuddin Auliya of
Delhi was respected by the Sultans and the people. He was an honest and brave man. He was
not afraid of criticising even the actions of the Sultan.
8.3.2 The Growth of Sufism
In the early centuries of Islam a group of religious minded people called sufis turned to
asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a
religious and political institution. They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic
methods of interpreting the Quran and Sunna (traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians.
Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God by
following
his commands, and by following the example of the Prophet Muhammad whom they
regarded as a perfect human being. The sufis thus sought an interpretation of the Quran on the
basis of their personal experience.
By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a well developed movement with a body of
literature on Quranic studies and sufi practices. Institutionally, the sufis began to organise
communities around the hospice or Khanqah controlled by a teaching master known as Shaikh
(in Arabic), pir or Murshid. He enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (Khalifa).

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He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction, between inmates as well as between
laypersons and the master.
Sufi silsilas began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around the twelfth
century.The word silsila literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master
and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. It was
through this channel that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to devotees. Special
rituals of initiation were developed in which initiates took an oath of allegiance, wore a patched
garment, and shaved their hair.
When the Shaikh die his tomb-shrine (dargah, a Persian term meaning court) become
the centre of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to
his grave, particularly on his death anniversary or urs (or ceremony, signifying the union of his
soul with God). This was because people believed that in death saints were united with God,
and were thus closer to him than when living. People sought their blessings to attain material
and spiritual benefits. Thus evolved the cult of the Shaikh revered as wali.
Some mystics initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of sufi ideals. Many
scorned the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals and
observed extreme forms of asceticism. They were known by different names - Qalandars,
Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc. Because of their deliberate defiance of the sharia they were
often referred to as be-sharia, in contrast to the ba-sharia sufis who complied with it.
The Sufi cult, like the Bhakti cult, appealed to many low class people. The Sufis not
only preached equality, but practised it, by allowing the artisans, cultivators and other low class
people, to come into close contact with them. The democratic and egalitarian concepts of Islam
were thus effectively put into practice by the Sufis.
8.3.3 The Chishtis
Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the Chishtis
were the most influential. This was because they adapted successfully to the local environment
and adopted several features of Indian devotional traditions.
Shaikh Nizamuddin appointed several spiritual successors and deputed them to set up
hospices in various parts of the subcontinent. As a result the teachings, practices and organisation
of the Chishtis as well as the fame of the Shaikh spread rapidly. This in turn drew pilgrims to his
shrine, and also to the shrines of his spiritual ancestors.
Amongst these, the most revered shrine is that of Khwaja Moinuddin, popularly known
as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).
The earliest textual references to Khwaja Moinuddin’s dargah date, to the fourteenth
century. It was evidently popular because of the austerity and piety of its Shaikh. The greatness
of his spiritual successors, and the patronage of royal
visitors. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (ruled, 1324-51) was the
first Sultan to visit the shrine, but the earliest construction
to house the tomb was funded in the late fifteenth century
by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of Malwa. Since the shrine
was located on the trade route linking Delhi and Gujarat,
it attracted a lot of travellers.
By the sixteenth century the shrine had become

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very popular; in fact it was the spirited singing of pilgrims bound for Ajmer that inspired Akbar
to visit the tomb. He went there fourteen times. sometimes two or three times a year, to seek
blessings for new conquests, fulfillment of vows, and the birth of sons. He maintained this
tradition until 1580. Each of these visits was celebrated by generous gifts, which were recorded
in imperial documents. For example, in 1568 he offered a huge cauldron (degh) to facilitate
cooking for pilgrims He also had a mosque constructed within the compound of the dargah.
Also part Of Ziyarat is the use of music and dance including mystical chants performed
by specially trained musicians or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy. The sufis remember God
either by reciting the Zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His Presence through Sama (literally,
“audition”) or performance of mystical music. Sama was integral to the Chishtis and exemplified
interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.
8.3.4 Suharward Silsilahs
Of the ba-shara movements, only two acquired significant influence and following in
north India during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
The Suharwardi order entered India at about the same time as the Chishtis but its’
activities were confined largely to the Punjab and Multan. The most well known saints of the
order were Shaikh Shihabuddin Suharwardi and Hamid-ud-Din Nagori. Unlike the Chishtis, the
Suharwardi saint did not believe in leading a life of poverty. They accepted the service or the
state, and some of them held ‘ important posts in the ecclesiastical department. The Chishtis, on
the other hand. preferred to keep aloof from state a politics and shunned the company of rulers
and nobles. Nevertheless both hel ‘d the rulers in their own way by creating a climate of opinion
in which people belonging to different sects and religions could live in peace and harmony.
There were also other Sufi saints like Baba Farid who lived at Ajodhan, which is now
in Pakistan. Saiyid Muhammad Gesudaraz of Gulbarga, Shah Alam Bukhari of Gujarat. Bahaud-
din Zakariya of Multan were the other important Sufi saints of Medieval India.
8.3.5 Impact of Sufi Movement
It was not just in sama’ that the Chishtis adopted local languages. In Delhi, those
associated With the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the pe0ple. Other sufis
such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were incorporated in the
Guru Granth Sahib. Yet others composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine
love using human love as an allegory. For example, the prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat
composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance of Padmini and Ratansen,
the king of Chittor. Their trials were symbolic of the soul’s journey to the divine. Such poetic
compositions were often recited in hospices, usually during sama’.
A different genre of sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of Bijapur,
Karnataka. These were short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti sufis
who lived in this region during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
These poems were probably sung by women while performing household chores like
grinding grain and spinning. Other compositions were in the form of lurinama or lullabies and
shadinama or wedding songs. It is likely that the suiis of this region were inspired by the pre-
existing bhakti tradition of the Kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of
the sants of Pandharpur. It is through this medium that Islam gradually gained a place in the
villages of the Deccan.

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Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Khaja Moinuddin chisti Darga was located in?
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Most prominent pir in Suharwardi Sect?
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
8.4 SUMMARY
Thus during the fifteenth and the early part of the sixteenth century, the Bhakti and the
Sufi saints had worked out in a remarkable manner a common platform on which people belonging
to various sects and creeds could meet and understand each other. This was the essential
background to the ideas of Akbar and his concept of tauhid or unity of all religion “.
The similarities between Sufism and Bhakti Movement and the fact that Sufism preceded
Bhakti Movement, could easily lead to the conclusion that these institutions were borrowed
from Sufism. How- ever, it would be well to remember that the Sufis themselves had borrowed
in abundance from the Buddhist monasteries, Christian organisations and. must have been
influenced by Shankaracharya’s organisation of Maths. Hence, while the Bhakti cult may have
been influenced by Sufism to a certain extent in principle, the Bhakti cult principles were contained
in the Hindu philosophy, with its objective of eradicating the existing social and religious evils
and also successfully generating a mass appeal throughout the country. It is, therefore, surprising
that in spite of its universal teachings and simplicity of language, the movement gradually lost its
hold on the people.

8.5 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your progress answer-I
1. Sankaracharya
2. Bhojraj
Check your progress answer-II
1. Ajmir
2. Shaikh Shihabuddin Suharwardi

8.6 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Discuss the origin and growth of the Bhakti Movement in Medieval India.
2. Give an account of the Sufi Movement in Medieval India

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II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each
1. Bring out the Salient features of the Bhakti Movement
2. Write a short note on Kabir.
3. What were the main ideas of Sufism
4. Mention the chief orders and saints of Sufism in India

8.7 FURTHER READINGS

1. Carpenter. J.E. : Theism in Medieval India.
2. Iswari Prasad : History of Medieval India from 647 to 1526 AD.
3. Mehta J.L : Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India
Vol I.
4. Sen K.M. : Medieval Mysticism in India.
5. Tarachand : Influence of Islam on Indian Culture.
- Prof. E. Sudha Rani

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 BLOCK IV
MODERN INDIAN CULTURE

19th century witnessed many social and religious reform movements. On account of
these movements many important changes were felt in Indian society. Those reform
movements helped in the modernization process of the country. They brought about
cultural awakening in the country. The British rule, Christian missionaries and English
education were the main causes for those reform movements. The liberal, rational and
humanist movements in Europe and the social and religious evils in the Indian society
paved the way for the socio- religious reform movements. Peasant movements have
often been brutally suppressed. More recently the social movements of erstwhile excluded
groups like the Dalits have often invoked retaliatory action. Social movements cannot
change society easily. The social movements such as Peasant movements, Tribal
Movements, Dalit Movements, Women Movements, Backward caste movements are
prominent.
The Folklore of India is distinguished from classical Sanskrit literary traditions by its
colorful local bias. Oral epics and stories glorify local heroes and places and are expressed
in local language and dialects. Most of the Indian Folklore has a religious character and
may be associated with sacred rites of festivals. Folklore heroes are frequently defied
and worshipped in their communities. India has a rich tradition of Folk dance music
dramas painting and the decorative arts which is appreciated and enjoyed all over the
world today some of the Folk traditions or art forms in India is music, songs and Dance.
These forms awake the masses of India.
Oral tradition or Oral lore is a form of human communication where in
knowledge, art ideas and cultural material is received, preserved and transmitted orally
from one generation to another. Oral tradition is information, memories and knowledge
held in common by groups of people, over many generations, it is not the same as
testimony or Oral history. In a general meaning “Oral tradition” called recall and
transmission of a specific preserved textual and cultural knowledge through vocal
utterance.
The present block consists of the following units:
Unit 9: Socio Religious Reform Movements
Unit 10: Social Protest Movements
Unit 11: Popular Culture and Folk Traditions
Unit 12: Oral Traditions

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 UNIT-9: SOCIO- RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
Contents
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Raja Ram Mohan Roy - Brahma Samaj
9.2.1 Devendranath Tagore, 1817-1905
9.2.2 Keshava Chandra Sen, 1838-1884
9.3 Swami Dayananda Saraswathi - Arya Samaj
9.4 Theosophical Society
9.5 Ramakrishna Parama Hamsa (1833-1886)
9.6 Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
9.7 Rama Krishna Mission (1896):
9.8 Prarthana Samaj (1867):
9.9 Maha Dev Govind Ranade (1842-1901)
9.10 Derozio and Young Bengal Movement
9.11 Ishwara Chandra Vidyasagr (1820-1891)
9.12 Pandita Ramabai Saraswathi (1858-1922)
9.13 D.K.Karve (1858-1962)
9.14 Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848- 1919)
9.15 Raghupati Venkataratnam Naidu (1862-1939):
9.16 Movements against Casteism
9.16.1 Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890) - Satya Shodhak Samaj
9.16.2 Narayana Guru – S.N.D.P. Yogam Movement (1854-1928)
9.16.3 Ramaswamy Naicker (1879-1973)
9.16.4 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956)
9.17 Muslim Reform Movement
9.17.1 Wahabi Movement
9.17.2 Ahmadiya Movement
9.17.3 Aligarh Movement
9.18 Parsi Movement
9.19 Sikhs Reform Movements
9.20 Results of the Movement
9.21 Summery
9.22 Model Answers to Check Your Progress

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9.23 Model Examination Questions
9.24 Further Reading

9.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know common characteristics of religious and social reform movement.
2. Explain the social reform movements during the 19th and 20th centuries
3. Discuss the Anti- Caste movement in India.
4. Analyse the contribution of the Ahmadiya, Wahabi and Aligarh Movements
5. Describe the reforms carried out by the Sikhs and the Parsees

9.1 INTRODUCTION
19th century witnessed many social and religious reform movements. On account of
these movements many important changes were felt in Indian society. Those reform movements
helped in the modernization process of the country. They brought about cultural awakening in
the country. The reform movements also helped in the growth of national consciousness among
the people and paved way for the freedom struggle. The British rule, Christian missionaries and
English education were the main causes for those reform movements.
The liberal, rational and humanist movements in Europe and the social and religious
evils in the Indian society paved the way for the socio- religious reform movements. Increasing
national conscious also promoted the reform movements. National minded people thought that
the existence of social and religious evils in the society would bring disrepute to the country. So
they worked for the social and religious reforms.
The reform movements have two trends, religious and social, supplementing each other.
The religious trend found expressions in the growth and activities of institutions like the Brahmo
Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the Prathana Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission, the Satyasodhak Samaj
and the Theosophical Society.
The social trend manifested in itself for the cultivation of European ideas, like remarriage
of the widows, inter-caste marriage and education for women. The reformers pleaded for the
abolition of the Purdah, Child-marriages, and Polygamy and caste distinctions. They urged for
the removal of discriminations against the Dalits, the age of consent and women rights of
inheritance.
In 19th and 20th centuries, a large number of individuals as well as a number of
organizations took active role in socio- religious movement. However, the story of Indian social
reform movement practically began with Raja Ram Mohan Roy; the advent of Raja Ram
Mohan Roy marks the line of demarcation between the dark middle age and the modern age of
‘enlightment’

9.2 RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY - BRAHMA SAMAJ

Raja Ram Mohan Roy, (1774-1833) was considered as the father of 19th century Social Reform
Movenent. He was born at Radhanagar in Bengal in the year 1774. His parents were Ramakanth

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and Tarini Devi. He knew 12 languages, Sanskrit,
Persian, Urdu, English etc. He studied the Vedas,
Upanishads, Quran, Bible, Buddhist and Jain religious
text and acquired through knowledge of them. He
desired to remove the social evils of those days. He
made continuous efforts to develop rational and the
scientific attitudes among the people.
He was profoundly influenced by European
liberalism. He was a great religious reformer and a humanist. He realized the necessity of
radical reform in socio religious spheres if the country was to emerge from slough of despondency.
In his mystic philosophical outlook, he was deeply influence by the monotheism and anti idolatry
Islam, the design of Sufism, the ethical teachings of Christianity and the liberal and rationalist
doctrines of the west. He is rightly known as Father of Indian renaissance.
In 1815, Raja Ram Mohan Roy established Atmiya Sabha (Association of Friends), an
association for holding religious discussions. Later on it transformed into Brahma Samaj in
1828. It was the forum for the followers of all religious and a matris for an evolution of casteless
society. The followers in the unity of god and discarded the worship of images. He denounced
the caste system, domination of orthodox Brahmins, rituals and idol worship. The main aim of
Brahma Samaj was to purify the Hindu religion and restore its old glory based on the Vedas and
Upanishad. He stood for a rational approach to religion. He vehemently denied the allegation
that he was founding a new sect. The Brahmo Samaj under his leadership crusaded against
sati and child marriages. Though he denounced caste system and idol worship, surprisingly to
the last day of his life he wore the sacred thread of the Brahmins.
The cardinal principle of Brahmo Samaj was the worship of one god. It proclaimed the principle
of universal brotherhood. It inculcated the respect for all religious and scripter’s but it had no
faith in any scripter’s as an authority. Brahmo Samaj was a socio-religious reform movement.
It valued the modern and western culture and organized the educational institutions in the
country for its spread among the people.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy passed away on 27th September, 1833 at Bristol in England. After the
death of Raja, the Samaj was raised by Devendranath Tagore and Keshav Chandra Sen who
were men of wide culture and variegated experiences. Let us examine their role in reactivating
the organization.
9.2.1 Devendranath Tagore (1817-1905):
Devendranath Tagore was a product of the best in the traditional Indian learning and the new
thought of the west. He founded the “Tattava Bodhini Sabha” to teach Vedas and Upanishads.
He also started a monthly “Tatta Bodhini Patrika” which became the official organ of Brahmo
samaj. Eswara Chandra vidya sagar and Rajendra Lal Misra contributed valuable articles to
this magazine.
Devendranath Tagore ardently believed in the Vedas as a divine revelation and the sole foundation
of the religious belief of the new church. He employed a new number of preachers to spread
and propagate the doctrine. In 1843, He affected the total reorganization of Brahmo Samaj and
put new life into it. The Samaj actively supported the movement for widow remarriage, women’s
education and abolition of polygamy. In the later years, he devoted himself to religious and
philosophical studies.

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9.2.2 Keshava Chandra Sen (1838-1884):
Keshava chandra sen is another important leader of Brahma Samaj. He joined in 1875 and
popularized Brahma Samaj movement and visited various places in India to propagate the new
faith. He is a dynamic personality devotional, passionate enthusiasm and great eloquence
popularized the movement. Under him a doctrine of Brahma Samaj was more and more adapted
to the doctrine of pure Christianity. Under his dynamic leadership, inter-caste marriages, people
of all the caste dining together, widow-remarriage and removal of purdah were pursued with
greater vigour. He sincerely pleaded for the education of women and vehemently oppesed the
practice of polygamy.
Devendranath tagore was alarmed and dissatisfied with new trends in Brahma Samaj. Keshav
Chandra Sen was charged with inconsistency and expelled from the Samaj. Thus by 1865 the
Brahma Samaj was dived into two camps- the conservatives and the progressives- known as
Adi Brahma Samaj and Nava Vidhan Brama Samaj, led by Devendranath Tagore and Keshav
Chandra Sen respectively
Keshav Chandra Sen’s “Nava Vidhan Brahma Samaj” assimilated many principles not only
from the Hindu scripter’s but also from the Christian, Buddhists and Muslim scriptures. In
1878, he broke away from the Brahmo Samaj of India on theological grounds and controversial
question of his 14 years old daughter marriage with the Hindu Maharaj of Cooch-Behar, those
who differed with Keshav formed different organization called Shadharan Brahmo Samaj.

9.3 SWAMI DAYANANDA SARASWATHI (1824-1883) - ARYA SAMAJ (1875)

Swami Dayananda Saraswathi(original name Moola Shankar) is
an important figure in Indian Socio-Religious reform movement.
He says “The world is faltered by the chain forged by superstition
and ignorance. I have come to snap asunder that chain and set
slaves at liberty”. He founded Arya Samaj in 1875 in Mumbai and
started its activities at Lahore in 1876. He believed in fallibility of
the Vedas and gives a call “Go back to Vedas”.
He was profound scholar of Sanskrit and a fearless crusader against
evil practices in the Hindu society. He preached worship of one
God; denounce idol worship, Orthodoxy, Caste system and
untouchability. He also advocated social reforms, upliftment of women, abolition of child marriages
and supported widow re-marriage. His notable work “Satyarth Prakash” a commentary on
the Vedas, gave an effective strength to Hinduism in Punjab. Dayanand preashed directly to
the masses and did not confine his teachings to the intellectual elite.
He started the “Shuddhi Movement” with a view to archive the ideal of unifying India nationally,
socially and religiously. He opened the doors of the Hindu society to the non-Hindus, Christians
and Muslims.
Swami Dayanand Saraswathi and his disciple, Swamy Sharddanad gave a strong fillip to the
shuddhi movement and many were accepted in the Hindu fold with honor. He was a great
nation builder and a strong advocate of Hindu religion and culture. He did commendable work
for cow protection in India. He died at Ajmir in Rajastan in 1883. After his death, the work of
the samaj carried on by Lal Hansraj, Lala Lajpat Rai, Swamy Shraddananda, Pandit Guru dutt
and others.

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Two distinctive features of Arya Samaj were social services like famine relief and spread of
English education. He and his followers contributed a major share for the population of social
reforms and national education. The benefits of western education were realized by the Arya
Samajists. Under the leadership of Lala Hansaraj and Lala Lajpat Rai, the Dayanand Anglo-
Vedic (D.A.V) Trust was created to impart western education. A network of D.A.V schools
and colleges spread in many parts of the country with western learning’s.
They popularized Hindu culture and philosophy, the D.A.V Trust is one of the biggest educational
societies in the country and is responsible for managing a vast number of educational
institutions.Those who opposed western education founded “Gurukulas” where education
was imparted in Ashrams according to the vedic principles. Arya Samaj represents militant
Hindu revilism. It first sought to purify the Hindu society of its rampant evils, one of the main
objects of Arya Samaj were to prevent the conversion of Hindu to other religious and this led to
start a crusade against other religions. Restricted to a narrow Hindu bias and with a negative
attitude to Islam, the Samaj in course of time led to the Muslims to mobilise on a corresponding
communal basis.

9.4 THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY (1875)

Theo means God and Sophia means “Knowledge”. A combination of these two words became
Theosophy. Theosophical society was established in 1875 in New York (USA) to promote
international brotherhood among the people of the world by Madam Blavatsky and Col Alcott.
In the year 1879, they visited India and greatly influenced by spiritual power. They thought that
India is the suitable place for their organization. So in the year 1886, they shifted the head
quarter of the society to Adayar near Madras. The Theosophists respect all the religions are
expressions of divine wisdom and opposed to forced conversions. They aimed at the revival of
Hinduism and believed in the transmigration of the soul as a determining factor in re-birth. They
also believed in occult mysticism.
Annie Besant, an Irish lady was the prominent leader of this society. She joined as a member of
this society in 1889 and came to India in the year 1893. She settled down in India and made it
as her homeland. In 1907, after the death of Alcott, she became the president of this society.
She declared her faith in the Vedas and Upanishads, propagated Vedic philosophy and took
pride in ancient India culture. She also propagated a strong protest against early marriage. As
an educationist Mrs. Besant was responsible for starting several institutions, including the central
school of Benares, which was the nucleus for the Benares Hindu University. The society also
established schools and colleges in south India.
Mrs. Annie Besant wrote several books on education, Theosophy and Politics. She founded the
Home Rule League in 1916, and started two new journals, The New India and Common
Wheal. She started Home Rule Movement and led it. In the year 1917, she was elected as the
president of the Indian National Congress at Calcutta. Her Political activities for achieving
Independence in India, her commitment of Indian cause made her great leader and a world
figure.

9.5 RAMAKRISHNA PARAMA HAMSA (1833-1886)

Ramakrishna Parama Hamsa (original name Gadadhar) was born in 1833 in Kamarpur in
Bengal. He had spiritual quest right from his child. He was a great devotee of goddess of Kali.
In course of time, Gadadhar became a monk and was known as Ramakrishana Parama Hamsa.
He preached that God is one and that he is found everywhere. According to him, all religions
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are different paths to reach him. He said that man is embodiment of God and through service to
man we serve God. He did not bother about the religious doctrines and scriptures. He emphasized
good behavior. His teachings attracted both educated and the uneducated people. He was the
one who worked for creating faith in the rich spiritual heritage of the country. Entrusting the
responsibility of spreading his ideals throughout the world to his favorite discipline Vivekananda,
Ramakrishna died in 1886.

9.6 SWAMI VIVEKANANDA (1863-1902)

Swami Vivekananda (original name Narendra Datta) was
foremost among those, who exposed to the world, the greatness
of Indian culture. He was born on 12th January in 1863 in
Calcutta. He came into contact with Brahma Samaj, during the
period of his studies. He began to doubt the existence of God as
he read many religious and non religious books. At this stage he
came into contact with Ramakrishan Parama Hamsa. Narendra
Datta was influenced by Ramakrishan, changed into a great
philosopher and a theist. He became a sanyasi and became
swami Vivekananda. He worked throughout his life, to propagate
the ideals of Ramakrishna.
He stirred the west when he spoke not only about the excellence
of Hinduism, but also about its philosophical values and equality
of all religions at Chicago on the 11 th September, 1893.
Thereafter, he frequently toured and lectured in the U.S.A., England and other Continental
countries as a cultural ambassador of India. On account of continuous work and extensive
tours, Vivekanada fell ill and went abroad for treatment on the advice of doctors. He returned
to india in 1902, But his health is not improve. He died in 1902.
He preached that there is divinity in a man and that every human being has extraordinary
powers. As such no one should be looked down. The poor people should be made from the
clutches of poverty. He stressed that everyone should work for the devolvement of the country.
He said “You be proud being an Indian. You with pride declare that every Indian is my brother”

9.7 RAMA KRISHNA MISSION (1896):

Rama Krishna Mission established in 1896 by Swami Vivekananda to carry on humanitarian
relief and social work. The Rama Krishna Mission aimed at protecting India from the materialistic
influences of west. The mission idealized Hinduism including its practice of idol worship and
polytheism. Vivekananda through the branches of mission in all over India, made efforts to
improve the conditions of the poor people, efforts were also made for spreading Indian culture
through the expansion of education. Thus the Rama Krishna Mission played a prominent role in
promoting Nationalism and exhorting the people not to imitate blindly the western culture. Rama
Krishna Missions were established in several cities of the United States of America and Europe
as well as in India with the objective of interpreting Vedic philosophy to the people. This mission
is still doing excellent service to the people by establishing orphanage centers, Hospitals, Schools
and Colleges etc. in different parts of the country.

9.8 PRARTHANA SAMAJ (1867)

In Maharashtra in 1849 a society called “Prarthana sabha” was started. It did not last long as

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it influence was limited. In 1867 it was started in Bombay under the leadership of Dr. Atma
Ram Panduranga with the encouragement given by Keshav Chandra Sen, the Great members
of Prarthana Sabha were Sir.R.G. Bandarkar and Justice Ranade. Bandarkar was a famous
Sanskrit scholar and historian. Ranade was not only a great reformer but also a thinker and
scholar. They were the followers of maratha saints like Namdev, Tukaram and Ramdass. The
followers’ of Prarthana Samaj never look upon themselves as adherence of a new religion or a
new sect. Integrating the ancient novel values of country under new modern trends in the
society and moving forward with a modern approach was the main objective of the Prarthana
Samaj. The followers of this Samaj abandoned the bhakti cult and idol worship.
Rational worship, that dis-approval of caste, the introduction of widow remarriage, the
encouragement of women’s education, the abolition of child marriages were some of the objectives
of Prarthana Samaj. It also carried out social reforms and opened orphanages, houses for
widows, asylums and night schools. It started a paper called Subhodha Patrika. The samaj had
been the centre of many activities for social reforms in western India. It had it branches in
Bombay and Madras provinces. Professor R.G. Bandarkar, Narayan Ganesh Chandravarkar
and Panditha Rambai Saraswati were some of the distinguished members of the Samaj.

9.9 MAHA DEV GOVIND RANADE (1842-1901)

Justice M.G.Ranade was a distinguished Indian scholar, social reformer, a great educationist
and an outstanding Jurist. He was a founding member of the Indian National Congress and
owned several organizations as a member of the Bombay legislative council, member of the
finance committee at the center and the judge of Bombay High court.
During his life, he established the Poona Sarvajanika Sabha and Prathan Samaj, and would
edit Bombay Anglo-Marathi daily paper, the Indhu Prakash, founded on his ideology of social
and religious reforms. He contributed articles on social and economic subjects in the Sarvajanika
Sabha journal. He strongly supported the concept of the re-marriage and the welfare of the
widows. He favored the raising of the age of marriage. He denounced polygamy and the
dowry system and supported female education. He was one of the founders of the widow
marriage association in 1861. He organized the Indian National Social Conference in Madras in
1887 to discuss burning social problems.
Ranade was also a pioneer in the field of education and ardently believed that western education
would play a vital role in the transformation of the country. He was one of the founders of the
Deccan Education Society which established several educational institutions in Maharashtra.
Ranade was deeply religious and believed into the reforms, social, economic religious and
educational community of Maharashtra.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Atmiya Sabha in 1815 established by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Prathana Sabha in Bombay Started by
.....................................……………………………………………………………

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 .....................................……………………………………………………………
9.10 DEROZIO AND YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT
Henry Lui Vivian Derozio, joined the Hindu College of Calcutta as a teacher. He had come
from Scotland to sell watches in Calcutta, but later made the spread of modern education in
Bengal as his life’s mission.
Derozio promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by organizing an association for debate
and discussions on literature, philosophy, history and science. He inspired his followers and
students to question all authority. Derozio and his famous followers, known as the Derzians and
Young Bengal, were fiery patriots. They cherished the ideals of the French Revolution (1789
A.D.) and the liberal thinking of Britain. Derozio died of cholera at the young age of 22.
The Young Bengal Movement continued even after Derozio’s dismissal and his sudden death.
Though deprived of leadership, the members of this group continued preaching radical views
through teaching and journalism.

9.11 ISHWARA CHANDRA VIDYASAGR (1820-1891)

Iswara Chandra Vidyasagar was born in 1820, in Veerasinghi village of Bengal in a poor family.
With his personal efforts and hard work, he completed higher education and joined as a teacher
and held many higher posts in that department. He put his principles in practice which he
believed to be correct. He was a great humanist. He worked hard for the progress of women,
by encouraging education and widow remarriage. He wrote a book on the problems of widows
called Vithanthu Vivaham.
He raises his voice in favour of the marriage of the widows and a movement emerges in its
favour under his leadership, because of his continues efforts, the Government passed the Hindu
Widow’s Remarriage Act in 1856 which is legalized the marriages of widows. He personally
initiated the first widow remarriage among the higher castes, on December 7, 1856 at Calcutta.
He performed the marriage for his son with a widow and faced the obstacles with courage. He
tirelessly worked for women education and spent all his wealth for social reforms and for the
upliftment of poor. His deeds of charity, generosity and kindness are still remembered as fables
in Bengal.

9.12 PANDITA RAMABAI SARASWATHI (1858-1922)

The title Pandita was conferred on her as a recognition of her scholarship. With a missionary
zeal, she extensively travelled in India to educate Hindu women and thereby emancipate them
from social injustice and tyranny. She was well known Sanskrit scholar, who has developed a
hatred for the abuses of Hindu religion and society. She lost her educated Shudra husband two
years after her marriage. She established the Mahila Arya Samaj at Pune to promote female
education and to discourage child marriage. In 1883, she went to England and USA and in her
lectures. She highlighted the deplorable condition of Indian womanhood. Her tour enabled Indians
and foreigners to understand the miserable condition of Indian women. After her return from
foreign countries she started Sharda Sadan in Bombay – a boarding house and school for
widows. Mukti Sadan was started by her in Pune to rehabilitate the famine victims. She
rendered invaluable services for the emancipation of Indian women.

9.13 D.K.KARVE 1858-1962

A distinguished educationist, he became a Professor at Ferguson College, Pune in 1892. He
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married a widow in 1893 and he established the Widow Marriage Association. He started
the Hindu Widow Home in 1896 and also opened a hostel for the children of women who had
remained as widows. He founded the Indian Women’s University in 1916 and served as its
Vice- Chancellor in 1932. He started schools in 50 villages on voluntary basis by collecting
donations. Karve was conferred “Bharat Ratna” the highest award for rendering magnificent
service to the country in the field of social reform.
Beginning in Bengal, the religious and social reform movements spread to other parts of India.
By drawing inspiration from the Brahmo Samaj, the Veda Samaj was established in Madras
in 1864. It advocated discarding of caste distinctions and promotion of widow remarriage and
girl education. Like the Brahmo Samaj, the Veda Samaj also condemned superstitions and
rituals of orthodox Hinduism and propagated belief in one supreme God. Chembeti Sridharalu
Naidu was the most prominent leader of the Veda Samaj. He translated books of the Brahmo
Samaj in Tamil and Telugu. Later, the Brahmo Samaj of South India and its branches were
established in some cities of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra. Soon after, branches of the
Prarthana Samaj were also opened and the two Samajs worked together for promoting religious
and social reforms.

9.14 KANDUKURI VEERESALINGAM (1848- 1919)

Kandukuri veeresalingam was the pioneer of the reform movement in Andhra, was born at
Rajahmundry. He studied Telugu and English, and became a teacher. He served different
schools as head master, and then joined the Government Arts College at Rajahmundry.
Veeresalingam contributed enormously to enrich Telugu literature. He sincerely believed that
books should intelligible to all, and that books must be written in easy style. He was credited
with the creations of a new style of Telugu prose. For his monumental contribution to Telugu
prose, the title “Gadya Tikkana” was given to him. He used simple language so that people
could easily understand his ideas on reform. He pleaded for mass education through the medium
of vernacular language. A brilliant scholar and profile writer, he was trenchant critique of caste
and superstition. He started a journal “Viveka Vardhini” in 1874. He was totally dedicated to
the cause of eradication of social evils. He was on ardent supporter of women’s education. He
believed that the progress of a nation depended much upon the education of its women. A
dynamic personality in the field of social reforms, he condemned child-marriage. Supported
widow- remarriage and carried out an intensive campaign for the rehabilitation of the widows.
He worked for the abolition of nautch practices and bottled against corruption and dishonesty.
He established widow homes, orphanages and schools to help the needy women and children.
He founded the “Hitakarani Trust” at Rajahmundry and it managed various institutions started
by him.
Influenced by Butchaiah Pantulu, Veeresalingam was drawn into the Bramho fold. Veeresalingam
started the first Pradhana Samaj at Rajahmundry in 1878 and he was very closely associated
with the activities of Brahmo Samaj. He gave up scared tread and became a practicing Bramho,
following the lead given by Desiraju Peda Bapaiah in 1906.

9.15 RAGHUPATI VENKATARATNAM NAIDU (1862-1939):

Raghupati Venkatratnam Naidu is regarded as the second greatest social reformer of Andhra
after Kandhukuri Vireshalingam panthulu. He was born in Machilipatnam in 1862. He took his
M.A and L.L.B degrees from the Madras University and chooses the carrier of teaching. He

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worked as principal of Mahebub College, Secundrabad and Pitapuram Raja’s college, Kakinada.
He was the wise chancellor of the Madras University from 1924 to 1928. He was influenced
by the great Brahmo samaj leaders like Shivanath Sastry, Devendranath Benarjee and
Gangadhara Mukarjee. He himself in his early carrier was drawn into fold of Brahmoism since
childhood. The reforms introduced by Ram Mohan Roy and William Bentinck created an indelible
impression on his mind. He evinced keen intrest in social reform. He was closely associated
with the editorial boards of “Brahma Prakasik”, “The Fellow Worker” and “People’s
Friend”. He contributed many articles in the support of the social purity movement.
A vigorous movement was launched against nautch parties, associations were formed and
lectures were arranged to educate the people about the evil effects of this obnoxious practice.
He devoted all his energy and wealth to propagate Brahmanism influenced by Venkat Ratnam,
the Rajah of Pitapuram liberally denoted huge amounts to establish number of choulrties and
hospitals for women and liberally donated to the schools and colleges. The Rajas started to
hostels at Pitapuram for boys and girls belong to the scheduled castes and provided them with
all the amenities. He became an important member of local bodies Assembly and senate and
played a major role in their activities.

9.16 MOVEMENTS AGAINST CASTEISM

Almost all the reformers strived for the progress of the depressed classes and removal of
untouchability. In Bengal, Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his followers, worked for the abolition of
caste system and removal of untouchability. They encouraged inter- caste marriages. In Bengal
Iswara Chandra Vidyasagar and in Andhra Veeresalingam Panthulu and Raghupati Venkat
Ratnam Naidu rendered great service in this aspect. Prathana Samaj workers established night
schools for depressed classes in Maharashtra. They promoted inter- caste marriages and worked
for the upliftment of depressed classes. Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission and Christian
Missionaries also worked for removal of caste system.
As a result of the service of reformers in 1906, Bharata Nimnjati Samuddarana Samiti was
established. This Samiti worked for the spread of education and for providing suitable employment
to the depressed classes. In 1922, Amrithlaa Vithal Das Thakur founded ‘Bhil Seva Sadan’ to
improve the condition of the tribal’s like Bhils and Gonds. Arya Samaj leaders, Ramakrishna
Parama Hamsa and Swami Vivekananda personally served depressed people.
Vivekananda was convinced that the unity in Indian society would be possible only when the
caste system abolished. In 20th century, Mahatma Gandhi rendered valuable services of the
eradication of untouchability. He condemned the social and economic atrocities on depressed
classes, through his Newspapers “The Young India”,” Nava Jeevan”, and “Harijan”. In
his constructive programme, he gave special place for the upliftment of the depressed classes.
In the same manner Baba Saheb Ambedkar implemented many programmes, for improving the
cond
Let us briefly examine the contribution of great social reformers who worked for the abolition
of caste system in India.
9.16.1 Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890) - Satya Shodhak Samaj
Jyotiba Phule belonged to Maharashta. He organized a powerful non-Brahmin movement for
emancipation of women, removal of untouchability and worked hard for dalits. He made great
efforts to serve the poor depressed classes. Phule founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj (Truth
seekers society) in 1873. He also started “The Deena Bandhu Sarvajanik Sabha” in 1884.

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In 1854, Phule opened a school for the untouchables and started
a private orphanage to help the widows. He campaigned the
cause of women’s education and began a school for low caste
women at Pune. To carry forward his activities in an organized
manner, he wrote two critical books. 1. Sarvajanik Satya Dharma
Pustak 2. Gulamgiri
The aim of the Phule movement was to save the low castes
from the hypocritical Brahmins and their opportunistic scripture.
His aim was to rouse the masses and to lead them to an organized
resistance against the unreasonable claims of the priestly class.
In the words of the Phule “education and organization were
meant to create unity and a sense of identity to go back to pre-Brahmin Religious traditions”.
This movement spread like a wild fire in Maharashtra and Dr.B.R.Ambedkar was started to
have been influenced it.
9.16.2 Narayana guru – S.N.D.P. Yogam Movement (1854-1928)
Narayana Guru worked for a new social set up, based on
the principles of equality and justice. He was born in a poor
Ezhava family near Trivandrum in Kerala. He was a great
scholar of Sanskrit, Tamil and Malayalam and a writer
devotional song. He worked throughout his life for the moral
and social advancement of backward communities. He
revolted against the severities of the caste system and
succeeded in abolishing animal sacrifices in the name of
religion. Narayana Gurus Unitarian doctrine of one Caste
one Religion and one God amounted to repudiation of caste.
In 1903, he founded ‘Sri Narayana Dharama Paripaalana Yogam’ for the promotion of social,
economic, educational and cultural life of the Ezhavas and other depressed classes. He believed
that, the roots of all social evils lie in caste system and untouchability, which would disappear, if
the caste is abolished. He also advocated inter- caste marriages as a means of breaking down
the barriers of caste in evolving a casteless and classless, society. He advocates that God is ane
for all the caste; he exhorted “don’t tell your caste, don’t ask the caste of others, and don’t
think of caste”. These teachings reveal his views on casteism.
He organized temple entry movements. Though belonged to lower caste, he installed the idol at
Aravaipuram temple in 1880. He worked for a new social order based on the principles of
equality and justice. Many people of Kerala, belonging to backward and depressed
communities,were inspired by his teachings and were rejuvenated with new spirit and self
confidence. His Sri Narayan Dharma Paripaaalana Yogam Movements achievements are
praiseworthy.
9.16.3 Ramaswamy Naicker (1879-1973)
A champion of the downtrodden castes Ramaswamy Naicker led self-respect movement, in
Tamilanadu region. He vehemently deplored Brahminical supremacy in the society and exhorted
non –brahmin communities to keep their self-respect and maintain it at all costs. He has born at
Erode on September 17, 1879 in an orthodox prestigious family. Ramaswamy Naicker was
determined to oppose social evils like social inequality and untouchability, with all the strength at

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his command. After a critical study of religious works and discussions with orthodox scholars,
he developed a rational outlook and later became an atheist.
Naicker became the Chairmen of Erode Municipality. After joining the Congress Organization,
he actively participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement. He became the president of the
Tamilanadu Congress Committee. He successfully led an agitation in Travancore state against
the restrictions imposed on untouchables and emerged as a mass leader. While he was in
prison, his wife Nagammal successfully led the movement by rousing women in Kerala.
Naicker strongly felt that the Congress was dominated by Brahmins and demanded reservations
for non –brahmins in jobs and Assembly seats. He was dissatisfied with the attitude of the
Congress Party towards non –brahmins and described it has a citadel of Brahmins. Aiming to
destroy it, he left the congres in 1925. Ramaswamy Naicker’s self respect movement and the
justice party worked in close relation.
9.16.4 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956)
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was another crusader in the cause of the
uplift of the lower castes. Mehar Ambedkar was born on 14th April
1891 in a Mahar caste at Mohar. Ambedkar married Rambai of his
own caste in 1905, she died in 1935. In 1948 ambedkar married second
time dr.sharada kabir who came from saraswati Brahmin family from
Bombay. Ambedkar graduated from Elphinstone College, Bomabay.
He did his M.A. and Ph.D from Columbia University in 1923; he was
called to the Bar
In 1924, Ambedkar started an organization in Bomaby called “bahishkrit
hitkarni sabha”for the moral and material progress of the untouchables.
he restored to methods of agitation and launched satyagraha to establish
civic rights of the untouchables to enter the hindu temples and draw water from the public
wells.
In 1930 Ambedkar entered national politics. He demanded separate electorates for the
untouchables. He was nominated as a delete of the three round table conferences in Londan
(1930-1932). The communal award announced by the british prime minister on 17th august 1932
provided for separate electorates for the depressed classes. This upset Gandhi who went on
fast unto death, a final compromise popularly known as Poona Pact (24th September 1932)
provided for reservation of seats for the depressed classes in the general constituency.
In desperation, Dr.B.R.Ambedkar opposed the National Congress demand for
Independence and wanted British rule in India to continue to safeguard the interest of the lower
castes. In April 1942, he founded the Schedule Caste Federation as an all India party. Later he
announced that schedule castes would leave Hindu fold altogether. He along with many followers
embraced Buddhism.
On the eve of independence, Dr. Ambedkar was nominated by the Congress Party as
a member of the Constitute Assembly. His contribution in framing and piloting the Indian
Constitution and the Hindu Code Bill are well organized. Today, Ambedkar is remembered as
the emancipator of the lower castes.
The new Constitution of Indian Republic has accepted the principle of Equality for all Indian
citizens and has abolished untouchability. The Untouchability Act, 1955 spell out the punishments

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to be awarded for offences under this act. This effort of the social reformers has created a
new group of intellectual middle classes in the country. They played a dynamic role in the
National Movement.

9.17 MUSLIM REFORM MOVEMENT

Many Muslim leaders believe that Islam in India had been degenerated, under the influence of
Hinduism, hence need to reform. They took themselves the task of purifying and strengthening
Islam resulting in Wahabi, Ahmadia and Aligarh Movements.
9.17.1 Wahabi Movement
The earliest organized Muslim response to western influences appeared in the form of the
Wahabi movement. It was essentially a revivalist movement. The followers of Arab religions
reformer, by Abddul Wahab are known as Wahabis. The founder of Wahabi movement was
Fakir Sayyed Ahmed Berelvy of Raiberely. It was initially a Religious reform movement of
Islam attacking the corruption that crept in to the Muslim Society. It ultimately took the shape of
agrarian revolts, Jihad against Sikhs and after annexation of Punjab war, against the British.
In other words, Sayyad Ahmed‘s ambition was to revive and restore Muslim power in India by
overthrowing the Sikhs in Punjab and the British in Bengal. Ahmed gave training to his followers
in the use of arms. The views of the secret sect spread rapidly to Kabul, Frontier provinces,
Bengal, Bihar and central provinces. Ahmedi was killed in 1831.
After Ahmedi’s death, Wahabi movement was carried on by his followers in North-West Frontier
Province. Some are of the opinion that the Wahabi movement was much better planned than
the uprising of 1857. It offered the most serious, well planned challenge to the British supremacy
in India from 1830-1860. But the Wahabi’s never came into conflict with Hindus. Sensing the
seriousness of the movement the British struck at roots of the movement by adopting vigorous
and strong measures. As a result, the spirit of the movement was destroyed by 1870.
9.17.2 Ahmadiya Movement
The founder of Ahmadiya Movement was Mirja Ghulam Ahmed (1839-1908). He began his
work as a defender of Islam against the onslaughts of Arya Samaj and Christian Missionaries
in 1889 he called himself as ‘Mesaiah’ and later became in incarnation of Hindu god Krishna
and Jesus. Just like Bramo Samaj the Ahmadiya Movement based itself on the principles of
universal religion of all humanity. Ghulam ahmad was influenced by western liberalism, theosophy
and religions reform movements of Hindus. He opposed Jihad (holy war) against non Muslims
and aimed at fraternal relations with all people. The movement spread western liberal education
among Indian Muslims and a network of schools and colleges were started to serve the cause
of Muslims.
9.17.3 Aligarh Movement
During the 19th century, the Muslims as a class remained aloof from the main stream of political
activity. The loss of political power after the decline of Mughal Empire frustrated them. The
British held the Muslims mainly responsible for great revolt of 1857 and the anti Muslim policy
of the British Government after the Mutiny intensified the anti- British feeling Muslims. The
Muslims adopted a hostile attitude towards western education. The influence of western ideas
among Muslims also far-reaching, mainly through the work of Sir Sayyad Ahmad Khan.
The first national awakening among the Musims aimed to making the Indian Muslims politically

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conscious and spreading modern education among them. Sir Sayyad Ahmad Khan was the
founder of this movement. It was at Aligarh that the Mohmmedan Anglo –oriental college was
established in 1875. The college was founded as the central educational institution for the
Indian Muslamans with the support of the leading Muslim gentry of North India and the active
cooperation of Salar Jung, the prime minister of Hyderabad. The Aligarh movement had strong
British official and non-official support from the beginning. Its doors were open to all communities,
but under the influence of its Principal Beck, the college acquired a character of its own. This
college developed into the Aligarh University in 1890.
Along with it, an All India Muslim Educational Conference was also organized. The Aligarh
movement, which is the central factor of Islamic renaissance in India, had two very important
results. It was the first step towards the integration of Indian Muslims. The Muslim population
now had a central institution which provide them with a common intellectual background and
fostered a common ideology. The Aligarh Movement aimed at spreading the western education
among the Muslims without weakening their allegiance to Islam. The educated elite among the
Muslims were provided with a separate language and separated ideology. In due course, the
Muslims were able to claim to be separate nation.
The Aligarh Movement aimed at evolving at social reforms. It condemned polygamy, purdah,
easy divorce and advocated that women should receive western education. The Aligarh
Movement was based on liberal interpretation of the Quran. It tried to harmonise Islam with the
modern liberal culture. A large number of distinguished Muslims like Chirag Ali, Altaf Hussain
Ali, Maulana Shibli Naujani carried on the work of Sir Sayyad Ahmad Khan and developed the
university as a nursery for future Muslim leaders.
Sir Sayyad Ahmad Khan, the architect of Islamic renaissance was an ardent pariot and nationalist.
He held that the Hindus and Muslims in india formed one nation. He was a great believer in
religious toleration. He was opposed to communal friction. In spite of liberal views, Sir Sayyad
was definitely opposed to the congress Movement from the very beginning. He held that if the
British government, political power would pass into the hands of Hindu majority. This fear of
Hindu domination converted him into a sectarian leader and ultimately in 1906 i.e., after his
death. The Muslims formed a rival political party to the Indian National Congress, called the
Indian Muslim League, to safeguard the interests of the Indian Muslims. It demanded separate
electorates, reservation of seats for Muslims in the legislature and weightage for them in the
services.

9.18 PARSI MOVEMENT

Religious reform has begun among the Parsis in Bombay in the middle of the 19th century. The
Parsi community took cause of its purification. In 1881, the “Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha”
on Religious Reform Association was founded by the enlightened Parsis to reform their creed
and society. This Sabha insisted on the pristine purity of Zoroastrain religion. They started a
weekly journal called “Rast Goftar” for social and religious reform; Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai
Naoroji and S.S.Benagali were leading Parsi reformers. Religious Reform Association
campaigned against the entrenched orthodoxy in the religious field and initiated the modernization
of Parsi social customs regarding education of women, marriage and social position of women
in general.
B.M.Malabari, a Parsi Leader of influence, strove hard for the cause of women and children,
and founded the ‘Seva Sadan’ for the social welfare work. In course of time, the Parsi became
socially the most westernized section of Indian society.

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9.19 SIKHS REFORM MOVEMENTS
Religious reform among the Sikhs was started at the end of the 19th Century when the Khalsa
College started at Amritsar. Through the efforts of the Singh Sabhas (1870) and with British
support, the Khalsa College was founded at Amritsar in 1892. This college and schools set up
as a result of similar efforts, promoted Gurumukhi, Sikhs learning and Punjabi literature as a
whole.
The Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak Committeee was started by the Shikhs to get rid
of the corrupt Mahants and to reform the Gurudwaras. Yet, the reform movement gained
momentum after 1920 when Akali Movement rose in the Punjab. The main aim of the Akalis
was to purify the management of the Gurudwaras or Sikh shrines.
Sikhs had taken up the activities for removal of the caste system. Boycott of child marriages,
prohibition of widow remarriages and promotion of English education as part of social reforms.

9.20 RESULTS OF THE MOVEMENT

The following are the important results of the socio-religious movement
1. Faith in age old customs and superstitions decreased. The educate people come to
know the evil acts done in the name of religion. Due to the spread of Western education
and scientific knowledge, racial thinking and logical approach devolved. Rites, rituals
and superstitions beliefs came to be criticized by educated people.
2. All the social reformers aimed at the well-being of mankind. They preached that all
religions should work for human welfare. The reformers believed that, religions were
created by man and it was not good to torture them on the name of religions. They said
that service to man is service to God. All that resulted in prominence for humanism.
3. Many social evils were abolished by legislature Acts. Sati, child marriages, Devadasi
system etc. were prohibited by law. Legislation for abolition of social evils was
undertaken by the government with the support of social reformers. Local languages
also developed as the reform leaders wrote their books in the languages.
4. Educational field was profoundly influenced by the reforms. Western education spread
too many people in the country because of the efforts of social reform leaders. The
number of the schools and colleges increased in the country.
5. Most of the reformers praised the glory of ancient Indian culture. The reformers argued
that India would regain its past glory with the rejuvenation of ancient Indian culture.
6. Several service oriented organizations came into existence, seva sadans, orphanages
rescue homes, were established for the service people. Imbued with the spirit of service,
volunteers from Ramakrishna Mission served the people. During famines, floods, earth
quakes and epidemics, without any religious or caste discrimination.
7. The reform movement resulted in the growth of Patriotism in the country. On account
of these reforms, people were imbibed with a new nationalist spirit. The awakening
created by these movements, made the people to work with renewed vigor, towards
the construction of modern India.

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Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Satya Shodak Samaj was founded by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Bahishkrit Hitakarni Sabha started by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
9.21 Summery
In India in 19th century in India several organizations started for the reform of the society. The
Brahmasamaj, Aryasamaj, Pradanasamaj, Ramakrishna mission, Islamic organizations and other
social organizations led to the reforms in the society. The prominent leaders took active role in
the spread of different principles. the leaders Jyothiba Phule, Narayana Guru, Dr. B.R Ambedkar
played an important role in the activities for emancipation of the social evils and caste system.
The Muslim leaders also played a vitol role in the emancipation in the society.

9.22 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your Progress Answers—I
1. Raja Ram Moham Roy
2. Atma Ram Panduranga.
Check your Progress Answers—II
1. Jyothibha Phule.
2. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar

9.23 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Describe the important features of Brahma Samaj
2. Explain the principles and spread of Arya Samaj.
3. Write a note on Islamic Reform Movements in India.
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each
1. Write about Satya Shodak Samaj and its contribution.
2. Describe the role of Dr. B.R Ambedkar in the anti caste movement
3. Write about the features of Sikh Reform Movements

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9.24 BOOKS FOR FURTHER READINGS
1. Andrews, C.F : Indian Renaissance
2. Kalikinkar Datta : A Social History of Modern India
3. Majumdar, R.C : Glimpses of Bengal in the Nineteenth Century.
4. Monier Williams : Modern India and the Indians
5. Sivanath Sastri : History of Brahmo Samaj
- Dr. P. Thirupathi
.........................................................................................................................................

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 UNIT- 10: SOCIAL PROTEST MOVEMENTS
Contents
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Nature of the Social movements
10.3 Peasants Movements
10.3.1 The Peasant organizations
10.3.2 Champaran Satyagraha
10.3.3 The Pabna and Malbar revolts
10.3.4 Telangan Armed Struggle (1946-51)
10.3.5 Results of the Telangana Armed struggle
10.4 Tribal Movements
10.4.1 Bhil Risings 1817-19 and 1831-46
10.4.2 Kol Revolt (1831-32)
10.4.3 Khonds Revolt (1846-1848)
10.4.4 Santhal Revolt(1855-56)
10.4.5 The Visakhapatnam tribal Revolt (1832)
10.5 Dalit Movements
10.5.1 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Dalit Movements
10.5.2 Dalits parties founded by Ambedkar
10.5. 3 Ambedkar writings about Dalits
10.6 Women Movements
10.6.1 Women in Ancient period
10.6.2 Women in medieval period
10.6.3 Woman in Modern period
10.6.4 Women movements in India-Historical overview
10.6.5 Women’s movement in 19th century
10.6.6 Women Related Acts in 19th century
10.6.7 All India Women Conference (AIWC) 1926
10.6.8 Women role in the National Movement
10.7 Backward caste movements
10.7.1 Justice party
10.7.2 Jyothirao Bhaphule (1827-1890)
10.7.3 Sri Narayana Guru (1854-1928)

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 10.7.4 Ramaswamy Naicker(1879-1973)
10.8 Summary
10.9 Model Answers to Check your Progress
10.10Model Examination Questions
10.11Further Readings
10.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the importance of social movements in history
2. Explain the various social movements in India.
3. Discuss the results of social movements in Indian history.
4. Analyse the various social movements importance in Indian history
5. Describe the greatness of the social movements in India before independence

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The social movements seek to bring in social change, counter movements sometimes arise in
defence of status quo. There are many instances of such counter movements. When Raja
Rammohan Roy campaigned against sati and formed the Brahmo Samaj, in 1828 defenders of
sati formed Dharma Sabha and petitioned the British not to legislate against sati. When reformers
demanded education for girls, many protested that this would be disastrous for society. When
reformers campaigned for widow remarriage, they were socially boycotted. When the so called
‘lower caste’ children enrolled in schools, some so called ‘upper caste’ children were withdrawn
from the schools by their families. Peasant movements have often been brutally suppressed.
More recently the social movements of erstwhile excluded groups like the Dalits have often
invoked retaliatory action. Likewise proposals for extending reservation in educational institutions
have led to counter movements opposing them. Social movements cannot change society easily.
Since it goes against both entrenched interests and values, there is bound to be opposition and
resistance. But over a period of time changes do take place. The social movements such as
Peasant movements, Tribal Movements, Dalit Movements, Women Movements, Backward
caste movements.

10.2 NATURE AND FEATURES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

A form of collective action to bring about change with the active participation of people in the
society called as Social movement. Many social scientists in the recent past have been making
a distinction between new and old movements. The social movements have objectives and an
ideology. A social movement has a general orientation or way of approaching to bring about (or
to prevent) change. These defining features are not constant. They may change over the
course of a social movement’s life

10.3 PEASANTS MOVEMENTS

The Indian society is predominantly an agrarian society and hence witnessed many peasant
movements in both pre independence and post independence periods of history. Farmers in

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India are not a homogenous community. On the basis of the size of the land holdings, farmers
can be categorized into marginal farmers, small farmers, medium range farmers and large
farmers. The peasant’s movements against injustice, oppression and exploitative social order
from the Mughal period onwards.
A renowned socialist A.R. Desai observed, that the history of peasant movements in India can
be traced to Mughal period, and said “despite structural constraints, traditional India has
experienced a number of peasant uprisings before and after independence”. After the outbreak
of sepoy mutiny of 1857, Farmers in many parts of India resorted to armed revolts against
unresponsive governments exploitative land lords and money lenders. Notable among these
movements were, the Indigo revolt (1859-60), Janatia revolt (1860-63), Kuka revolt (1860-90),
Pawana revolt (1872-1873), the Bengal revolt of 1859-62 against the indigo plantation system
and the ‘Deccan riots’ of 1857 against moneylenders. For instance, the Bardoli Satyagraha
(1928, Surat District) a ‘non-tax’ campaign as part of the nationwide non-cooperative movement,
a campaign led by Sardar Vallabhi Patel. And the Champaran Satyagraha (1917-18) directed
against indigo plantations. In the 1920s, protest movements against the forest policies of the
British government and local rulers arose in certain regions.
10.3.1 The Peasant organisations
Between 1920 and 1940 peasant organizations arose. They were the Bihar Provincial Kisan
Sabha (1929) and the All India Kisan Sabha in 1936. At the time of Independence we had the
two most classical cases of peasant movements, namely the Tebhaga movement (1946-7) and
the Telangana movement (1946-51). The first was a struggle of sharecroppers in Bengal in
North Bihar for two thirds share of their produce instead of the customary half. It had the
support of the Kisan Sabha and the Communist Party of India (CPI). The second directed
against the feudal conditions in the princely state of Hyderabad and was led by the CPI. Certain
issues which had dominated colonial times changed after independence. For land reforms,
zamindari abolition, declining importance of land revenue and public credit system began to
alter rural areas. The period after 1947 was characterised by two major social movements.
The Naxalite struggle and the ‘new farmer’s movements.’ The Naxalite movement started
from the region of Naxalbari (1967) in Bengal.
10.3.2 Champaran Satyagraha
The Champaran Satyagraha was more impressive and Gandhi became a national hero. Champaran
was a district of Bihar was very backward. The most of the peasants lived on the Indigo
plantation, which were under the control of European planters. The peasants were excessively
oppressed to grow Indigo on atleast 3/20th of their land, which is called as Tinkatiya . The
grievances peasants heard of Gandhiji’s speeches in South Africa, and invited him to help the
peasants. Gandhiji reached Champaran in 1917 accompanied by Babu Rajendra Prasad, J. B.
Kriplani, Mahadev Desai and Mazhar -Ul-Huk. When the government withdrew the cases
against Gandhiji. The government appointed a committee to enquire into grievances of the
cultivators. The champaran agrarian bill was passed. And it was a great triumph for Gandhiji
and his new weapon Satygraha.
10.3.3 The Pabna and Malabar revolts
The Pabna agrarian unrest held in permanent settlement areas of east Bengal, the Zamindars
Used crafty methods to deprived the riots of their occupancy riots, which had been granted by
the 1859 Act. Among these methods were enhancing rents and a verity of cesses (Abwab). In
reaction to high handedness of Zamindars. The peasants launched movements between 1870-

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In the Malabar region the discontent of the Mophla muslim peasants continued with a strong
religious favour to give Hindu Muslim hanging to expression of Anti Landlord and Anti Foreign
discounted. The Upper Hindu Nambroodiri and Naira jenmis position had been re-established.
Even wastly enhanced by the British insistence of on landlord riots. Twenty Two revolts were
recorded between 1836 and 1854; more apprising took place in 1882-85. By the fact but there
was an increase of 224% in Rent.
10.3.4 Telangana Armed Struggle (1946-51)
The Telangana area of the erstwhile Nizam state has experienced a peasant uprising during
1946-51. A broad alliance of cultivators including medium, small and marginal farmers, tenants
and land less labourers undertook this uprising led by communist party. The causes for the
armed struggle were exploitative nature of socio-economic structure of Nizam state, oppressive
rule of the Nizam government and feudal lords, existence of forced labour in the form of Vetti.
The land in the state was divided into Diwani (Khalsa) lands were directly under the control of
the Government under Ryotwari system. The remaining non-Khalsa under different tenure
forms such as Sarf-I-Khas (10 percent land under Nizam), peshkush, Watandar, Jagirdar and
Inamdar. The Khalsa lands were controlled by the hereditary village officers namely the
Deshmukhs and Deshpandes (patels and patwaris). The laboring practice in these lands ranged
from casual labour (Bhagela) and forced Labour (Vetti). The feudal aristocracy in some areas
had oppressed the weaker sections in certain other forms such as Jogini and Basavi system. An
eminent social scientist Barry Pavier in his book “The Telangana Movement” has analysed the
causes for the peasant uprising and explained the demands of the movement.
10.3.5 Results of the Telangana Armed struggle
These include transfer of land titles, (pattadar titles) to actual cultivators, abolition of the Jagirdari
system, abolition the Vetti (forced labour) and reduction in excessive taxes from tenants. This
movement brought forth the slogan “Land to the Tiller” to motivate the peasantry. Noted leaders
like Ravi Narayana Reddy, Baddam Yella Reddy, Arutla Ramchandra Reddy and Kamala Devi,
Mugdoom Mohinuddin, Devulapally Venkateswara Rao and others have led the great uprising.
On the other side, a more repressive Nizam and his Razakars countered the movement. The
Indian army entered into Hyderabad state on the name of police action in 1948. Nizam himself
surrendered. A scholar named D.N. Dhanagare describes in his book “Social origins of the
peasant insurrection in Telangana”, the farmers and landless have occupied thousands of acres
of land in Nalgonda, Khammam, Warangal and Karimnagar districts. The movement successfully
large scale politicization of the masses in four districts, elimination of the grain levy system and
reduction of Vetti. Between 1949-54 various progressive legislation pertaining to agriculture
wer enacted. These include Jagir abolition Regulation Act (1949), the Hyderabad Tenancy and
Agricultural lands Act (1950) and Agricultural tenancy lands Act Amendment 1954.

10.4 TRIBAL MOVEMENTS

Nearly 7 percent of Indian population consists of different tribes spread in north-east, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Arunachal Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh etc. the tribal groups
in India have strong concentrations in hilly areas and forest regions and geographically inaccessible
tracts. Chuar rebellions (1795-1800), Kol insurrections (1860), Chota Nagapur revolts (1920),
Santhal insurrection (1871-1880) Munda-oraon Sardar movement (1869-1895)Koyas movement
(1922-24)and Gond movement (1938-40). This tribal unrest had led to demands for separate
and autonomous states for protecting their unique cultural identity and others. These uprisings

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ruthlessly suppressed by the British.
During the colonial period tribals in India had problems with erosion of their traditional rights on
forest laws, restrictions on shifting cultivation (podu cultivation) and exploitation by local money
lenders and middle men. Some of the significant tribal movements during colonial period include.
10.4.1 Bhil Risings 1817-19, 24-25 and 1831-46
The Bhils, an aboriginal tribe lived in the Western Ghats with their strong hold in Khandesh.
They revolt against Company officials during the years 1817-1819. The Governor General
Marquis Hastings tried to suppress the revolt. The company blamed Peshwa Baji Rao II and
his Commander-in Chief Triambakji for encouraging Bhils against Company’s policies. The
Bhils got terrified with company. The British officials between 1824-25 and 1831-46 dispatched
large number of forces to suppress the Bhils.
10.4.2 Kol Revolt (1831-32)
The Kols of Chotanagapur, Singhbam, Palamau and Hazaribagh led a heroic struggle against
the British policies. Before the year 1831-32, the headmen (Mundas) of Kol tribe enjoyed
certain lands and absolute rights over them. But, the British officials removed the Mundas from
their positions and appointed their own loyal men from non-tribal groups like Sikhs and Muslims.
This decision of officials was opposed by the Kols. The interference of company officials in the
socio-religious and hereditary rights of Kols forced them to revolt at once in 1831-32. The
oppressive method of land revenue collection by non-Kol officials also encouraged Kols to
attack and burn the public property. The Kols plundered and looted many villages. In the violence
large number of non-tribals were killed by Kolmen. As a result, the East India Company officials
started military action on Kols. By March, 1832 large number of Kols were brutally killed by
the Company armed forces. The revolt was suppressed by the company officials with superior
army and strategy. Even though the Kols failed achieving their ultimate goal, their revolt stood
as an inspiration for future tribal revolts.
10.4.3 Khonds Revolt (1846-1848)
The Khonds are the native tribals of Khandmal hills of Boad region of Orissa. Since a long time,
they used to perform certain orthodox social rituals like Human sacrifice and infanticides. But,
after the conquest of Orissa by the company, it officials made new, laws prohibiting these
activities. Khans lived in large number in Boad and Dispalla areas. The local rulers of Orissa
agreed to abolish the human sacrifices and child sacrifices from 1837 onwards under the pressure
of company officials. This has generated great anger in Khonds against local rulers and company
administrators. In the year 1843, Major Hicks was appointed as the commander of the company
forces stationed Khurda, Balsore in order to suppress the Khonds revolt. But, Major Hicks
failed in getting absolute support of local rulers. The Khans refused to pay the land revenue to
the company. They also refused to obey and recognise the ruler of Boad as their master.
In July 1845, East India Company officials established Meriah agency to stop the Human
sacrifices and infanticide evils that prevailed among the Khonds. Major Macforson was assigned
the task of pacifying the Khonds to obey the government laws. He conducted a series of
meetings with these people. He released large number of Khonds who were arrested by earlier
officers. But all these efforts failed completely in winning the confidence the Khonds. In 1846,
the Khonds made a sudden attack on the camp of Major Macforson and they imprisoned nearly
170 soldiers. They also tried release their ruler, who was in the control of Major Macforson. In
April, 1846 company officials stationed Madras contingent force at Boad. The Khonds resisted

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them, with their traditional weapons like axes and bows/arrows. The company’s armed forces
won the battle against Khonds. But most of the Khonds escaped into nearby forest. After the
end of rainy season, they returned to open area and again revolted under their leader, Chakrabisai
against the company forces. Gumsur became the center for his struggle. The fight between
Company forces and Chakrabisai lasted for more than two years. The company forces finally
succeeded in suppressing the Khond revolt by adopting all possible methods. Sambisai,the Boad
ruler was reinstalled as the king of Khonds. But Chakrabisai continued his struggle in secret
Guerilla method to achieve his men’s rights. In 1855 also once again Khonds Revolted. But, it
was crushed by the company forces. Slowly the Khonds gave up their practices of human
sacrifices and infanticide.
10.4.4 Santhal revolt (1855-56)
In the history of Indian tribals of post-mutiny era, Santhal revolt of 1855-56 received special
place in history. Santhali are native tribal people Rajmahal hills and Bhagalpur in Bihar. They
revolted against the ill-treatment at the hands of revenue officials of company. The revenue
officials collected extra land revenue from Santhals. Their oppressive attitude caused great
damage to Santhals. The local landlords, money lenders also exploited the innocent Santhals.
The local police, Zamindars and revenue collectors treated Santhals in a harsh and humaliting
manner. In the year, 1845 also Santhals made an attempt to put an end to oppressive rule of the
company officials. They looted during night time the wealth of Zamindars. On 30th June, 1855,
the Santhals held a meeting at Bhaganidhi. It was well attended by 600 tribals of nearly 400
villages. In this meeting, they decided to fight unitedly against the different atrocities of the
company officials and loyalists. The historic santhal revolt was heroically led by dynamic leaders
like Sidhu and Kanhu. This inspired tribals of villages to participate the war of independence.
They created their own armed force and attacked Government officials and Zamindars at
Beerbhum, Ramahal and Bhagalpur. The houses of white officials, police officials and railway
employees were attacked. The families and children were brutally killed. Non-tribal also extended
their support to Santhals. Sidhu and Kanhu led the anti-British struggle in a most positive way.
They scored some victories over the English forces. Finally, the East India Company used all its
army, commanders, money etc to create disorder among the santhals. More than 5000 Santhals
were killed. As a result of false trick, Sidhu was arrested and killed. In February 1856 another
Santhali leader Kanhu was also imprisoned by the company armies. With his arrest, the Santhal
revolt lost its rhythm and effect. Rajmahal and Beerbhum districts passed into the control of
company rule.
10.4.5 The Visakhapatnam tribal revolt (1832)
The tribal people of Visakhapatnam region revolted against the new-laws of British Government
in the year 1832. The policy of isolation and indirect rule pursued by the British rulers with
regard to the administration of the tribal areas led to a series of revolts. By the close of 1832,
disturbances in the seminaries of Kasipuram, Payakaraopet and Palakonda of the present day
Srikakulam district, and in the Parlakimidi zamindari of Ganjam became so serious that George
Russel, first member of board of revenue of the Madras Government was sent as a special
commissioner to investigate the cause of the disturbances and to suggest measures for putting
down law lessness in the hilly tract. On his advice, Act XXIV of 1839was passed which placed
7,8 of the district beyond the operation of the ordinary law and instead it was administered
directly by the colloctor who was vested with extraordinary powers.
Even after this Act was implemented, further troubles or outbreaks (locally called pithuries)
took place in the Golkonda hills in 1845-48, 1851-58, 1879-80, 1886 and 1891 in Jaypore zamindari

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in 1849-50 and 1855-56, among the Savaras of Gunupur in 1865 and 1874, and at Korravanivalsa
in Saluru in 1900.
In the Nizam state also, the conditions of tribals was not so good. At the result the Gonds
revolted under leadership of Ramji Gond in 1857-60, and Komaram Bheem in 1939-40. Even
though the revolts were crushed by Nizam’s army, the heroic fight of Gonds and their leaders
earned a special place in the hearts of their own community.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. All India Kisan Sabha was started in the year
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Kanhu was the leader of
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10.5 DALIT MOVEMENTS
Dalits are those who had been treated as untouchables in Hindu society for hundreds of years
as an integral part of caste system. Caste as a system of inequalities emerged from the Varna
system and attribute a scriptive status to every individual by virtue of both. Caste system
divided people into privileged and underprivileged in which higher castes enjoy privileges, rights
and ownership of properties while lower castes suffered unprivileged living, poverty, under
development, responsibilities and untouchability.
B.R. Ambedkar observed that the people living at the lower rung of the Hindu hierarchical
social order as Dalits. The term dalit was used to denote a meaning that these people were
“Broken Men” and protestant Hindus. Mahatma Gandhi called them as Harijans and constitution
of India has recognized as Scheduled Castes. The living conditions of Dalits were with poverty,
destitution, untouchability, humiliation and above all inaccessibility to sources of dignified living.
During 19th century Mahatma Jyotiba Phule had played an important role in bringing
consciousness among dalits through various educational programmes. He started Satyasodhak
samaj in 1873 and propogated various reforms to eradicate poverty, misery, illiteracy,
untouchability and exploitation among dalits. In 1849, Phule started schools for the lower castes
and for the girls in Bombay, Poona, Satara and Ahmedabad. He had also started adult literacy
programmes. Both Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savithri Bai Phule were actively involved in
undertaking various activities that brought awakening among dalits. The Satyasodhak Samaj
movement tried to expose the superstitions and ritualism among the Hindus. The Samaj also
opposed the practice of untouchability and demanded equality for the untouchables. Phule had
encouraged women education, women empowerment and widow marriage. He had established
a widow home in 1852 and an orphanage in 1864.
10.5.1 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Dalit Movements
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was a great social revolutionary and the chief architect of the Indian

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constitution. He worked for eradication of social evils, more particularly for the annihilation of
caste. He had made all out efforts to get social justice to backward classes and depressed
section who had undergone the patterns of subordination, exploitation and humiliation in Indian
history.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar undertook various movements against the evil practices of untouchability
and inspired the coming generations on assertion of rights. The Mahad movement for rights on
drinking water from the village tank, the Nasik movement for entry into Kalaram temple, Konkan
movement for the abolition of Zamindari system (Khoti system). Dr. B.R. Ambedkar instituted
social service orginizations such as Bahishkruth Hitakarini Sabha, Samata Sainik Dal, Peoples
education Society. Basically, he had opened the educational institutions for the spread of Scientific
Education for Dalits.
He could not only the represent the interests of Dalits with British Government, but also made
effective bargaining in the Round Table Conference (RTC) held in London. This had ensued
separate electorates for depressed classed. Again on the question of joint electorates, the Poona
pact was made in 1932. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was successful in convincing class like the separate
electorates for Muslims, Sikhs and others.
10.5.2 Dalits parties founded by Ambedkar
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar started socio-political organizations and parties like Independent Labour
Party, Indian Depressed Classes Federation, All India Scheduled Caste Federation and others
and made recently efforts for Dalit rights and participation in elections. He had also given
slogans such as “Educate, Agitate and Organize” the Dalits and believed in collective mobilization
of depressed classes against the domination of upper castes in the socially
10.5. 3 Ambedkar writings about Dalits
Through his writings, teachings and speeches Dr. B.R. Ambedkar inspired the depressed classes
for achieving their due rights in democratic framework. His books including “Annihilation of
caste”, “Who were Shudras”, State and Minorities”, “The Untouchables”, “Buddha and his
Dhamma”and many others. He had also edited certain journals such as “Mook nayak”,
“Bahishkruth Bharath”and others.
He was architect of the Indian constitution. He deliberated upon the rights of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Minorities in the Constituent Assembly. The image of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
from the leader of depressed classes to national leader with integrity. He laid bestowed his
efforts for enshrining fundamental rights to people in general and weaker sections in particular.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s greatest contribution to the dalits was the inclusion of constitutional
guarantees such as clauses on protective discrimination and prohibition of untouchability (Article
17). He had made vain efforts to get the Hindu code bill passed in parliament which could have
ushered in a new lease of life for Hindu women.

10.6 WOMEN MOVEMENTS

In India Women movements started in 19th century with many social reform movements
questioning the loe status of women in Indian society. This low status of women is the result of
the gender inequality practiced with male domination or patriarchy. The position of women
slowly declined in India due to social regulations such as caste rigidities and religious prescriptions.
In fact, women were in an honorable position in ancient Indian period.

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10.6.1 Women in Ancient period
The primitive settlers in India gave importance to fertility concept and educated them with
Mother Goddess. Women domination or matriarchy was in vogue in Indus valley culture. In Rig
Vedic period there were women scholars like such as Lopamudra, Visavara, Indrani and others.
The famous historian R.K. Mukherji opined that women had a respectable during vedic period
and scholars like Maitreyi and Gargi were actively participating in Vedic discourses to prove
their intellect. However, the position of women started declining from the later Vedic period and
dipped to its low in the medieval period with evil practices of Purdah system, Child marriages,
dowry and others parvading in all parts of the society. Several social evils were in vogue in
medieval society that became the stumbling back in women development.
10.6.2 Women in medieval period
The purdah system was widely practiced in Royal families. However, courages royal queens
like Rudrama devi, Chand Bibi and Durgabai preferred not to observe the practice. In the name
of religion women were forced into Jogini system, Basivi system and Devadasi system. Women
witnessed problems in matter of education, child marriage and enforced widowhood. Female
infanticide was very common in medieval times and often occurring in modern times. Further,
the dangerous practice of sati was executed as a tradition among the upper class sections of
the society. These evil practices also pronounced women as mentally weak and backward.
10.6.3 Woman in Modern period
The modern age had brought certain reforms in Indian society in general and women’s position
in particular. The British colonial administration enacted certain progressive legislation and
encouraged social reforms in favour of women education and development. During the post
independence period the government of India and various state governments have been initiating
various measures for the upliftment of women leading to women empowerment.
The serious women movements started in 19th century they were mostly led by Indian men.
Later women took the leading and challenged the social evils with autonomous women
movements during the Indian National Movement both as an integral part of nationalist movement
and a separate women movement. In course of time women’s movement became an identity
movement questioning patriarchy in all social structures including family. The slogan of personal
political emerged in which private family life was also brought into debate.
10.6.4 Women movements in India-Historical overview
There were many movements in the Indian society that condemned social evils and blind faiths.
In 6th century B.C Buddhism rejected social inequality based on caste and gender and propagated
rationalism in human relations. The Buddhist Sangha had also provided an opportunity to women,
irrespective of class and caste, to become member for salvation and service. During later
medieval; period the Bhakti movement saints and Sufi saints articulated their anger against
social evils. However, the impact of these movements was very marginal and could not improve
the status of women in Indian society. In modern age colonial rule had brought radical changes
in the society with progressive legislations and social reform.
10.6.5 Women’s movement in 19th century
The first wave of women’s movement started as an integral part of the social reform movements
and was started by western educated middle classes with the influence of liberalism. At the
beginning of 19th century women were in a disarray condition marked by social evils, religious

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rigidities and blind faiths. In human social practices and superstitions made the position of
women worse than a slave. Besides the denial of education, women witnessed child marriages,
kulinism (the worst form of polygamy) enforced widowhood, Sati, devadasis system, purdah
system and so on. These conditions of women motivated the social reform movements to
address the women’s problems.
10.6.6 Women Related Acts in 19th century
The Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna mission, Theosophical society and Satysodhak
Samaj stood for reforms and encouraged women education. Rajaramohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra
vidyasagar, Jyothirao Phule, swami Dayanand Sarswati, Keshav Chandra Sen and others made
efforts to fight against the miserable conditions of the women. The Arya Samaj and Brahma
Samaj Mahila mandals propogated women education. Jyothirao Phule established homes for
widows to rehabilitate them. Encouraged by the reform movement, the colonial administration
had brought in certain progressive legislations like the abolition of Sati Act (1829), Widow
remarriage Act (1856), Age of consent Act (1860) for fixing the minimum age for marriage at
10 years, civil marriage Act 1872 and Indian factories Amendment Act 1891 regulating the
work hours of women in factories and so on.
10.6.7 All India Women Conference (AIWC) 1926
There were many organizations based on region, language and welfare activities at the beginning
of 20th century in different parts of the country. In 1924, a single largest all India level organization
was established to give voice to different divergent groups and political tendencies with a
variety of demands. These demands included education for women, economic equality, right to
inheritance and divorce, pension for widows and so on. As a result of these efforts All India
Women Conference (AIWC) was established. Meanwhile, the British Government enacted
the Sarada Act (1929) aimed at preventing early marriage by raising the minimum age from
marriage from ten to twelve years. Along with AIWC Indian Association and National Council
of Women in India (1925). All these organizations demanded the Right to vote for women,
establishment of schools for nursery children’s. In fact in 1917, a women delegation led by
Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu and others met the secretary of state for India to demand Rights
to vote for women. Many organizations like Bharat Stri Mandal, Poona Sevasadan, Indian
Women’s Association, Young Women Christian Association (YWCA), Sarojinidevi Mahila
Sangham greatly inspired Indian women.
10.6.8 Women role in the National Movement
Several thousands of women took part in the freedom struggle and fought for the liberation of
the mother land. Women had participated both militant nationalist and nonviolent movement
against the British for Independence. Women leaders like Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Begum
Hazrat Mahal of Awadh and many others have participated in the first war of independence
(1857). Likewise militant nationalist leaders like Preetilata Wadekar, Kalpana Dutt, Bena das,
Suniti Ghos and many others involved. many women took active part in various peasant
movements such as Tebhaga movement in Bengal, Telangana peasant armed struggle, tribal
uprisings in Warli etc and greatly enriched the national movement.chakali Ilamma, Kamalamma,
Mallu Swarajyam, Priyamvada, Arutla Kamaladevi, Tapi Rajamma, Kauser Bee Mohinuddin
and many others took active part in Telangana Armed Struggle. Rani Gidello, a women activist
in Manipur lead a movement against taxes.
Women have also participated actively in the non-violent national movement for Indian
independence. The first generation nationalists such as Sarojini Naidu, Kamala Nehru. Annie

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Besant, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay and others joined the Home Rule League and participated
in all non-violent struggles. In 1913 Sarojini Naidu attended and spoke at Lucknow conference
of the Muslim League and later joined Indian National Congress. In 1925 Sarojini Naidu was
elected as the president of the INC. inspired by Gandhiji’s call women leaders like Aruna Asaf
Ali, Lakshmi Sehegal, Durgabai Deshmukh, Indira Gandhi, Muthulakshmi Reddy and thousands
of others actively participated in different struggles of Indian National Movement such as Non
Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, Quit India Movement and so on.
Likewise, women also participated in nationalist movement in princely states in India such as
Vimala Bai Melkote, Sangam Lakshmi Bai, Sarojini Naidu, Durga Bai Deshmukh, Yellapragada
Sita Kumari, Gyana Kumari Heda, Kamalamma, Ahalya Bai and many others actively
participated in Nizam princely state of Hyderabad.

10.7 BACKWARD CASTE MOVEMENTS

The term ‘Backward Classes’ has been in use in different parts of the country since the late
19th Century. It began to be used more widely in Madras presidency since 1872, in the princely
state of Mysore since 1918, and in Bombay presidency since 1925. From the 1920s, a number
of organisations united around the issue of caste sprang up in different parts of the country.
These included the United Provinces Hindu Backward Classes League, All-India Backward
Classes Federation, and All India Backward Classes League. In 1954, Eighty eight (88)
organisations were counted working for the backward classes.
10.7.1 Justice Party
Justice party prior name was South India Liberal Federation. It was founded on20th November
1916 in Madras by Natesa Mudaliar, Pitti Tyagyarachetti, T.M. Nair as a result of a series of
non-Brahmana meetings and conferences. Communal division between Brahmanas and non-
Brahmanas began in the presidency during the late19th century and early 20th century, mainly
due to caste prejudices and disproportionate Brahmanas in Government jobs. The Justice party
foundation marked the culmination of several efforts to establish this organisition. It represents
the non-Brahmans in Madras state and is seen as the start of the Dravidian Movement.
In the beginning of Justice Party it gave petitions to imperial administrative bodies for more
representation of non-Brahmanas in government services. With the reforms of Montagu-
Chelmsford reforms a Diarchal system in administration. The Justice Party became part in the
Madras government. In won first direct election in 1920. For next 17 years four out of five
ministers and was in power for 13 years. The congress party came to power in 1937 elections,
Justice Party never recovered. It came under the leadership of E.V. Ramaswamu Naicker
popularly known as Periyar and his movement Self-Respect movement. in 1944 Periyar
transformed the Justice Party into the social orginisation called Dravida Kazhagam and withdrew
it from election politics. Finally Dravida Kazhagam transformed as Dravida Munnatra Kazhagam
(DMK) in 1949. It became the oldest regional party In India. The factional rebel called original
Justice Party contested in 1952 elections.
The Justice Party was isolated in contemporary Indian politics by its many controversial activities
like. Brahmins in civils services and politics, and opposed Annie Besant Home Rule Movement,
because it benefit the Brahmins to rule. He also campaigned against the non-cooperation
movement. It also some difference with Gandhiji due to his praise of Brahmins and Brahmins
dominated Congress party. During the Justice Party in power is remembered for the introduction
of caste-based reservations, and educational and religious reform. The party had a role in
creation of Andhra and Annamalai universities

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10.7.2 Jyothirao Bhaphule (1927 -1890 )
He was born in 1827 at Poona in a Mali caste (his family members supplied flowers and
garland to the Peshwa’s family and came to be called Phule). He was the prominent leader of
Maharastra, who laboured for the cause of upliftment of untouchables. He was a gardener
belonged to Mali (sub caste of Kumbi). He organized a powerful Non-Brahmin movement. In
1854 he opened a school for untouchables and started private orphanage to help widows. His
writings were “Gulamgiri “in 1887 and Trituya Ratna. He founded “Satya Sodhaka Samaj (truth
seeking society) in 1873 and Dinabandu Sarvajanika sabbha in 1884. He condemned the caste
system, superiority of Brahmins and idol worship. He urged the non Brahmin not to engage
Brahmin priests in performing their ceremonies. He published Dharma Tritiya Ratiya Ratna,
Ishavar ( A warning), , life of Shivaji. He was honoured with the title Mahatma.
10.7.3 Sri Narayana Guru ( 1854- 1928 )
He started religious reform movement in Kerala. He was born in a poor Ezhava family near
Trivendrum in 1854. He was a great scholar of Sanskrit, Tamil and Malayalam and a writer of
devotional songs. He worked throughout his life for social advancement of backward classes
and moral values. He revolted against the severities of the caste system. He succeded in
abolishing animal sacrifices in the name of religion. He founded Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana
Yogam (SNDPY) in 1890, for the social, economic, educational and cultural progress of Ezhavas,
and other depressed classes. He also advocated intercaste marriages as the means of breaking
down the caste. He founded the temples in Palghat, Cochin, Malabar, Madurai, Kanchi, Ceylone
etc. and installed the deities of Shiva, Subramanyam. He led the Vaikom movement for the
temple entry of untouchables.
10.7.4 Rama swami Naickar( 1879 - 1973)Self respect movement
He was a crusader against the dominance of Brahmins both in Hindu society and Indian National
Congress. Erode Venkatappa Ramaswami Nayakar was born in a rich Banja family at Erode in
1879 in Tamilnadu. With the influence of Gandhiji, he joined in congress and participated in
Khaddar movement. Unable to bear the arrangements of separate meals for the Brahmins at
the Indian national congress conference and caste discreamination observed at gurukula schools
were run by Indian national congress at Tiruneilveli, he felt that Congress and became dead
enemie to the Non-Brahmins. In order to enlightened and Non- Brahmins and he started self
respect movement. He spread his ideas through his Tamil papers like Kudiarasu, Violuthalai,
and Paguthariv, He advocated the Non- Brahmins Dravidan culture was greater than the Brahmin,
and Aryan cultue. He condemned the study of Epic. Manusmruti and always worship of Rama
and Krishna. He was dead against the learning of Sanskrit and Hindi. He performed inter caste
marriages without help of Brahmins. Some of the dalits always joined in this self respect
movement. He merged the self respect movement with “Justice Party “and became the president
of justice party in 1938. In the Selum session the justice party was transformed into Dravida
Kajikam [DK]. C.Annadurai of Vellala caste of Tamilanadu joined DK and founded “Dravida
Munnetra Kajikam “ [ DMK ] in 1949j. It is the oldest regional political party in India.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

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 1. Independent Labour Party was founded by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
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2. The writer of Gulamgiri
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10.8 SUMMARY
The social movements held in India against the oppressive of the rulers of India. The people of
India not only against their oppression but also for their rights. The peasants fought against the
hike of taxes and suppression of landlords and money lenders. In this fighting Telangana people
succeeded. The dalits fought against castiem of rich class and untouchability. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
played key role for the upliftment of dalits. Jyothirao ba Phule played an important role for
upliftment of lower castes. He founded Satya Sodhak Samaj in 1873. Justice party played key
role in backward class politics not only in south India but also in India. E.V. Ramaswamy was
the important person for the upliftment of backward class people. The tribal people fought
against injustice nature of East India Company.

10.9 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your progress answers-I
1. 1936
2. Santhal
Check your progress answers-II
1. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
2. Jyothibha Phule.

10.10 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following Questions in about 30 lines.
1. Explain the various peasant movements in India.
2. Discuss the role of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in Dalit movement.
3. Write an essay on tribal movements
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines.
1. Bring out the greatness of women in India
2. Describe the Telangana Armed struggle.
3. Write an essay on Backward class movements

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10.11 FURTHER READINGS
1. Telugu Akademi : Indian Government and Politics.
2. Telugu Akademi : Indian History and culture from 1526 to 1964.
3. Narang,A.S : Indian Government and politics,
4. Rajani Kothari : Politics in India.
5. Srinivas, M.N : Social Change in Modern India.
- I.Ravindram

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 UNIT-11: POPULAR CULTURE AND FOLK TRADITION
Content
11.0 Objective
11.1 Introduction:
11.2 Music
12.2.1 Meaning of Music
11.2.1.1 Nada
11.2.1.2 Swara
11.2.1.3 Pitch
11.2.1.4 Raga
11.2.1.5 Method
11.2.2 ii. Janya ragas
11.2.2.1 Tala
11.2.2.2 Shruthi
11.2.3 Type of music
11.2.3.1 Classical music
11.2.3.2 Folk music
11.2.3.3 Light music
11.2.4 Musical instruments
11.2.4 .1 Vocal music
11.3 Songs
11.3.1 Classical songs
11.3.2 Devotional songs
11.3.3 Folk songs
11.3.4 Lullabies
11.3.5 Patriotic songs
11.3.6 Festival songs
11.3.7 Rhythmic songs
11.3.8 revolutionary songs
11.4 Dance
11.4.1 Types of dance
11.4.1.1 Classical dance
11.4.2 Folk dance
11.4.2.1 Folk painting

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11.5 Summery
11.6 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
11.7 Model Examination Question
11.8 Further Readings

11.0 OBJECTIVE
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the Different Music in India
2. Examine the Instruments of music in India
3. Explain the variety of songs in Indian culture
4. Discuss the various dances and its importance
5. Analyze the significance of popular and folk culture

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Folklore is the expressive body of culture shared by a particular group of people; it
encompassesses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. This includes oral
traditions such as tales. Proverbs and Jokes. They include material culture ranging from traditional
building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore
taking actions for talk beliefs the forms and rituals of celebrations such as Christmas and
Wedding Folk dances and initiation rites. Each one of these, either singly or in combination is
considered a Folklore artifact. Folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts
from one region to another or from one generation to the next generation. Folklore is not
something one can typically gain in a formal school curriculum or study in the fine arts. These
traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal
instruction or demonstration.
The word folklore derived from ‘Folk’ and ‘lore’ was coined by the
Englishman ‘William Thomas’ “Popular antiquities” or “Popular Literature”. The word ‘lore;
means “Instruction” A tradition is a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society
with symbolic meaning or special significance with origin in the past. This Folklore can Include
Jokes Saying and expected behavior in multiple variants, always transmitted in an informal
manner. Individual Folklore artifacts are commonly classified three types material verbal or
customary lore. There categories include physical objects common sayings expressions stories
and songs (Verbal Folklore) and beliefs and ways of doing things. The culture and traditions of
a country are preserved through arts. The Folklore of India comprises the Folklore of the nation
and the Indian Subcontinent. Folklore is the body of expressive culture including tales music
dance, oral history proverbs Jokes, popular beliefs customs and so forth within a particular
population comprising the traditions of that culture, sub culture or group. The subcontinent of
India contains such a diversity of ethnic linguistic and religious groups that it is difficult to
generalize widely about its Folklore. The
Folklore of India is distinguished from classical Sanskrit literary Traditions by its colorful local
bias. Oral epics and stories glorify local heroes and places and are expressed in local language
and dialects. Most of the Indian Folklore has a religious character and may be associated with

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sacred rites of festivals. Folklore heroes are frequently defied and worshipped in their
communities. India has a rich tradition of Folk dance music dramas painting and the decorative
arts which is appreciated and enjoyed all over the world today some of the Folk traditions or art
forms covered and given below.

11.2 MUSIC
Music is a great art which makes a common man and learned man rejoice. Our ancestors said
‘Sisurvethi Vethi granarasam Phanihi’, it means little children animals, snakes get ecstasy by
listening to music. Music is a universal language that can be understood by everyone. In all fine
arts music is a special one. So everyone likes music. Even mother sings lullabies to put her baby
sleep. Labour will sing songs while working at crafts or fields to relax from their hardships.
Even if there is any celebrations at our home there should be some type of music. In ancient
days sacrifices were common. They also performed music. Even it is so natural that we daily
sing “Vandemataram” In Schools. In this way music became a part of life. So music depends
on culture. Civilization of different countries and different situations. There were many
investigations about music how it was generated and when it was generated. Our Indian ancient
artists said that music is generated from four Vedas are as given below: - ‘Instrumental music
from Rigveda’ Dance and action from Yajurveda, Singing from samaveda navarasas from
atharvanaveda. During ancient times there are three arts from like: Game (Aata), Song (Pata)
and Speech (Mata). Are developed also developed dance music and poetry.
11.2.1 Meaning of Music
The word music is derived from called two words “Geetha”,”Vaadya” which means “Sangeetha”
(Music) Sangeetha (Music) is formed with Tala, Raga and Swara. The students can understand
music and its impositions. In music, Nada, Swara, Sthayi Tala raga, Shruthi, and laya are integral.
11.2.1.1 Nada
Nada is the base to music. From this Nada music is produced, and Nada is the life to music.
Nada is musical sound. So the musical sound is called nada. In the word Nada derived from
Na-means-Life and fire means-agni So Nada means ‘life-fire’. Nada the word and with the
combination of words- sentence similarly geetham, sangeetham, these all with be under control
of ‘Nada’.
11.2.1.2 Swara
The word ‘Swara’ derived from two words called ‘Swa’ means – Own, ‘Ra’ means- rejoicing
musicians say, When we listen to music, it is so sweet. There are ‘Swaras’ behind each song
and the music is formed with these Swaras. In music there are ‘Seven Swaras’ (Saptha Swaras)
are there
Example: - Sa-Sadjama- Peacock – sound, n’ – rishabha – Bull sound, ga – gandhara – Goat
sound.
11.2.1.3 PITCH
The saptha Swaras are to be classified in three pitches they are Mandra (low), Madhyama
(medium), and Tara (high). One should start with ‘Sa’ and gradually should reach the three
pitches and again should and with ‘Sa’.
11.2.1.4 RAGA

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‘Raga’ means arrangement of these swaras in order to make the audience ‘rejoice’ or ‘delight’.
This raga develops and intensifies the concept or feeling of a song. Our Indian music is called
‘Raga’. Sampradaya (Raga traditional) method, and Western music is called Swara Sampradaya.
11.2.1.5 Method
Our Indian music so many types of ragas are there to express Melody and feeling. some of
these ragas are good melodies to make children Sleep by singing lullabies some ‘Ragas’ are
suitable to awake the gods by singing ‘Suprabhata’. Some Ragas to express tragedy. Sometimes
we may listen to tragedy music in radio or television if any great person is passed away. The
Ragas are divided into two types. They are : JANAKA RAGAS (Parental Ragas) After
considering All ragas our musicians identified 72 melatkartha Ragas as main Ragas. These are
called Janaka Ragas also called samporna ragas, and mula ragas.
11.2.2 II. JANYA RAGAS
These Janya ragas are regenerated from these 72 Janaka ragas. By deleting some swaras,
these Janya ragas are produced. In this way from one Melakartha or Janka rages, 484 ragas
may be produced.
11.2.2.1 Tala
According to ‘Sangeetha Vidya Darpanam’ nrutha geeta, Vaadya, are enlightened that is called
‘Tala’. The dance of lord Shiva is called ‘Tandava’ And of parvathi is called ‘Lasya’. By
combining the first letters from Tandava-Ta and from Lasya-La-Tala is formed as time passed
on it is called as Talam. There are Sapta Talas are there example: Dhruva-Talam- Mathya
Talam- Rupaka Talam.
11.2.2.2 Shruthi
Specific sound which can be heard closely by the ears is ‘Shruthi’. For this shruthi. ‘Nada’ is
most important. There are three types of shruthis Are there called Mandra, which comes from
heart place. Second is Madhya, which comes from Throat place third one is Tara- which come
from head place. ‘Shruthi’ is the mother and laya is the father of music. Laya is a part of Tala.
If Laya is missed Tala will miss and if Tala is missed Swara will be missed.
11.2.3 Type of music
our Indian music is antique. This music is reformed as classical music from folk from gradually.
So there are three type of music.
1. Classical music 2. Folk music 3. Light music
11.2.3.1 Classical music
our Indian classical music includes ‘Swara’, raga, tala shruti laya as it is traditional music.
Classical music again divided into (2) types
1. Hindustani music 2. Carnatic music
Hindustani music
This is the north Indian Classical music and its specialists is Swara related Raga. Tabla and
Harmonium are main instruments to it.

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Carnatic music
This is the South Indian classical music. This music is very popular in the state of Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Kerala and Konkani. The main instruments to this music are
‘Mrudanga’, Ghata, Veena, Tambura and ‘Shruthi box’.
11.2.3.2 Folk music
Folk music is the music of folk The feeling can be expressed in the songs of folk people from
villages will sing a songs from their heart in the villages. This folk music seems very beautiful to
listen to and instruments such as flute, talas, maddela, Harmonium and sometimes even claps
are used to express happiness and delight. The classical music is derived from folk music and
this folk music from adivasis in this way the music is developed. this folk music is in fact the
mother of classical music these folk music forms today again came into limelight through Radios
and TV’s. to preserve and propagate folk arts like : Burrakatha, Bagotham Chiruthala Ramayana,
Golla Suddulu, Oggukatha. Etc.,
11.2.3.3 Light music
Elite people enjoy the classical music and laymen enjoy the folk music. People who doesn’t
have knowledge in classical music and who doesn’t know the folk music they can choose some
other form of music. By he mixing of Shruthi, Raga, Laya from classical music and the sweet
style of folk music created a now melodians style of songs. This is know as “Light music” light
music songs what we liston in radios of tan are all authored by devulapalli Krishnasatri’s –
Venukunjam ‘Naduri’s Enki ‘songs - C. Narayana reddy – Ramapa etc. these songs of above
persons are evergreen light music songs.
Instrumental music
The music played on instruments is called instrumental music. In the golden days there was of
big use of instruments to create music. Veena, Marmonium, Dhole (Dappu) were the only used
instruments for the musical composition. But as time passed all types of music was enjoyed
from learned men to laymen.
11.2.4 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Instruments which are used in music performance are called musical instruments. Olden days
man prepared Dole, Mrudanga with animal skin, prepared flute with bamboo by punching holes
into it. The musical instruments have been divided into four types:
1) Tantri Instruments
These instruments are prepared with strings. Ex. Sitar, Veena, Guitar.
2) Randhra Instruments
This is also called as hole-instruments. Ex. Flute, Piano, Harmonium.
3) Charma Instruments
This instruments making with Leather, this is also called as “Avanatha Instruments”. Ex. Tabla,
Dole, Khanjar.
4) Loha instruments
These are prepared by different metals. This instruments also called as “Ghana Instruments”.
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Ex. Jalra, Hand, talas, Modern, Keyboards.
11.2.4 .1 Vocal Music
Vocal music means the quality of vocal, Vocal music one should have good quality of Swara.
Those who are efficient in “Ganakala” are called “Vocal musicians” and the programmes
conducted by them are called “Vocal music” performance.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. The word music derived from
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Which music is popular in Karnataka?
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

11.3 SONGS
Many generation together our culture and hereditary, inheritance legacy is being transmitted
through songs to future generations. From Olden days a large number of people live this life
style, and culture, traditions are being conveyed in the form of songs of this melodious as in live.
How the songs is produced? when one experiences an emotion, tragedy or any other feeling, he
expresses that in the form of raga. Some songs and steps called dance. These Ata, Pata are the
basis of music and dance. “Bharata” in his Dance Art (Natyasastra) explains as song is the
combination of Swara. Sound is to be melodiously performed in gana. In four Vedas, sama veda
contains |Explains about music| songs and dedicates to this gana.
These are Eight (8) different songs are there:- they are:
11.3.1 Classical songs
As per shruthi, laya, tala, which songs are sung by professional are called classical songs. This
song art our Indians arranged a proper scientific system. Whatever the song it comes under
“Sapta Swaras”. These swaras are to be composed by musicians to lyries written by lyricists.
Singers wil sing the composition of swaras accordingly. They are called Vaggeyakarulu, writings
of Annamacharya, Ramadasu, Tyagaraju are called “Keerthanas” Ex:- Annamayya:- He is the
first maestro or Vaggeyakardu.
He is the father of “Keerthanas”. He wrote thirty two thousands of devotional Keerthanas.
Ex:- 1. Adivo Alladivo Srihari Vasamu.
1. Brahma Kadigina Padamu.
Tyagaraju: The great Tyagaraju expressed through his songs to all telugu people as “Sitamma
Mayamma Sriramudu maa Tandri”. He wrote 2000 Keerthanas in 210 ragas. Everyone can
using these songs easily.

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Ex: - 1. Dorakuna Ituvanti Seva
2. Endaro Mahanubhavulu Andariki Vandanamulu.
11.3.2 Devotional songs
These are either composed of music swaras or the “Bhajans” that are performed in their
villages. These are sung on Festival Programes religious programmes and “Jatara Times”. The
great many devotional songs are there are sung with utmost of devotion. Bahujan songs which
are according to Laya are also called devotional songs. Bhaktha Ramadasu Kshetrayya,
Annamaya and meerabai delivered so many of these devotional songs to us.
Ex:- 1. Shiva Shiva Murthvi gananadha.
2. Gollavari Vadalaku Krishnamurthy:
Ramadasu also a great musician, he is also known as Vaggeya Karulu. His Keerthanas called:-
1. E Teeruga nanu dalachedamo.
2. Nanubrovamani Cheppave- Sitamma thalli.
11.3.3 Folk Songs
Village people sing these songs with all their heart. Their happiness tragedies, experiences and
their unadulterated life style, hardships and beauty these call are expressed in the form of folk
songs. Through folk songs idioms sayings quotation cultural heredity are being transmitted from
one generation to another generation and new styles of folk songs are also being composed.
The folk songs various contents and situations are depicted such as Ramayana, Mahabharata,
Bhagavata historical stories. family songs conversations of brother in law, sister-in Law, wife
and husband jokes and Bathukamma songs- Vangapandu, Gaddar, Goreti Venkanna, Andesri,
P.V. Chalapathi Rao are famous folk singers. Ex:-
1. Eyara Chinnoda Eyara nee sokumaada.
2. Palletoori Pillagada, pasalagaase monagaada.
11.3.4 Lullabies
These are also called ballaby songs. These songs especially sung by mothers to their kids to put
them to sleep. These songs are very sensitive writh laya and these songs bring Joy to everyone.
Every one childrens listened the song “Jo Achyuta nanda, Jo Jo mukunda”.
11.3.5 Patrioti songs
It is necessary to sing devotional songs without mistakes with proper pronunciation rhythm to
teachers as well as students because they develop integrity and trust worthy of our country.
During school days programmes conducted in schools these songs are to be sung.
Even today when we listen to these patriotic songs every one will excite. Such songs like “Jana
Gana Mana”. “Vandemataram”. Are to be sung by every student in proper way and we should
say the meaning of them Ex:-
1. Desamunu preminchumanna- Gurajada Appa Rao
2. Edesamegina endukalidina- Rayaprolu Subbarao
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11.3.6 Festival songs
During festivals and Jataras different species of people according to their customs and traditions
they sing some songs Ex:- Mangalaharathi and Bathukamma songs during Pooja time are also
festival songs.
Ex:- 1. Okkoka puvvesi chandamama.
Bathukamma bathukamma Uyyalo.
11.3.7 Rhythmic songs
According to them of the song people do action and gestures to these rhythmic songs we should
make children to do action according to the songs. If it is so the students will enjoy and they will
get physical exercise also. Ex:-
1. Chemma chekka Charadesi mogga.
2. Oppulakuppa- Oyyari bhama.
11.3.8 Revolutionary songs
To get consciousness about revolutionary change freedom and independence these songs are
written. Even today these songs make people to get consciousness need self existency.
Ex:- 1. Telugu veera levara- Deeksha Bhoomi sagara.
2 Bandenka Bandi Katti, padaharu bandlu katti

11.4 DANCE
Dance is a type of art that generally involves movement of the body usually rhythmic and to
music performed in many different cultures and used as a form of expression, social interaction
and exercise or presented in a spiritual or performance setting. Dance may also be regarded as
a form of nonverbal communication between humans and is also performed by other animals,
Gymnastics, figure, skating and synchronized swimming are sports that incorporate dance,
while martial arts kata are often compared to dance. Definitions of what constitutes dance are
dependent on social, cultural aesthetic, artistic and moral constraints and range from functional
movements. Dance can be participatory, social or performed for an audience. Our Indian studied
the rhythm of the movements of our body parts organs to express the feelings such as happy,
comedy, tragedy and romance and they have given a complete dance art to us. The Natya
Shastra of Bharata explained everything about dance. Our old temple which were constructed
by scholars are well known about these all arts. They designed some sculptures as they dancing,
singing and playing instruments.
11.4.1 Types of dance
The development of human civilization and culture innumerable local languages have been
developed and along with the development of language the dance styles also have been developed
at various places.
11.4.1.1 Classical dance
All over the world we see the statue of nataraja in dance posture or style. In the book “Abinaya
Darpanam ‘’ of Nandi Keshwara classical dance were explained. There are many classical

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dances are there. They are:-
Nruthyam : In this by expressing happiness wonder tragic of song with various postures, with
eyes, hands and legs moves according o Tala and Laya.
Natyam: This is story oriented dance. It is accompanied by Anga Vinyasa. Pata and Tala.
Which means Natyam is complete one, where as Nruthya are incompleted and other dances
called “Lasya” and Tandava. Tandava is performed by males, Lasya is performed by females
only. Here different classical dances are there in India they are:
1. Bharata Natyam:- this dance form has been reformed on the basis of “Bharatha Muni’s”
dance it is a dance form from Tamilnadu. It is a co-ordinated dance of three Bhava, Raga and
Thalam. This is performed mostly in temples with “Alarimpu”. “Varna”, billana. The famous
artist from Bharata Natyam called Bala Swaraswathi, Vijayanthi Mala, Yamini Krishna Murthy
Etc.
2. Kuchipudi:- It is a very traditional dance form and stood as a symbol for cultural greatness
of telugu people. This dance from the state of Andhra Pradesh in Southern India. This dance is
highly ritualized, with a formalized song and dance Introduction, Sprinkling of holy water and
burning of incense along.
Writh invocations of goddesses. This dance was performed by men, even the female roles, al
though now it is predominantly performed by women. Some of dance forms of Kuchipudi
called Golla kalapam, Yakshyagana.
3.Kathakali:- Kathakali is another traditional dance from of India which relates to the story
telling. Kathakali translates to the storytellers in the country’s Language. The Southern region
of the country from Kerala Kathakali is one of the most renowned and religious dances forms
of India. It originates from the tales of Ramayana and Shiva stories. This dance includes the
intriguing face movements and the heavy costumes which includes the traditional face masks
and body paints. This dance performed mostly by males but now a-days women also performing,
Gurugopichand, Chandmppakulam parama pillai are the famous artist from this Kathakali.
4. Kathak:- Kathak is the famous dance form from Uttar Pradesh. The word “Kathak” derived
from “Kathak” which means “Story” in Hindi. It is very smart guess for one to make that
Kathak is performed in the form of story telling through body movements used by the dance.
This dance is often referred to as the dace to love and it can be performed by both by the male
and female dance together. This dance form focuses highly on the ankle movements
complemented by the ankle that has to match the beats of the music.
This dance form is performed in various place in the country which includes Jaipur Banaras
and Lucknow. Some of the famous artists in Kathak are Brij Maharaj Sundar Prasad Madhumathi
Kumudini.
5 Odyssey:- This is Orissa states dance form. This dance form precedes from 2nd century
B.C. the Co-ordinate sound between “Odra” sound and “Orissa” sound is “Odyssey”. There
are including similarities of Kuchipudi and Bharatha Natyam and by co- ordinating Hava
Bhavahaya. This Odyssey dance is performed Jayadeva’s- Gita Govindam and Assapadas are
performed through this dance. This dance is considered as the oldest dance forms of India
which are surviving till today this dance is performed mostly by the women dancers and it
includes more than fifty intriguing mudras. Or body movements.
6. Manipuri:- This is Manipur state dance form. It has its roots in that states folk traditions

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and rituals and often depicts scenes from the life of the god Krishna. It is spread over Assam
and Bengal across the north Indian states. Manipuri is characterized by smooth and graceful
movements. A decorated lord shivas Jatajuta with hair parted in the centre, wearing colorful
skirts with glasses is presented in the dance form”Punz” drums are played for music. Female
roles are especially fluid in the arms and hands, while male roles tend to have more forceful
movements. The famous artists have more forceful movements. The famous artists in this
dance are “Jhaveri Sisters” Naveena Nirmala mehata, Gurubinu Sinha, Kalavathi devi etc.,
7. Mohini Attam:- This is Kerala state dance form. kathakali is another classical dance form
of Kerala. This dance gets its name from the word “Mohini” a historical enchantress avatar of
the Hindu and Vishnu gods, who helps the good prevail over evil by developing her feminine
powers. This dance dancers perform excellently with the movement of eyes, eyebrows eyelids
and nose. with these parts they express their feelings an a wonderful way. It is traditionally a
solo dance performed by women after extensive training now a days men can also perform the
dance. The famous dances in this dance called Hema maliri, Rita devi, Kalyani amma etc.,
8. Perini dance:- This is Telangana State dance form. During the reign of Kakatiya dynasty
this dance is the famous. During Kakatiya dynasty the elephant army commandant Jayapasenani
wrote a book “Nrutyaratnavali” one the basis of this book this dance form has been designed.
This dance performed by males only. This is the excellent of all Tandava dance forms. before
beginning of the was during Kakatiya period soldiers performed this dance to excite lord shiva
to receive blessings.
11.4.2 Folk Dance
In this folk dance society related, religious related agriculture related, war related and
entertainment related, themes are most often depicted. These are joyful and emotional
performances. These are delightful with local languages and local songs to watch and listen
The most important folk dance are yakshagana, Burrakatha, Kolata dance, Oggukatha, garga
dance, chindu dance, Veera Golla Suddulu, Gondu dance Koya jalari garba dance. Our Indian
culture and traditions have incredible importance and greatness. The history of music and
dance is most useful to us to understand “Unity and Diversity” the truth of our Indian culture.
Teachers should encourage the students to learn this music and dance easily and happily. Music
and dance help us in the coordination of mind and body and increases, creativity.
FOLK Drama
Telugu theatre art in the beginning was preceded as poetic drama, mythological Historical
stories are dramatized with melodious music and relevant roles.
Gradually these developed into poetic, noisy and social dramas. Most famous dramas are
Kanyashedkam maabhoomi, chintamani Raktha kanneeru etc., Usually dramas are 3 categories
they are:-
1. Mythological dramas.
2. Historical dramas.
3. Social dramas. In dramas actors involve in their roles and express relevant aesthetics.
Navarasas:- Shringara (romance), Karuna (kindness), Roudram (feasibility) Hasyam (Comedy),
Veeram. (Heroic), Bhayanaka (Scary) beethatya (Bewilderment) Adbhutam (Miracles),
Shantam (Pleasantness).
Mono action:- In the dramatization-selecting one role and acting that role expressing the

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feelings to the role is called Mono action. Ex: Alluri sitaramanju, Bhagat singh.
One act plays:- By taking a story and presented in one unit is called one act play. It is most
useful to explain the story in straight.
Mimicry:- Humor in imitation. It is also called “Sound” imitation Mimicry. Different people
and their way of speech, sounds of animal birds, sounds of vehicles, musical sounds called
sound imitation Venu Madhav is the famous in Mimicry artist.
Mime:- Speechless action to a situation or incident is called Mime.
11.4.2.1 Folk painting
Painting is drawing pictures and decorating with colours. Drawing graphic pictures is also a
part of painting, when these paintings are drawn in colour we feel as it song is sung rhythmically
and get pleasant feelings. Hence paintings are called visual music. There are many techniques
in painting, one can paint with a variety of colours. Using different colours can draw various
pictures on paper. Canvas walls on floor on cloth etc., there are different type of paintings are
there. There are:- water colour paintings, Oil coloured paintings, Fabric colour paintings,
Kalamkari paintings nature painting, still life paintings, descriptive Pictures, portrait painting,
Moral painting, not only this paintings but also other painting such as.
Mughal paintings: Miniature illustrations for books, albums, emerged from persian painting
with Indian, hindu and Buddlist influences and developed during the Mughal period.
Tanjavur paintings: This painting from native to the south Indian town of Thanjavur in Tamilnadu.
This painting Originated around 1600 CE. This painting was created as a devotional icons, they
dpict hindu gods. Goddss and saints.
Madhubani paintings: This painting also called as mithila painting is practiced in the Hithila
region of Bihar state in India. It was traditionally done by women on freshly plastered mud
walls of huts but it is also done on cloth hand made paper and canvas.
The folklore of India comprises the folklore of the nation of India and the Indian subcontinent.
Folklore is the body of expressive culture including tales, music, dance, legends, Oral history,
proverbs, Jokes, popular beliefs, customs and so fort within a particular population comprising
the tradition of that culture, sub-culture of group. In this lesson to covered all the dance forms,
folk music, different songs, painting and dramas.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. In which book explained classical dance
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. The Perini dance was form on during in reign of
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

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11.5 SUMMERY
Folklore derived from Folk and lore. Folklore is the body of expressive cultural including
tales music dance, oral history, proverbs, Jokes, popular beliefs, customs and so forth within a
particular population comprising the traditions of that culture, sub culture or group. Music,
songs and dance are prominent in Indian culture. Classical music, Hindustani music, Karnatak
music and folk music occupied important place in music. In songs Devotional songs, revolutionary
songs, folk songs and patriotic songs very important. In dance Bharata Natyam, Kuchipudi,
Kathakali, Kathak, Oddessy, Manipuri, Mohini attam and perini dance are occupied an important
place in the history of popular culture.

11.6 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your Progress Answers—I
1. Two words ‘Geetha- Vaadya’
2. Karnatic music
Check your Progress Answers—II
1.Abinaya Darpanam
2. Kakatiyas

11.7 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Explain the music and its types in India
2. Discuss various songs and its importance
3. Write a note on Indian dances and its significance
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each
1. Describe the vivid musical instruments
2. Write about folk songs and its significance
3. Explain the important features of kathak

11.8 FURTHER READINGS

1. Kapila Vatsyan : Indian Classical Dances.
2. Kapila Vatsyan : Classical Indian Dance in Literature.
3. Emmie Te Nijenhuis : Indian Music History and Structure.
4. Raginidevi : Dance Dialects of India
5. Dr M. Esther Suneela,
Dr Kavitha Ajay : Art and cultural Education.
- Dr. Surepalli Ventataratnam
.........................................................................................................................................
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 UNIT: 12 ORAL TRADITIONS
Content
12.0 Objective
12.1 Introduction: -
12.2 Meaning of Oral tradition
12.3 Indian Oral Tradition
12.4 Famous Indian folk singers
12.5 Indian Musicians
12.6 Indian Classical Dancers
12.7 Famous Dramatists of India
12.8 Famous Painters of India
12.9. Summary
12.10 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
12.11 Model Examination Question
12.12 Further Readings
12.0 OBJECTIVE
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the meaning of Oral tradition
2. Examine the Indian folk singers
3. Explain the contribution of Indian musicians
4. Discuss the an importance Classical dancers
5. Analyze the contribution of famous painters in India

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Oral tradition or Oral lore is a form of human communication where in knowledge, art ideas and
cultural material is received, preserved and transmitted orally from one generation to another.
The transmission is through speech or song and many include folk tales, ballads, chants, prose
or verses. In this way it is possible for a society to transmit Oral history, Oral literature, Oral
law and other. knowledge across generations without a writing system or in parallel to a writing
system. Oral traditions have an used religious such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianism and
Jainism. In other way writing system to transmit their canonical scriptures rituals, hymns and
mythologies from one generation to other generation. Oral tradition is information, memories
and knowledge held in common by groups of people, over many generations, it is not the same
as testimony or Oral history. In a general meaning “Oral tradition” called recall and transmission
of a specific preserved textual and cultural knowledge through vocal utterance. The study of
oral tradition is distinct from the discipline from the academic of oral history, Which is recording
personal memories and histories of those who experienced historical events. Oral tradition is

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also from the study of orality. A Folklore is a type of oral tradition but knowledge other than
folklore has been orally transmitted and thus preserved in human history

12.2 MEANING OF ORAL TRADITION

According to ‘John Foley’ oral tradition has been an ancient human tradition found in “all
corners of the world”. The transmission of folklore mytheologies as well as scriptures in ancient
India, in different Indian regions was by oral tradition. The oral tradition in India is still prevalent
especially in the area of folk literature.
The oral tradition called all Indian languages except Sanskrit they reached the status of writing
continued to develop their literature drawing inspiration from both written and Oral tradition.
According to Cambridge dictionary, Oral tradition is a “system for preserving a group’s beliefs,
customs and history”. Oral tradition is an aspect of human society’s evolution. It is the complex
process of passing on information of a people’s culture from one generation to next.

12.3 INDIAN ORAL TRADITION

India subcontinent’s civilization also called the India civilization is considered to be one of the
oldest living civilization, civilization refers to a multifaceted but interrelated social collectivity
with distinctive cultural and ideational features that evolved and took shape though a log historical
process involving a division of effort with a concomitant social hierarchy. The Vedas and the
teachings associated with them the Upanishads before being written were orally transmitted
through generations the nucleus of the Indian Oral tradition. The tradition of a succession of
gurus or teachers orallyPassing down the teachings to their disciples and the system of gurukula,
where disciples lived together with their teachers to orally imbibe knowledge from them further
strengthened it.
In 19th century a large number of simple but improveshed village folks from India’s fertile
northern plains, in quest of better economic opportunities sailed across seas and made landfall
at distant shores. In general “Oral Tradition” refers to the transmission of cultural material
through saying and as long kept as tradition by village folk which are known folklore. Before
the script or writing developed the four Vedas. Ramayana, and Mahabharata were in Oral
from. The entire scripture was learnt by memory. It was recorded in personal memories. It was
very much essential to be transmitted to others. In this way they had passed their acquired
knowledge to know generation. Many folk practices, songs, narratives have faded away. They
are not in living from.
The rural society of India is still large and a large section of the population lives in villages. So
the oral tradition is a living tradition. The chants in the temples, bhajans Sankirtanas, folk songs,
cult practices, rastila tradition the harvest songs, and rituals songs and legends associated with
the celebrations of holi festival, nautanki Ramayana Kathas, and other kathas, Harikathas, and
number of dishes in each region, Bhuta worship, Vedic Yajna reciting quran, Bible or Gurugranth
and such other scriptures are all very much Practices in our country all these holy books
available in the written version today were in the oral versions once upon a time before they
were scripted.
The folk fairs and festivals are regularly conducted in mass scale. These Oral traditions
were part of fairs and festivals. There are plenty of opportunities for the people to know and
participate in these occasions where the oral traditions play a significant role. In India Oral
form of literature is privileged than the written form. It is always easy to remember poetry than

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the prose. The oral tradition has been continuing from ancient times and will keep evolving in
future. Many histories and Folklorists are the people who are well informed about the oral
traditions. During their research and field work they come across with many kinds of Oral
traditions of various places. The content of these traditions are applicable to real life society
belief system of the common people belonging to particular community. Earlier these were
recorded and written about in the books news papers. Today they are regarded as the important
academic discipline. Scholars and practitioners of the traditions are working together to document
and revive and also restore these traditions.
Oral traditions which is covered under intangible culture According to this International body
cultural heritage is not limited to material manifestations
Such as monuments and objects that have been preserved over time. The UNESCO many
years of research undertaken on the functions and values of cultural expressions and practices
have opened the door to now approaches to the understanding protection and respect of the
cultural heritage of humanity. Finally the UNESCO’s taking leading role in the adoption of the
convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage. Here I am discussing about
the most famous folk singers musicians drama artists, dancers and painters of Indians.

12.4 FAMOUS INDIAN FOLK SINGERS

we all are love music but everyone has their own choice they listen to music has the
power to speak to all of us in a completely different way. There are only a few songs that don’t
sound like a typical Bollywood song and that folk music. Folk music reminds us of the culture
that we hold so close to our hearts. There are many famous singers are there in India here I am
written some important folk singers.
1. Ila arun: She’s name is probably the first one to top up in anyone’s head when folk music in
Bollywood is being discussed. Basically she is from Jaipur Rajasthan, She is popular Indian
actress T. V. personality and a Rajasthani folk pop singer with a unique, husky voice and a
penchant for folk pop fusion she has been the voice behind many chartbuster songs. Among
here great accolade lies Ringa Ringa from slumdog millionaires Osear winning album. Ala Arun
popular songs include “Choli ke peeche kya hai”.
2. Nooran Sisters: Jyothi nooran and sultana nooran together have the power to light up a
room with their bright voices. Trained by their father ustad Gulshan Mir, the Nooran sisters
specialize in sufi folk music they got their first big break with “Patakha Guddi” from highway
and since then they have delivered many hits for films like sultan, Dangal and Dum Laga Ke
Haisha.
3. Swaroop khan: he is a Rajasthani folk singer who came into prominence after becoming
one of the top then contestants in a season of Indian idol. He has since given his voice to a
number of hits in bollywood. The famous Ghoomar song from Padmaavat was his most recent
contribution while his past performances include those in Mukkebaaz Dhanak filmistan and
PK. His familiarity with the audience must we begun with reality TV but he never stopped
contributing to the world of Rajasthani folk music. His biggest hit has been “Tharki Chokro”
from P. K
4. Gummadi vital rao: he is an Indian poet. His famous name called “Gaddar” in Telangana.
He is likewise a social activist and known for the promotion of telugu culture in India. He was
one among the leaders of the Telangana movement. He is from Hyderabad. He is a member of
a political party (Telangana Praja From). He is from Hindu family of telangana. He has worked

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in tollywood and his masterwork was released in many telugu movies. He was a very famous
folk singer in telangana. He sang several songs during the Telangana movement.
5. Vimalakka: Arunodaya Vimala popularly known as Vimalakka is a telugu social activist and
singer in Telangana. Her folk troupe is known as “Arunodaya samskritika samakhya”. She also
heads a joint action committee for the creation of telangana state. She was influenced by her
father’s association with the rebellion. She forsht against jogini system. She was a civil rights
women activist she organized folk concepts telangana “Dhoo-Dhaam and Bathukamma festival.
She’s famous song called adudam dappula daruvera”. Now she is working for Samajika
Telangana with her organization telangana united front as chairperson.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Nooran sisters are specialized in which music
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Vimalakka folk troupe known as
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
12.5 INDIAN MUSICIANS
1. A. R. Rahman: He is a famous Indian Musician. His music was already everywhere by us
Indians. He was the most talented musician of the century. He has produced and created
hundreds of iconic songs. He got two Oscar awards. So he is one of the most famous Indian
Musicians.
2. Pandit Ravi Shankar: he was the internationally acclaimed sitar virtuoso. He is the only
Indian to receive the grammy lifetime achievement Award, although he already had three grammy
awards under his belt. He was also awarded the prestigious Bharat Ratna award. He was an
expert on north Indian classical music and served as an inspiration for many musicians around
the world.
3. hariprasad chaurasia: he is an Indian music director and classical flautist who plays the
bansuri an Indian bamboo flute in the Hindustani classical tradition whose performance and
compositions brought global recognition to the bansuri. In 1958 he performed and composed
music for the all India Radio (AIR) in Cuttack, Odisha. When he was transferred by AIR to
Bombay he played both for the film Industry and concerts. In 1984 he was awarded the sangeet
natak academy award for his outstanding contribution to music. He was awarded two of India’s
highest civilian honours the Padma Bhusan (1992) and the Padma Vibushan (2000)
4. Ustad Zakir Hussain: he was an Indian “Tabla” player composer percussionist music
producer, film actor and eldest son of tabla player “ustad Allah Rakha”. He was touring by she
age of eleven. He went to the united states in 1970 to accompany sitar maestro Ravi Sankar.
He began his International career including more than 150 concert dates a year. He was awarded
the “Padma Shri” in 1988 and the Padma Bhusan in 2002 by the government of India presented
by president abdul Kalam. He was also awarded Sangeet natak akademi award in 1990.

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5. ALI AKBARKHAN: He was a composes expert in “sarod” player and teacher. He was
trained as a classical musician and instrumentalist by his father allauddin khan and also composed
numerous classical ragas and film scores. He was the first Indian musician to record the long
and elaborate manifestations of Indian music performance. He founded music schools in Kolkata
and other area he received Padma bhushan award in 1989.

12.6 INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCERS

Indian country known for art culture and classical dancing. The theme of the song the organs
such as hands legs are to be moved to front back sides and legs are to be moved or hitting the
floor with the legs. This is called dance. This land has seen many legends.
1. Rukmini devi Arundale: She was theosophist dancer and choreographer of bharatanatyam.
She changed the face of Bharatanatyam by reviving it and bringing back its due recognition.
She not only did work on re-embellishment of Bharatnatyam but also worked on the re-
embellishment of the traditional Indian arts and Crafts. She was featured in India Today’s list of
100 people who shaped India. She was awarded with “Padma Bhusan” in the year 1956 and
the Sangeet Natak akademi fellowship in 1967.
2. Pandit Birju Maharaj: he was also know as Brij mohan mishra his family from “Kathak”
dancers which includes both his uncles “Shambhu Maharaj” and lacchy maharaj and his father
and guru ‘Acchan Maharaj’. He brought a lot of fame to the classical dance from of kasha
not only nationally but even globally. He started teaching the dance form at young are of 13 at
Sangeet Bharti in New Delhi. After teaching at the “Bharatiya kala Kendra” and at the “Kathak
Kendra” where he was the director he opened his own dance school named “Kalashram” in
New Delhi as soon as he retired.
3. Uday Shankar: he is from Bengali family in Jaipur. He was the known dancer and
choreographer. He was a young age he exposed to both Indian classical dance and folk dance,
as well as to ballet during his stay in Europe is when he decided to bring elements of both the
styles together to create a new fusion from of dance which he called “Hi-dance”
4. Vempati Chinna Satyam:- The global limelight the legend behind this success has to be the
Guru of “Kuchipudi” dance from called Guru “Vempati Chinna Satyam”. He was from Andhra
Pradesh Kuchipudi dancer. He was systemized Kuchipudi and bought the dance form more
close to the standards of “Natyasastra” with introduction of elements such as “Chari” which is
basically the leg movements which were different previously. He started his own “Kuchipudi
Dance Academy” in Chennai with 150 groups and 15 solo dance dramas Crafted and
Choreographed by him.
5. Yamini Krishnamurthy: - She is one of the notable Bharata natyam and Kuchipudi dancer
from Andhra Pradesh. She is the eminent personality ruling in the Indian dance world for many
decades. As a child she began Bharatnayam at Rukmini Devi Arundale “Kalakshetra”. She
started her first performance in 1957 in Madras. In 1990 she opened her own dance studio
“Yamini school of dance” in Delhi. She has been awarded with padma sri in 1968. Padma
Bhushan in 2001 and Padma Vibushan in 2016.

12.7 FAMOUS DRAMATISTS OF INDIA

Telugu theatre art in the beginning was preceded a poetic drama mythological, historical stories
are dramatized with melodious music and relevant roles. Usually in drama actors involve in
their roles and present relevant aesthetics. The famous dramatist are written here.

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1. Badal sircar : He is a prestigious name in the relalm of contens porary theatre. He represents
the “New Theatrical” Movement in India. He has created an appropriate people theatre that is
a theater supported and created by people. His dramatic career began with the humorous play
solutions. His plays include Evan Inderjit (1962) that other history and there is no end. All these
plays are based on political social psychological and existential problems. Evan Inderjit is the
tale of a play wright who struggle in vain to write a play in the play there’s no need sircar
develops she thesis that “We are all accused” and share the be note of guilt. The play procession
is about the search for a “real home” in a new society based on equality. It suggests a “real
home” so that man does not have to live exploiting man but can work according to his Own
needs Bhoma is a dramatization of the life of oppressed peasants.
2. Kambara Chandrashekara: he was a Eminet Kannada language writer. He is known for
his effective usage of North Karnataka dialect of Kannada in his plays and poems. His plays
revolve around folk of mythology inter linked with contemporary issues and achieved a blend of
the folk and modern theatrical form. His twenty two plays include the popular “Armane”,
“Mahamayi” ,”Singaravva” etc., as well as Jokumaraswamy and “Sirisam pige” which have
been translated into many languages.
3. Girish Karnad: He was a capacity of writer director and actor Substantially contributed to
enrich the tradition of Indian English theatre. His dramatic sensibility was moulded under the
influence of touring natak companies and especially yakshagana which was in those days not
accepted as a purified art form. He tried to establish their relevance in contemporary socio
political conditions. A writer of Kannada plays Karnad made a noteworthy impact with Yayati
and more so with tughlaq in the famous play “Tale danda” he discovers vital relationship
between contemporary society and literature. In the play Nagamandala the conflict is between
patriarchal and Matriarchal views of society.
4. Nolini Malani: She belongs to a group of artists who earned prominent name and fame
internationality in 1980’s. Being a social activist Malani’s work is based upon on the stories we
have been ignoring. She brought grave issues of race class and gender in the limelight through
her creations. Her works have been exhibited worldwide including Australia, Japan, and England.
Between 1980 to 2010 she mesmerized her followers with her extraordinary creations like
“Cassandra”, “Listening to the shader” and many more.
5. Meera Mukherjee: She was a “Padma shri” award she found calling when she came
across the folk of Bastar metal casting and Dhokra. She was a painter and a sculptor as well
with her Unique experiences, she was an expert in making wast sculptures. She calebration of
humanism and intense curiosity to break the shackle of routine constitute the distinct features
of her works. she’s important works called “Ashoka in Kalinga” “Earth Carrier’s”, and others.

12.8 FAMOUS PAINTERS OF INDIA

Painting is drawing pictures and decorating with colors. drawing graphic pictures is also a part
of painting. when these painting are drawn in color we feel as it song is sung rhythmically and
get pleasant feeling. hence painting are called visual music. In India there many famous painters
are there. Hear some most important painters life histories and personalities written.
1. Raja Ravi Varma: he was a famous painter in India. Ee was a “Father of India Art”. He
was the very first artist from this great nation who earned Notable stature and appreciation at
a global level. He was started to paint exquisite depictions of mundane objects like animals
routines of people. He rejected the conventional paints and created his art using natural ingredients
from leaves, flowers, tree bark. He was creations “Radha in the moonlight” was sold at an
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action for many crores. He was in most of his creations focused on the beauty of south Indian
women and a good part of his paintings theme revolved arounds the same. He was won his first
prize at the Madras painting exhibition and in the year 1893. He was the most famous painters
of India and the very first of his kind to gain a global fame. He was most of the early creations
were focused for the commonness and Even in his later stage of life.
2. Syed Haider Raza: he was one of the pillars of the foundation of Indian modern Art. He
lived most of life in france 1950 while keeping a close relationship with India. His name popularly
known as S. H. Raza. His work whirled around the idea of “Bindu”. That he considered is the
source of all energy and creation. Bindu holds an extensive Indian philosophical apprehension,
which revolves around the principles that are thousand of year old. His most exclusive works
“Saurashtra” was sold in christie’s alution In south Kensington fora Whopping 25 crore rupees.
He was a recipient of Padma Shri, Padma Vibhushan and Padma Bhushan.
3. Ram Kumar: He was a one other great artist and painter in India. He is born at Himachal
Pradish. He was as excellent observer. His painting reflected the desolate expression of youth
with grim reflection and somber eyes that should absolute emotion of commoners in those
times. He was fate played its part and moved from figurative art to abstraction. That was the
time when he transformed in a must evolved Artist as there was no restriction and limited under
which he had to work. He was also an empathetic person who felt the pain and agony of the
common people and deflated the same on canvas quite meticulously. One of his majestic creations
“Vagabond” was sold at Christies for a massive 1.1. Millions
The Folklore of India comprises the folklore of the nation of Indian and the Indian
subcontinent. Folklore is the body of expressive culture including tales music, dance, painting
particularly. Oral traditions of Oral lore is a form of human communication where in knowledge
art ideas and cultural material is received, preserved and transmitted orally from one generation
to another. In Oral traditions in Indian to covered the famous folk singers dancers, Musicians
and painters their greatness their works and also completed personal history to covered.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Ustad Zakir Hussain which award get in 1988
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Who was father of Indian Art
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

12.9 SUMMARY
Oral Tradition is a system for preserving a groups, beliefs, customs and history. Oral
tradition is an aspect of Human society of evolution. Ila Arun, Nooran systers, swaroop khan,
Ghaddar and vimalakka sungs several beautiful songs to awake the masses in India. In Indian
music A.R. Rahman, Pandit Ravishankar, Hari Prasad Chowrasia and Ustad Zakir hussian
contributed a lot for development of Indian music. Yamini Krishnamurthy, Uday Shankar,

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Rukmini Devi and Vempati Chinna satyam are famous dancers in India. Badhal Sircar Chandra
Shakera, Girish Karnad and Nalini, Malini are classical dancers occupied an important place
Indian classical dance.

12.10 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your Progress Answers—I
1. Sufifolk music
2. Arunodhaya Samskrutika Samkhya
Check your Progress Answers—II
1. Padmastri
2. Raja Ravi Varma

12.11 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION

I. Answer the following Questions.
1. What is oral tradition?
2. Meaning of oral traditions?
3. Discuss about UNESCO Oral tradition?
II. Answer the following Questions
1. Write about famous “Indian Folk Singer”?
2. Discuss about selected Indian Musicians?
3. Write an essay on “Raja Ravi Varma”?

12.13 FURTHER READINGS

1. Kapila Vatsyan : Indian Classical Dances.
2. Raginidevi : Dance Dialects of India
3. Janardhan Prasad : Art Education Concepts, Epistamacy and Role
4. Hanson Erin : Oral Traditions.
5. Foley, John Miles : The Theory of Oral Composition History and
Methodology
- Dr. Surepalli Venkataratna

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 BLOCK V

ART, ARCHITECTURE, LITERATURE AND FINE ARTS

The art forms especially sculptures are usually described by the territorial
name. From 1st century AD onwards Gandhara (Now located in Northern Pakistan
and parts of Eastern Afghanistan), Madhura in North India, Amravati in Modern Andhra
Pradesh and Phanigiri in Telangana states emerged as important centers of art tradition.
Gandhara art owed its origin to the Indo Greek rulers but the real patterns of the
school were the Sakas and Kushans, especially Kanishka. Owing its intimate connection
with Mahayana Buddhism, it is also known as Grecco -Buddhist School of art. The
school of art that was developed at Madhura (UP state) has been called the Madhura
School of art. Its origin has been traced back to the middle of the 2nd Century B.C, it
was only in the 1st century A.D that its genuine progress began. The Madura School
of art can be said as an evolutionary form of the Yakshas of Mauryan period.
India has a variety of architectural styles evolved over the course of its history.
The most important architectures are Hindu, Jaina, Buddhist and Indo-Persian
architecture. Many early Indian monuments were constructed with wood, which were
later destroyed, burned, or brick that has been removed for reuse. The first materials
used were wood and terracotta, but architects gradually moved on to brick and stone,
especially sandstone, granite, schist, and marble. Discovery of Script was considered
as an greatest revolution by scholars in the evaluation of human civilizations. In the
long journey of human history culture from pre-historic to modern age, a series of
significant incidents, events, ideas of intellectuals took the form various glorious works
in the form of prose, verse, poetry etc. In the case of world’s oldest literary domain
Latin, Greek, Roman, Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Telugu and other languages made a
great progress.
The present block consists of the following units:
Unit 13: Madhura, Gandhara and Amaravathi Art Traditions.
Unit 14: Hindu Architecture, Buddhist and Indo-Persian Architecture.
Unit 15: Major Trends of Indian Literature and Fine Arts.

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 UNIT: 13 MADHURA, GANDHARA AND AMARAVATHI
ART TRADITIONS
Contents
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Sources
13.3 Sculpture of Indus Valley Civilization
13.4 Art of Mauryas
13.5 Gandhara, Madhura and Amravati School of Art
13.6 Madhura School of Art
13.7 Amravathi and Phanigiri School of Art
13.8 Sculpture of Gupta
13.9 Eastern Gangas
13.10 The Gurjaras and Pratiharas
13.11 The Palas and Senas
13.12 Chandelas
13.13 The Solankis
13.14 Chalukyas of Badami
13.15 Rastrakutas
13.16 Later Chalukyas
13.17 Hoyasalas
13.18 Kakatiyas
13.19 Pallavas
13.20 Cholas and Pandyas
13.21 Vijayanagaras
13.22 Summery
13.23 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
13.24 Model Examination Questions
13.25 Further Readings
13.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the Sculptures of Indus Valley Civilization.
2. Examine the Sources of Cultural History.

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3. Explain the Art of Mauryan Period.
4. Discuss the importance Schools of art
5. Analyze the Sculptures of Gupta Period.

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Indians have made a great contribution to the hold of art. In their sculpture which can be
paralleled only by the Greeks. Sculpture in India has been a dominant expression of the people
and their land. The sculptural artists in India attained a high degree of excellence at a very early
period and produced great specimens which got the international recognition today.
There is no better historical record than what we find in ancient sculpture and painting. The
sculptures of India are priceless artistic pieces that attract the attention of connoisseurs from
all over the world. So this is an important unit for the students to have knowledge of the
sculptural legacies of our country.

13.2 SOURCES
The archeological excavations all over India yielded many sculptures of India ranging from 2nd
Century B.C to Modern Period. Apart from the temples, intact and other religious places yield
sculptures, are the sources for the unit. And literary works on art and architecture of India like
VishnuDharmothara etc.. are also the sources.

13.3 SCULPTURE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

The arts of the Indus valley civilization emerges during the 2nd half of the 3rd millennium BC.
The forms of the art found from various sites of the civilization include Sculpture, scenes,
terracotta figure Etc... The stone statues found at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro is the best
examples of handling 3 dimensional volumes. There are 2 stone statues, 1 is in Tarso in red sand
stone and the other is a bust of a bearded man in statute. They are the first stone sculptures of
Indian culture as per the sources available. They talk much about the sensibility and vivid
imagination of the artist. The mother goddess of terracotta, dancing girl made of copper and
Bronze figure of a bull are the best artistic objects of the time.
13.4.0 Art of Mauryas
After the decline of Harappan civilization, it was during the reign of Mauryas, especially the
times of Asoka, the art of India was patronized and flourished. Worship of Yakshas and mother
goddess was prevalent at that time.
Buddhism became the most powerful and popular and socio religious movement. Construction
of sthupas for veneration of Buddha’s relics and viharas to shelter the monks became a part of
Buddhist tradition. Buddha is depicted symbolically through the foot prints (Buddha Padas),
stupas, Lotus throne, chakra etc…
The monolith stone pillars were erected all over the empire with inscriptions engraved on some
of them by King Asoka. The top portion of the pillars were carved with capital figures like The
Lion, the elephant and so on... All the capital figures are vigorous and carved standing on a
square or circular abacus. Abaci are decorated with Stylized lotus flowers. Some of the existing
pillars with capital figures were found at Basarah Bakira, Lourya Nandangarh, Rampurva,
Sankasa and Sarnath.

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The Asokan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly known as Lion Capital is the finest example
of Mauryan sculptural tradition. It is also our National Emblem. Firmly standing back to back on
a circular abacus 4 lions is carved with considerable care. The circular abacus is carved with
the figures of a horse, a bull and an elephant in vigorous movement, executed with precision
showing considerable mastery in the sculptural techniques. This pillar capital symbolizing Dharma
Chakra Pravarthana has become a standard symbol of the great historical event in the life of
Buddha.
Large statues of Yakshas and Yakshinis are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and
Madura. These monumental images are mostly in standing position. The Yakshi from Didargunj
is the best specimen among these statues. The most distinguishing element of these is highly
polished surface. The depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced cheeks and physiognomic
details. They stand tall and well built. Some art historians call them Chouri bearers. Apart from
these pillars, Yakshas and Yakshinis, the rock cut elephant at Dhouli is worth mentioning. Mostly
these are 4 dimensional and carved out of sand stone.

13.5. GANDHARA, MADHURA AND AMRAVATI (PHANIGIRI) SCHOOL

OF ART:
The art forms especially sculptures are usually described by the territorial name. From 1st
century AD onwards Gandhara(Now located in Northern Pakistan and parts of Eastern
Afghanistan), Madhura in North India, Amravati in Modern Andhra Pradesh and Phanigiri in
Telangana states emerged as important centers of art tradition.
Gandhara
The Gandhara region includes the Jilalabad, Hadda and Bamiyan swat valley in Afghanistan,
Tuksila in Pakistan and North West of India.
This area was ruled over by a number of Greek Princes and other Non Indians for about 3
centuries and was a meeting ground of east and west. A large number of Greek –o-roman
craftsmen seem to have been employed in the execution of the art.
Period
According to Vincent A Smith, this art was practiced in first 3 Centuries of Christian era.
According to M.N. Roy, this art was active from about the 1st Century AD till 5th Century.
Origin and Patterns
Gandhara art owed its origin to the Indo Greek rulers but the real patterns of the school were
the Sakas and Kushans, especially Kanishka. Owing its intimate connection with Mahayana
Buddhism, it is also known as Grecco Buddhist School of art.
Median
The stone used by Kushan Sculptors is fine ground local stone of black or grey in colour.
The Themes
The themes of Gandhara were Mahayana Buddhism. The most important contribution of
Gandhara School of art was the creation of Buddha image. Mahayana Buddhism gave the
sculptor a wide range of scope. The life of Buddha and Jataka stories became the main themes
for the artist. Apart from Budha and Bodhisatva the individuals like the rulers of Kushan dynasty

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(headless statue of Kanishka from Madhura Museum), Kubera,Indra,Harithi, the mother goddess
also became themes of Gandhara.
Main features of Gandhara
The main features of Gandhara art can be said as the Proclivity to mould the human body in a
realistic manner with great attention to accuracy. Details especially, the portrayal of muscles,
ribs, curly hair, half closed eyes etc., the representation of thin drapery with bold and large fold
lines and elegant carving and elaborated ornamentation and complex symbolism. This art exhibits
Grecco Roman features in execution but this is entirely Indian in context and subject matters.
Gandhara art follows the Indian tradition both in verbal and plastic in every essential of its
iconography. The Mudras, ushanisha, the asanas etc are Indian only. The dress of men and
women is obviously Hellenistic. The women wearing long chitten caught at the waist by a
twisted band and a hamation(shawl) dropped over the left shoulder and covering the body
round the hips and legs. Bangles and necklets are main ornaments.
Relief Panels
The excavations in Gandhara region mainly insights like Taxila yielded many broken relief
panels on which the jataka stories were carved and many sculptures of Buddha both in sitting
and standing postures.
Generally the relief panels were used as decorative panels around the dome of the stupa and as
railings of pathways or for thoranas and doorways. Jataka stories depicted on the relieves and
these relieves are no longer used to narrate the methods. Each episode is confined to a single
scene, each succeeds the other chronologically from right to left in conformity with the direction
of the Pradakshina padha of the stupas. In the long panels scenes were separated by short
columns with pseudo-corinthian capitals of acanthus leaves. Although the Jataka scenes were
summarily treated the episodes from the life of Buddha found more favour. The birth of Buddha
Mayadevi swapnam, the enlightenment, Dharma chakra pravarthana and maha pari nirvana
are some among them.
Standing Buddha
The standing Buddha from Hoti mardan museum near Peshawar is the best example of Gandhara
art. The head of the statue with its adolescent features of rich hair, as well as the body inclined
slightly, the weight leaning on one leg resembles the Greek Apollo type. The sangathi(Buddhist
mantle) looks like a roman toga, covering the whole body with deep heavy folds. The halo is
the disk of light behind the head is of the helonistic origin. The ushnisa (scull protuberance) is
said to be the distinguishing mark of every Buddha, appears here as a tuft of the hair on the top
similar to the knot of the Greek son god. Many other signs or lakshanas like elongated ear lobes
and the urna on the forehead are also shown. The arms of the statue are missing but generally
on other statues the right hand is raised in a abhaya mudra (gesture of protection).
Seated Buddha
In the seated Buddha figure, Buddha is in Padmasana in abaya mudra and dhyana mudra. The
pleats of the lower garment are gathered in the middle where the cloak false in decorative
waves accentuating the curves in the center. The best example of the seated Buddha is from
Takhat-small eye-Bahai now preserved in Berlyn museum. The padmasana pose not known to
the Greek world is purely Indian, but the krobylos on the top of the head and halo behind and a
heavy deeply pleated mantle worn like roman toga. The figure sits on a simhasana, the robes

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covers the upturned soles.
Head of Buddha
The head of the Buddha figures unearthed at the sites are usually classical, oval in shame,
regular features, eyes half closed to show meditation and intra version, eye brows arched over
straight nose and wavy hair in a tuft. 32 lakshanas were followed the ushnisa, the elongated
ears and the urna created Buddha image confirming to the spiritual requirements of the Buddhist
doctrine. The serene passive face expresses benevolence towards all.
In all the Gandhara sculptures the subject is absolutely Indian and the treatment is Greco-
Roman.

13.6. MADHURA SCHOOL OF ART

The school of art that was developed at Madhura (UP state) has been called the Madhura
School of art.
Origin and patterns
Its origin has been traced back to the middle of the 2nd Century B.1; it was only in the 1st
century A.D that its genuine progress began. The Madura School of art can be said as an
evolutionary form of the Yakshas of Mauryan period. The kings of the Kushan to Guptas
patronized the art.
Medium
The stone used for Madhura School of art is the red spotted sand stone available locally.
Themes
The theme of Madhura School of art is extended to Jainism and Brahmanical religion while
Gandhara School of art is confined to Buddhism only. In its early phase the Madhura artists
were probably inspired by Jainism as we find many figures of cross legged naked tirthankaras in
Meditation carved by them.
Buddha and Bodhisatvas
The early figures of Buddha and bodhisattvas of Madhura School of art were fleshy with little
spirituality about them, but later they developed grace in religious feeling. In fact the attempt to
display the spiritual strength by a halo circle behind the faces of the images have begun with
Madhura School
Buddha images
The greatest contribution of Madhura School of art is essentially Indian type of Buddha. With
the spread of Mahayana sect the human figures replaced the symbols used in the Heenayana
sect. The standing Buddhas – standing stiffy on both legs garments looks made of thin material
and dhoti tied with a girdle. The robe covering only the left shoulder leaves the right one bare.
The drapery arranged in schematic folds clings to the body with the left hand, he holds the robe
while the right hand is in abhaya mudra. His full cheeks and miling lips gives the face an open,
radiant expression. The figure clearly related the Yakshas of Mauryan period represents an
outgrowth of the ancient Indian school.
Seated Buddha
There are many seated Buddhas in Madhura School of art. In style they resemble the statue of
standing Buddha. The face of these Budhas sitting in Padmasana has the same smiling friendly

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expression that charecterise all the Madhura Budhas. The ends of the shorn hair curl to the
right in a single spiral and form a sort snail shell on the top of the head. Other features as in
Gandhara art like the urna on the forehead between the eye brows, the wheel on the right palm
and soles of the feet are scrupulously represented.
Beside the sitting Buddha, in this school stands 2 attendants identified as Brahma and Indra in
the early sculpture and as Bodisatva Padma pani and Vajra pani in the later.
Influence
The Buddha figures of Madhura school reveals no western influence while it shown up strongly
in Gandhara art.
Jaina and Brahmanical Figures
Besides these Buddhist figures there are Yakshinis of Jainism and figures of Brahmanical
religion also like Vishnu, Laxmi, Ganesh etc.. There are some interesting features in these
Brahmanical figures of Madhura are Surya squatting down wears kavacha(armour) and boots,
Ganesha is nude and has only 2 hands. The turbines of deities are very elaborate. Only Indra
wears a crown.
Indian art is in debated to the Kushans who patronized the flourishing school at Gandhara
where the representation of the Buddha coming to being as well as the school at Madhura
where the first matured style of genuinely Buddhist art was developed.
13.7.Amaravati and Phanigiri School of Art
Amravati and Pahnigiri were the centers of artistic activity of the Satavahana Ikshvaku dynasties
from 2nd century B.C.
Region
The Krishna valley was the region that we find this school of art. Amravati is the ancient
Dhanya kataka or Dharani kota in Krishna valley where the Buddhist monks settled and spread
over the districts of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states.
Traces of Buddhist settlements were found with ruins of stupas and viharas at Amravati ,Jaggaya
peta, Bhatiprolu Goli, Ghantasala, Nagarjuna konda and China Ganjam in the state of Andhra
Pradesh and Phanigiri, Nelakondapalli, Koti Lingala, Kondapur, Dhuli katta, Pedda bankur and
other sites in Telangana. Among these Phanigiri in Suryapet district is an unsung glorious site.
Patrons
Satavahana and Ikshvaku dynasties, especially Gautamiputra Satakarni of Satavahana and
Rudra Purusha Data ( rudra purusha data) of Ikshvaku and the queens of these 2 dynasties
patronized this art.
Material
The stone used was white marble and lime stone. The stone is locally available in Palnadu area.
Especially the stone used at Phanigiri is from Adavi Devulapally from Nalgonda dist.
Themes
As in the case of Gandhara art, Buddhas life Jataka tales are the main theme of the art at these
sites.

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Jataka Tales
Among the Jataka tales depicted in this Amravati Phanigiri school of art Mandatha, chajjanta
and Nalagiri jatakas are some.
Improvement
Sculptural panels from 1st century B.C to 3rd century A.D show a systematic improvement in
the carving of the statues. The carving of the sculpture at Phanigiri resembles Ivory carving.
Standing budhas
At Vardhaman kota, Nagarjuna konda, Amravati life size Buddha statues were unearthed. This
massively Conceived figure faces directly forward. The standing Buddha of Amaravati wears
a sangathi covering the left shoulder leaving the right one bare. Drapery was shaped by combining
in sized lines and overlapping seams. A peculiar character of this region is the way the mantle
falls above the ankle in a heavy fold.
Features
In this final phase of this Amravati Phanigiri school of art, the figures look taller and slimmer.
The faces with slightly slanting eyes show good expression. While men wore a thick corded
waist band the women were almost nude.
The head of the Buddha of Amravati Phanigiri School of art is different to that of Madhura and
Gandhara.
The face is narrower and oval unlike the round faces as in Madhura. The hair has small snail
shell curls all turning right. The eye lids are less heavy but the same amiable smile persists.

School of Region NaturePaterns Stone Themes

art and period
Gandhara North west India, Hellenistic, Indo Black Mahayana
Afghanistan, Greccoroman, Greeks, stone, budhism
Pakistan Indian(hybrid) Kushans Grey
1st century stone
AD to 3rd
century
AD
Madhura UP, Indigenius, Kushans Red Jainism,
Agra, Bharhut and and spotted budhism,
Madhura Sanchi Local kings sand Hinduism(
1st century stone. Brahmanical)
to 5th
century
AD
Amaravati Andhra Pradesh Indigenious Satavahana Lime Mahayana
and and And stone Budhism.
Phanigiri Telangana(Krishna Ikshvaku And
valley) 1st century marble
B.C to 4th
century
A.D

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Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Asoka pillar capital found at
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. The Gandhara School of art confined to
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
13.8 SCULPTURE OF GUPTA
Guptas (4th century to 6th century A.D) controlled the whole north India and the sculpture
of India reached its highest perfection. Relatively few artistic remains of the Gupta period have
survived because of destructive Muslim invasions.
The main centers of Gupta are Madhura and Sarnath.
The themes of Gupta art are of 3 religions – Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Buddha both in
standing and sitting postures shows advanced features in comparison with the early Madhura
art. The representation of human body is fully Indian showing a feeling for plastic volume and
mass. The Gupta sculptures have acquired great mastery of technique and refinement. The
seated Buddha teaching the first sermon is a master piece not only the Gupta sculpture but of
Indian.
The Hindu gods, goddesses and mythological puranic tales also became the themes for Gupta
artist. In the beginning the Brahmanical sculptures resemble the Buddhist figures. The panel of
Vishnu of vykunta is the best example of it. The smooth body has the same massive proportions
as the Buddha statues and his face resembles so much that without the Varaha Narasimha
avatara heads close to his own it would be difficult to recognize it as Hindu sculpture. The
elaborate crown resting on a fillate like band contrasts with the plain body. The only other
ornaments are kundalas(ear rings) a single necklet, armlets, the yagnopaveetha with a floral
clasp and a vanamala( broken garland). The other bet known Gupta sculptures are the gandharvas
and apsara relieves from sandani near Gwalior, Nara narayna panel, Anantha Sayana panel,
Gajendra moksha panels of Vishnu and saivate themes like Shiva Parvati Kalyanam, Ravana
shaking Kailasa, Gajasura samhara Murthy are famous. Gupta art appears in the Ajanta caves
,in some relieves of Karle and in the Udaya giri caves near Bhopal. Gupta art had its influence
on the succeeding dynasties in north and south.

13.9 EASTERN GANGAS

The Eastern Ganga dynasty presented in Orissa (from 8th to 13th Century A.D) were
connected with the Gangas of Mysore who were referred to as imperial Gangas. These Gangas
came into the influence of Cholas who invaded the Kalinga territory under the able leadership
of Raja Raja Chola(985 – 1016 A.D). They are said to have Chola officials and inter married by
1090 A.D Gangas became independent and Anantha Varma Ganga constructed the magnificent
Jagannatha temple at Puri and Narasimha I was responsible for the construction of Sun temple
at Konark. Apart from these Gangas constructed many temples at Bhubaneswar like Lingaraj

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temple, Raja Rani temple etc.. Many sculptural figures and panels can be seen in these temples.
The sculptured faces of this region are usually full and round with short broad noses. The
brows form a cupid’s bow above the small eyes. At Konark the sun temple assumes the form
of ratha ( chariot) drawn by horses and God Surya stands in Sama Bhanga in the niches.

13.10 THE GURJARAS AND PRATI HARAS

The Gurjaras and Prati haras after the Harshavardhana North India split up into many kingdoms
large or small. From 8th to 10th centuries, Gurjara Prati haras predominated in many places.
Mihira bhoja stands out as the most capable king of this dynasty. Their sculptures have been
found in Kanouj and other places in north India. Both Saivism and Vaishnavism were the themes.
The best known piece of sculpture of this dynasty is perhaps the “Sura Sundari”(Gwalior
museum) long thin highly arced eye brows converging at the bridge of the nose, the elongated
eyes usually remain half closed while the sharp nose broadens at the base. The lower lip is
slightly thicker and the chin fleshy are some of these main features of this period. The faces
look broad and full and the necks rather short are also charecterise this period.

13.11 THE PALAS AND SENAS

Pala ruled the regions of modern west Bengal, Bihar and parts of UP. Dharma Pala rebuilt the
ruined Buddhist maha viharas and founded new ones at Nalanda. Both budhist and Hindu
Puranic tales are the themes of Pala and Sena artists.

13.12 CHANDELAS
The Chandelas (950 -1203) rules over central India their capital at Kajuraho. The
magnificent temples at Khajuraho were built by him. Khadariya maha deva and Lakhmana
temple are the most popular among them. Many sculptural figures and panels were used as
decorative means of the temples. The sculptures of Chandelas at Khajuraho resemble puppets
more than living beings. The lady playing with ball, the lady looking into the mirror, mother and
child are popular sculptures. The erotic figures were carved extensively.

13.13 THE SOLANKIS

The Solankis or Chalukyas (11th – 13th century A.D) ruled over Gujarat and Rajasthan including
Mount Abu and Chittoor. Thus these regions form a cultural unit represent the western branch
of the post classical art of India. The sculpture of the Surya Temple at Modhera and the
Dilwara group of temples at Mount Abu illustrate the general features of Solanki sculptures in
Gujarat and Rajasthan. Hindu and Jaina mythology are the themes of the Solanki artists. The
Luna Vasahi is the best example of the Solanki style. It is a Jaina structure where we find the
scenes from the lives of the Theerthankaras. These panels were known for delicacy and accuracy
of carving.

13.14 CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI (6TH – 8TH CENTURY A.D)

The Chalukyas of Badami succeeded the Vakatakas in the Deccan. The wars between the
Chalukyas and Pallavas led to exchange of artistic influence between the two dominions.
Chalukyan caves and structural temples cluster mainly in small towns of Aihole Badami Pattadakal
in Karnataka and Alampur in Telangana etc. In Deccan a new kind of art evolved from a
tradition very different from the ethereal classical art of Sarnath with its seane compassionate
and unearthly blissful figures. From the live rock of 6th century Badami caves more eternal
earth born figures emerge from the dark deep recesses with powerful massive bodies heavy

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impersonal features completely self absorbed ready to burst with dynamic energy. The figures
reveal the typical Chalukyan face – Oval with short pointed nose and full smiling face. Tall
crown worn low over the fore head elaborate clothing are some features of the art of Chalukyas
of Badami. The panels of mahishasura mardini varaha are the best examples of this period.

13.15 RASTRA KUTAS (8TH – 10TH CENTURY A.D)

The Rashtra kuta dynasty 8th – 10 th century, being the feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas
soon rose to become one of the supreme powers in the Deccan. Danthi durga of Rashtra kuta
dynasty defeated the Chalukyas around 752A.D and established their power over their territory
and beyond. They initiated a period of Saivate revivalism. The numerous caves at Ellora and
Elephenta bear ample testimony to the faith and fervor of these rulers on Saivism. Among the
rock cut temples of Ellorah, the Kailasa was carved entirely out of one rock during the reign of
Krishn I (750 A.D) stands out to be the most remarkable monument. All these cave temples
contain the number of sculptures the rock cut Kaisala at Ellorah and rock cut at Elephenta are
the highest sculptural achievements in the Deccan during their reign. The carvings of Kailasa
cave no 16 are the most typical sculptures of this period. Ravana shaking Kailasa, fighting
between Ravana and Jatayu, Mahisha sura mardini, Gajasura samhara muruti from Ellorah and
Mahesa murthy, and Hakasura Samhara Murthy, Siva and Parvati Kalyanam, Kalyana Sundara
Murthy from elephenta caves are the best examples of Rastrakuta sculptures. Generally these
figures have broad faces and fore heads. Eye brows curved and joined together, thin lips fleshy
jaws and chins. The ornaments consist of Jata makuta, matted hair dressed and piled above the
head Sarpa kundalas, single broad necklet yagnopavetha, udara naga bandha, kati bandha etc…
The plain diaphanous garments worn by the ladies reaches down to the ankles while the men
wear it short (ending at the knees) or long. In some figures of Siva a snake is used as the kati
bandha and as valaya known as bujangalaya (snake bangles).

13.16 LATER CHALUKYAS

The later Chalukyas of kalian (10th – 12th century A.D) re established their sovernity in the
Deccan when Tila II dethroned the Rastra kuta king Karkka II in 973 A.D. Someshwara I and
his son Vikramaditya VI are the most powerful rulers of the later Chalukyas. They constructed
many temples all over Karnataka and Telangana states. A number of sculptures can be seen in
this temple. The decorative and conventionalized sculptures were patronized by this dynasty.
The sculptures at Kalleswara Temple at Bagali Venugopala Swamy Temple at Magala,
Katteswara at Heerahadagalli in Karnataka state and temples at Kandi, Bodhan, Patancheru
and other places in Telangana state are the best examples for the Chalukyan art.

13.17 HOYASALA
The Hoyasala(11th – 14th century A.D) who were the feudatories of the later Chalukyas
became independent, converted into Vaishnavism by Ramajuna in 12th century and patronized
as those at Beloor, Halibeed and Somanath in Karnataka state. These were covered with
sculptural decorations. The local stone which has double advantage of being soft when first
quarried but hardening on exposure to air enabled the craftsmen to produce a profusion of
detailed carvings from it. The characteristic features of the sculpture are the elevated basements
with band upon band each having a decorative skin. The elephants, horsemen, yallies and
Puranic tales include the skin. Above all of these the statues of gods are set in niches. The
detailed carving and more the general design of the decoration display remarkable skill. The
facial expression, the arched eye bows, broad flat nose, glaring eyes are the main features of
Hoyasala. Extensive heavy elaborate ornamentation is main feature.

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13.18 KAKATIYAS
Kakatiya dynasty is the contemporary to Hoyasala in the state of Telangana from 11th – 14th
century A.D. Unlike the Hoyassalas the Kakatiyas are Saivates constructed remarkable temples
at Hanumakonda, Warangal, Palampet, Pangal and Pillala marri. Numerous sculptures are
seen at all these places. Ramappa is the magnificent world famous temple. Like in Hoyasala
style, the Kakatiya sculpture is also highly decorative. The tall slim body with ornamentation at
Ramappa Temple reflects the material culture of the day.

13.19 PALLAVAS
The greater Pallavas 6th – 10th century A.D) established their kingdom in South India with their
capital at Kanchipuram in TamilNadu state. The territory extended from Krishna in the north to
Kavery in the south since their kingdom extended into Andhra region they absorbed and carried
on the Amaravati tradition and evolved an artistic style with far reaching influence. Pallavas
started a novel method of carving out shrines from free standing monoliths and produced exquisite
sculpture like the huge rock cut open air representation of so called Keeratharjuneeyam or
descent of ganga at Mahabali puram. Dravidian sculpture rests on these solid creative foundations
laid down in the times of Pallavas. Pallava sculptures retain the same elongated slunder plaint
and graceful forms seen at Amaravati but the figures become more sublime and disciplined.
The rock cut Rathas and shore temple at Mahabali puram are the best examples and great
centers of Pallava art and architecture.

13.20 CHOLAS AND PANDYAS

The Cholas (9th – 12th century A.D) who came into power under Vijayalaya united the whole
region of south of Tungabhadra. Since they were Saivates they patronized the Saiva temples
mainly in Tanjor (Tanjavur) district and all over Tamil Nadu. The Chola art evolved out of
Pallava and early Pandiyan forms but it has its own style. The temple at Tanjore popularly
known as Brihadeeswara temple is the magnificent structure of Chola architecture. The other
temples of cholas can be seen at Gangai konda Chola puram, Nartha malai(Tiruchirapally
district). Pandyas(1100 – 1350 A.D) were also the main ruling families that ruled over south
india. Their sculptures can be seen at Nataraja temple in Chidambaram. 108 karanas of Bharata’s
natya sastra with explanation above each one are carved in this temple. The bronzes of Chola
and Pandya are also beautifully moulded masterpieces. They have their origin in the Buddhist
bronzes of nela Kondapalli of Telangana state.

13.21 VIJAYANAGAR
Vijayanagar period (1335 – 1565 A.D) is another glorious period for south Indian sculptures
mainly Krishna deva raya period is known for its sculptural glory. Hampi, Srirangam, Vellore
are some of the places where we can see the sculptures of this period. Apart from the yoga
Narasimha statue, the monolith rock cut chariot is a world famous masterpiece of Vijaya nagar
period. Later the Nayakas of Madhurai also patronized the south Indian sculpture.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

145
 1. Who constructed the Jagannath Temple at Puri
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Khandariya Mahadeva Temple constructed by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

13.22 SUMMERY
India art forms are different. The art forms developed since Harappa civilization. Gandha,
Madhura and Panigiri School of art forms are evolved different periods. The Mauryans, Guptas,
Kushanas, Chalukyas, Hoyasalas and Pallvas contributed a lot for the development of these art
form in different parts of the country. Ellora, Ajanta, Brihadiswara, Mahabalipuram,
Nagarjunakonda, Udayagir and Halebeedu ext place are prominent examples to the art forms.
several artists are contributed new forms to the art of different schools in India.

13.23 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your Progress Answers-I
1. Sarnath
2. Buddhism
Check your progress answers II,
1. Ananta Varma Ganga
2. Chandelas.

13.24 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.
1. Write a note on Gandhra School of Art and its features.
2. Discuss the Amravati School of Arts and its features
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Write a short note on Mauryan Art
2. Explain the Contribution of Guptas to Art.
3. Write about the art of Satavahanas.
4. Discuss the contribution of Vijayanagaras to Art

13.25 FURTHER READINGS

1. Aiyangar, S.K : Contribution of South India to India Culture,
Calcutta, 1923.

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2. Ayyar,C.V. Narayana : Origin and Early History of Saivism in South
India, Madras, 1936.
3. Chanda, R.P : Archaeology and Vaishnava Tradition, Calcutta,
1920.
4. Rao, T.A.G : History of Sri Vaishnavas, Madras, 1923.
5. Raychaudhuri, H.C : Materials for the study of the Early History of the
Vaishnava Sect, Calcutta, 1936.
- D. Suryakumar

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 UNIT-14 HINDU ARCHITECTURE, BUDDHIST AND
INDO-PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE
Contents
14. 0 objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Hindu Architecture
14.2.1 features of Hindu Temples
14.2.2 Important Temples
14.3 Jain Architecture
14.3.1Features of Jain Architecture
14.3.2 Jain Monuments
14.4 Buddhist Architecture
14.4.1 Caves
14.4.2 Stupas
14.4.3 Chaityas
14.4.4 The Viharas
14.5 Indo-Persian Architecture
14.5.1important Features
14.5.2 Monuments
14.6 Summery
14.7 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
14.8 Model Examination Questions
14.9 Further Readings
14.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. know the important elements in Hindu Architecture
2. Examine the Jain monuments and their styles.
3. discuss the various monuments of Buddhism in India
4. Explain the contribution of rulers to Indo-Persian Architecture.
5. Describe the important architectures in India.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
India has a variety of architectural styles evolved over the course of its history. Some temple
architecture is, Mughal architecture, Dravidian architecture, Sikh architecture, and cave

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architecture. Many early Indian monuments were constructed with wood, which were later
destroyed, burned, or brick that has been removed for reuse. The first materials used were
wood and terracotta, but architects gradually moved on to brick and stone, especially sandstone,
granite, schist, and marble. No mortar was used in the older temples and so precise cutting of
dressed stones was required. Over of period, it has progressed from small rock-cut caves to
huge temples that have extended across the Indian subcontinent and beyond, forming a style
that is now seen in contemporary Hindu temples across the world.

14.2 HINDU ARCHITECTURE

The architecture of the Hindu may be divided into three perfectly distinct, though contemporary,
styles. the first being the Southern Hindu-that practiced by the Tamil races of the south-and
wholly confined to the countries lying between Cape Comorin and the Nerbuddha or Vindhya
range.
The second, the Northern or Arian Hindu found only between the Himalaya and the
northern boundary of the last-mentioned style, in the countries into which the Arian or Sanskrit
speaking races penetrated and where they settled, which are now as the Bengal Presidency.
The third style is found only Kashmir and the Punjab; it differs considerably from the
other two, though possessing more similarity to the southern style than to that which intervenes
between them.
14.2.1 Features of Hindu Temples
the temples consists almost invariably of the four following parts, arranged in various
manners, as afterwards to be explained, but differing in themselves only according to the age
which they were executed:
1. The principles part, the actual temple itself, is called the Vimana. It is always square in
plan, and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; it contains the cell in
which the image of the god or his emblem is placed.
2. The porches or Mantapas, which always cover and precede the door leading to the
cell.
3. Gate pyramids, Gopuras, leading into the quadrangular enclosures which always
surround the Vimanas.
4. Pillared halls or Choultries, used for various purposes, and which are the invariable
accompaniments of these temples.
Besides these, a temple always contains tanks or well for water-to be used either for
sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests- dwellings for all the various grades of the
priesthood to it, and numerous other buildings designed for state or convenience.
The Hindu temple (mandir) is laid out according to the eight cardinal directions, and a
deity representing each one (dikpala) may sometimes be represented in sculpture on the temple’s
exterior. Built on an elaborately carved platform (adhisthana), the temple is often referred to
in ancient Hindu texts on architecture (the Vastu Shastras) as the sacred mountain Meru or
Kailasa, the dwelling of Shiva in the Himalayas. Indeed, seen from afar, and especially from
above, many Hindu temples, with their multiple towers, appear very much like a mountain
mass. The 11th century CE Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho and 12th century CE

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Rajarani temple at Bhubaneswar are outstanding examples of this effect.
The most important part of a Hindu temple is the garbhagriha (translated as ‘womb-
chamber’), which is a small window-less shrine room located at the very heart of the temple.
Within, a symbol or representation of a specific god was placed, for example, the linga (phallus)
for Shiva. Worshippers consider that energy flows out in all directions from the garbhagriha, and
this is reflected in the architecture of the surrounding parts of the temple. For example, on three
sides temples have blind doors which symbolically allow the deity’s energy to leave the
inner garbhagriha. These portals (ghana dvara) may also act as secondary niche shrines for
the deity too.
Early temples consisted of only a garbhagriha, but over time additions were built and
copied across temple sites to create, by the 10th century CE, a canonical architectural style.
The most obvious of these features were a portico entrance (ardhamandapa) and pillared hall
(mandapa) which led to the garbhagriha – features which developed in the Deccan from the
8th century CE. Even more impressive, above the garbhagriha a huge corbelled tower was
constructed the sikhara. One of the earliest examples incorporating these features can be
found in Aiholi and the 8th century Durga temple, whilst one of the most ornate is the 12th
century CE Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram in the Tamil Nadu.
14.2.2 Important Temples
The Pallavas temples
were constructed as rock-hewn,
pagoda-style monoliths, as
found in the shore temples of
Mamallapuram (or
Mahabalipuram), just outside
Chennai. The years between 6th
and 8th centuries CE also saw
the rise of wonderful rock
architecture in north India, such
as the Hindu rock-cut caves of
Badari, Elephanta, and the
famous Kailasa Temple in
Ellora. The leogriff motif of the
Pallava style, which dominated the south, was a type of pilaster with a prominent, moulded, lion
on it surrounded by carvings and ornately fluted beams.
Several temples were built in this style in Tamil Nadu, but they were located in open space
rather than hidden behind the façade of rocky cliff faces. The Chalukyan temples of Aihole and
Mahakutesvara, and the Pallava temples of Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram, as well as the
early temples of Bhubaneswar in Orissa (8th century), are monuments to this exciting era of
temple architecture in India.
The Meenakshi Temple in the Madurai district and the Srirangam Temple (17th century)
near Tiruchirappalli in Tamil Nadu are the world’s tallest gateway (gopuram). The Lingaraja
(C.1000 CE) and Raja-Rani temples of Bhubaneswar in Orissa, the Rajarajesvara and
Brihadishvara temples of Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu, the Kandariya Mahadeva (c. 1000 CE) and
other Temples of Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, and the Nilakantheshvara Temple of Udayapur
in Nepal are best architectural temples in India. the Nataraja Temple of Chidambaram and the

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temples of Tiruvannamalai (post-Chola), the Pampapati and Hazara Ramasvami temples of
Hampi in Karnataka, the site of the city of Vijayanagara, and the Sun Temple of Konarka in
Orissa are most prominent temples.

14.3 JAIN ARCHITECTURE

The contribution of Jain art to the mainstream art in India has been considerable. Every phase
of Indian art is represented by a Jain version and each one of them is worthy of meticulous
study and understanding. The great Jain temples and sculptured monuments of Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Rajasthan are world-renowned. The most spectacular of all Jain temples are
found at Ranakpur and Mount Abu in Rajasthan. Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), Ellora, Badami and
Aihole also have some of the important specimens of Jain Art.
14.3.1 Features of Jaina Architecture
Initially Jain architecture copied Buddhist and Hindu styles, they soon came to evolve a distinct
identity of their own. The major difference is the construction of ‘temple-cities’ by the Jains as
opposed to solitary Hindu temples which are the norm rather than the exception. A Jain place of
worship is also noted for its rich materials (often marble), as well as the profusion of ornamentation
which decorates the structure.
Jain temples have numerous pillars having a well designed structure, forming square. The
squares thus formed create chambers, used as small chapels and contains the image of a deity.
From these pillars are richly carved brackets that emerge at about two third of their height. The
rooms of these temples have pointy domes and wherever there is dome, the pillars are omitted
to create an octagonal space within. The only variation in architecture specific to Jain temples
is the frequently seen four-faced or chaumukh design. In these four faced temples, the image
of a Tirthankar faces back to back to faces four cardinal directions. Entry into these temples is
also from four doors that face the cordial directions. Domes or shikharas are usually more
acute than the ones found in Hindu temples, which gives to Jain temple cities a very distinct
skyline of multiple dome points reaching toward the sky.
The Jains have been amongst the foremost in contributing to the field of art and architecture
since early days. The images of Tirthankara Risabhadeva and the figures of standing or seated
nude Yogis found inscribed on some terracotta seats, relics of the prehistoric Indus Valley
Civilization, discovered at Mohenjodaro, as well as nude Harrappan red stone statue are almost
equally old. Andhra Pradesh has been a stronghold center of Jainism. Acharya Kundakunda
(1st c. A.D.), the spiritual leader of the time hails from Kondakunda situated on the boarder of
Andhra Pradesh was prominent.
Gupta period (4th to 7th C.A.D.) was the golden period in ancient Indian Culture. Harigupta,
Siddhasena, Harisena, Ravikirti, Patrakesari, Udyotanasuri and other Jain acharyas were
patronized during the period. Karnataka, Mathura, Hastinapur, Saurastra, Avanti, Ahicchatra,
Bhinnamala, Kausambi, Devagumpha, Vidisa, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaisali, Pataliputra, Rajagraha,
Campa etc. were the main Jain centers of art and architecture.
14.3.2 Jain Monuments
Saavira Kambada Basadi was located at Moodabidri in Karnataka state. The town of
Moodabidri is a famous Jain centre with eighteen Jain temples, Saavira Kambada basadi being
the finest of them. The three-story basadi (temple) was constructed in the 15th century and
then extended in the 20th century. The basadi have a number of beautifully carved pillars lining

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its halls and no pillars are the same. In fact, the 1,000 pillars found in the halls of basadi and it
was called as Thousand Pillar Temple. The other architectural stands are stone chandeliers,
sculptures of giraffes, horses, dragons, and yalis carved on the pillars, an 8 feet tall bronze
statue of Chandraprabha (the eighth Tirthankara of Jainism) in the inner sanctum, and a 50 feet
tall metal flagstaff, or manasthamba, at the entrance. It is one of an important Jain basadi.
The earliest Jain monuments are the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, located near the
Bhubaneshwar in Orissa State. These caves are natural and manmade and were carved as
residential blocks for Jain monks during the reign of King Kharavela of Kalinga (193–170
BCE). The caves bear inscriptions and sculptural friezes depicting Tirthankaras, elephants,
women, and geese. The Jain Temple of Ranakpur is dedicated to the ûrst Tirthankara, Lord
Adinath or Rishabh Dev. Jain Temple in Ranakpur is located at a distance of 90 km from
Udaipur and 25 km from Kumbhalgarh. Adinatha Temple has been famous pilgrimage centre
for its intricate and outstanding architectural style. The temple was built by Seth Dharna Sah
who was a Jain businessman with the help of Rana Kumbha, the ruler of Mewar in the 15th
century. Jain temples on Mount Abu in Rajasthan were constructed by the Vimal Shah. Notable
for a simplistic exterior in contrast with the exuberant marble interiors, their rich sculptural
decoration with deep undercutting creates a lace-like appearance. The temple is famous for its
unique patterns on every ceiling, and the graceful bracket figures along the domed ceilings.
Dilwara Temples constructed by the Chalukyan rulers between the eleventh and
thirteenth centuries. The Dilwara temples are composed of five well-constructed marble temples
with each dedicated to a different Tirthankaras. The Vimal Vasahi Temple is the largest temple
among all five, was built in the year 1021 and it was dedicated to Tirthankara Rishabha. Some
of its most important features is the ranga mandapa” a grand hall supported by twelve massive
pillars and surmounted by an enormous central dome and the famous navchowki. which is a
collection of nine richly-carved rectangular ceilings. The pillars supporting the main hall are
carved to look like women who are playing musical instruments and their 16 goddesses of
knowledge each of which holds a symbol to represent their individual branch of learning. In the
Junagadh district of Gujarat lays the holy hill of Girnar,
at an elevation of 3,507 feet. As per historical sources
the hill was a place of pilgrimage in 3rd century B.C.,
the existing Jain temples belongs to 12th century. The
oldest Jain temple is dedicated to 22nd tirthankara,
Neminath, who is believed to have gained
enlightenment here. It is decorated with marble,
features carved ceilings and granite pillars, and houses
a black idol of the temple’s namesake sitting in lotus
pose with a conch in hand.
A colossal monolithic statue of Bahubali at
Shravanbelagola the Jain siddha (one who has attained
spiritual salvation), is located in Karnataka in Southern
India. This statue is one of the most sacred pilgrimage
sites for Jain worshipers. The statue was carved in
981 CE out of a single block of granite; it stands 57
feet high and is completely nude, as is customary in the Jain tradition.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.

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 (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Brihadisvara Temple was located in
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Saavira Kadamba Basadi located in
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
14.4 BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Buddhist architecture experienced a lengthy evolution since its commencement in the sixth
century BCE; from India it would subsequently be propagated in foreign lands during Emperor
Asoka’s zealous missionaries in the third century BCE. True to the spirit of Buddhism, the
development of Buddhist architecture had been an open-ended process during which it absorbed
a great deal of foreign elements along its course of travel and modified its forms to acclimatize
to the local conditions. Buddhist architecture, along with its arts, is above all an extension of its
religious philosophy reflecting its numerous sects and diverse schools of thoughts, its forms are
therefore a function of its flexible and expensive programs that have been translated into diverse
architectural forms as observed throughout Buddhist Asia. Thus the interment of Buddhist
relics and its ensuring cult necessitated the construction of the Buddhist Stupa and the creation
of Buddhist images also led to the erection of the temple while the Vajrayana mandalas. Despite
its diverse forms manifested throughout Asia. Buddhist architecture can be classified into several
distinct categories as determined by their architectural programs, namely the Monastery, rock-
hewn cave, stupa and temple.
The Buddhist monuments are Stupas, Chaityas, Viharas and Sangharamas. The stupa
is a monument built on the remains of either the Buddha or nay great teacher. They were
generally built of brick and those at Bhattiprolu and Amaravathi were the oldest in the South.
The Chaityagriha is a Buddhist temple with a Stupa as the object of worship. In Western
Deccan at Karle, Nasik, Bhaja, Mahad and other places ther are rock-cut Chaityagrihas. in the
east at Chejerla and Nagarjunakonda, we come across brick-built Chaityagriha. The Vihara
was a habitation of the Buddhist Monks. they were either cut out of rock as in Western Deccan
of brick built as at Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. A Buddhist monastery with a school or
college was known as Sangharama or Mahasangharama. They were built of brick.
14.4.1 Caves
The Barabar caves are situated in an isolated range of granite hills on the left bank of the
Phalgu river about 16 miles due north from the town Gaya. They are seven in number and
though differing in plan, are all similar in character and evidently belong to same age. Their
dimensions are inconsiderable. The largest, called the Nagarjuni cave, is a plain hall with circular
ends measuring 46 feet by 19 feet 5 inches, and though two others, the Sudama and Lomas
Rishi, are nearly as large, they are divided into two apartments, and consequently have not the
same free area.
14.4.2 Stupas
A stupa consisted of the following elements. On a low circular base, there was a hemispherical
dome called Anda. The top of the stupa was muncted to accommodate another structure called

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Harmika which was considered to be the seat of God. It was enclosed with a small railing. In
the centre of the platform was fixed a post surrounded by umbrellas or Chatravali. In course of
time, the domes of the stupas became more elongated and gradually they assumed a cylindrical
form. There was a natural development in the
architecture of the stupas in the form of a rail
enclosure an all four sides to demarcate it as a
holy spot. The railing was provided on the four
sides by four gateways called Tornas. The path
of circumambulation (pradikshana) was
provided around the stupa on the ground level
inside the railing. In course of time, a second
Pradakshina-patha was provided about the
middle of the dome by creating a raised platform
around the stupa. The second Pradakshina was
also furnished with railing (Vedika). A third
railing was provided around the Harmika.
Asoka is said have opened the original eight Stupas and distributed their relics over the
84,000 Stupas which he built. Of the Asokan stupas that have come to light, the stupas in
Bharhut and Sanchi are important. He is said to have also enlarged the Kanakamuni stupa to
twice its size. Both the stupas were raised on a foundation which originally consisted of rammed
earth. in course of time, they were concealed under a covering with bricks. The brick stupas
were later on enlarged by covering them with an outer casing of stones. Asoka seems to have
built wooden railings which were replaced by stone balustrades. The wooden railings were
actually reproduced in stone.
14.4.3 Chaityagirha
Chaityagriha is a hall of worship. It is a rectangular
hall with finely polished interior walls. There were a
number of well-proportioned columns. A semicircular
roof stood over these columns. The Chaitya Hall of
Karle is the oldest rock-cut cave temple found near
Pune in Maharashtra. The Sudama and the Lomas
Rishi in the Barabar hills and the Sita Marhi in the
Nagarjuni hills can be cited as the best examples of
the Chaityas.
14.4.4 The Viharas
The Viharas were the monasteries for monks. During the Asokan period, the caves were just
plain rooms, small in size, and opened to the central hall. They were just enough for one person
to sleep, in some viharas, simple bed like structures with shells have been found. The Ajanta
and Ellora caves are situated near Aurangabad in Maharashtra. Both are carved out of a huge
rock about 380 meters wide and 80 meters high. At Ajanta and Ellora there are Chaityas and
Viharas.

14.5 INDO-PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE

The peoples from Iran and Central Asia migrated from their original home and
settled in various part of India. They established the Delhi Sultanate (late 12th Century) and

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later the Mughal Empire (16th Century) on the Indian sub-continent and ruled during the next
few centuries. The relationship between the Safavid dynasty of Iran and the Mughals of India
were often cordial. In an era of cultural exchange, trade and interactions among the people of
these empires brought about an exchange of intellectual and artistic ideas. The development of
such exchanges between these great empires was further augmented by cultural, artistic, and
political contacts with their European and East Asian neighbours. History is the witness to
these interactions, and on account of these, the influence of Central Asia and Turkey can be
seen in various aspects of Indian art, language, culture, architecture, gastronomy, and overall
the lifestyles of the people. Besides, various Sufi saints came from Iran and Central Asia and
settled in India and greatly influenced the socio-religious milieu of the sub-continent.
14.5.1 Features
The Islamic form of worship, with its emphasis on congregational prayer, requires a spacious
courtyard with a large prayer hall, pointed towards Mecca, as its western end that, is, to the
West of India. In the rear wall of the prayer-hall, the centre is occupied by a recess or alcove,
called mihrab, and indicates the direction of prayer (quibla). A pulpit (mimber) at its right is
meant for the imam who leads the prayer. a tower or minarets, originally intended for architectural
character. a gallery or compartment of the ladies who observed puradah. The main entrance
to a mosque is on the east, and the sides are enclosed by cloisters (liwans). A tank is provided
for ablutions usually in the courtyard of a mosque. The Muslim style of construction was based
on arches, vaults and domes, on columns and pyramidal towers or slender spires, called trabeate.
Among the architectural features introduced by them mention may be made of arches,
domes, minars and minarets, the pendentive, squinch arch, half domed double portals,
kiosks (chhatris) and the use of concrete as a factor of construction. They also introduced
gilding and painting in varied colours and designs. Muslim decorative elements are usually of
the nature of embroidery. Even though lime was known and to certain extent used in construction
work in India fairly early, mud was generally used for brick work and large blocks of stones
were laid one on top of the other and held by means of iron clamps. The Muslims, like the
Romans, were also responsible for making extensive use of concrete and lime mortar as an
important factor of construction and incidentally used lime as plaster and a base for decoration
which was incised into it and held enamel work on tiles.
14.5.2 Monuments
Qutb Minar constructed with red sandstone and marble located in Delhi. It was the highest
brick minaret in the world and one of the most famous tourist attractions in India. Construction
of this monument was initiated by Qutbuddin Aibak, the founder of the Delhi Sultanate in 1200
AD and completed by his successor and son-in-law Iltutmish in 1220 AD. This minaret was
dedicated by Aibak to Sufi saint and scholar of the Chishti Order, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki. The
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque as the first mosque built in India by Aibak, which was started in
1193 and completed in 1197. The Alai Darwaza was a brilliant example of Muslim architecture
in India. It was built in 1311 AD by Alauddin Khilji. The monument constructed with red
sandstone and white marble. The Tughlaqabad fort built by Emperor Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the
Jahanpanah built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and the Ferozabad fort and palace constructed
by Firoz Shah Tughlaq of the Tughlaq dynasty.
One of the architectural gems in the Mughal Empire is the city of ‘Fatehpur Sikri’
located in the Agra District of Uttar Pradesh built by Emperor Akbar as his Capital City. The
Buland Darwaza main entrance to the palace of the city portraying a remarkable blend of

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Hindu and Persian styles of architecture, the ‘Jama Masjid’ also referred as the ‘Friday Mosque’
reflecting Iranian architecture in some of its designs; and the ‘Tomb of Salim Chisti constructed
by Akbar in the Mughal period. The Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan for his beloved Queen
Mumtaz Mahal, this elegant and grand mausoleum situated on the south bank of the river
Yamuna in Agra, the finest testament of the Mughal architecture. Red Fort built by Emperor
Shah Jahan in Delhi. It is beautiful monument and finest building in India. The Jame Masjid was
constructed by Shahjahan in Delhi during his reign. These monuments are best examples for
the Indo-Persian architecture in India.

Check your Progress-II

Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. The oldest Buddhist stupas in Andhra was located at
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. The Taj Maghal was constructed by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
14.6 SUMMERY
Most of the rulers gave remarkable stimulus to architectural and sculptural development in the
country. They were built numerous temples, forts, caves, stupas, chaityas, viharas, basadis,
masjids, palaces and cities in different parts of the country. Hindu, Jain, Buddha and Islam
religion contributed for growth of Indian architecture. In India mixed architectural forms and
beautiful monuments are existed. India has contributing all types of architectural forms,
monuments and their glory to the world. These monuments show the tradition, science, technology
and engineering system to the country.

14.7 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your progress answers-I
1. Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu
2. Moatabidri in Karnataka.

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Check your progress answers II
1. Bhattiprolu and Amaravathi.
2. Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.

14.8 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.
1. Explain the Hindu architecture in India.
2. Describe the Indo-Persian architecture and its contribution to the Architecture.
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Discuss the important features of Jain architecture.
2. Explain the Buddhist stupas in India.
3. Write about important features of Islamic architecture in India.

14.9 FURTHER READINGS

1. Bhandarkar, R.D : Asoka.
2. Benerjee, R.D : Age of the Imperial Guptas.
3. Percy Brown : Indian Architecture.
4. Sharma, L.P : History of Medieval India (1000-1740), Delhi.
5. Smith : Early History of India.
- Dr. Gajula Dayakar

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 UNIT 15 : MAJOR TRENDS OF INDIAN
LITERATURE AND FINE ARTS
Contents
15.0 Introduction
15.1 A Brief Survey of the origin and evaluation of Indian Literatures
15.2 Glimples of Ancient Indian Literature
15.3 Medieval Literary Trends
15.4 Literary Trends in Post - Qutshabi or Modern Times (1687-1858)
15.5 Post independent India - trends in literature (1947-2020)
15.6 glimpses of Fine in Indian Pre and Post Independent era
15.7 Conclusion
15.8 Model Questions
15.9 Further Readings

15.0 INTRODUCTION
Discovery of Script was considered as an greatest revolution by scholars in the evaluation
of human civilizations. In the long journey of human history culture from pre-historic to modern
age, a series of significant incidents, events, ideas of intellectuals took the form various glorious
works in the form of prose, verse, poetry etc. In the case of world’s oldest literary domain
Latin, Greek, Roman, Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Telugu and other languages made a great
progress. Political, Social economic and other factors influenced method, subject, ideas, style of
intellectuals. In the context of India Sanskrit literature (Vedic and post vedic) age even though
it was branded as a non- secular, narrow minded, theist, still contains wonderful wisdom.

15.1 A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE ORIGIN AND EVALUATION OF

INDIAN LITERATURE
The advent of new political powers in the form of Sodasha Mahajanapadas in the
Northern and Central India before the foundation of Mauryan Political authority at Magadha
really heraled a new chapter in the history of Ancient Indian literature.
The discovery of ‘Artha Sastra’ by eminent Mysore based Sanskrit Scholar late. Sri.
Shama Sastry in far South and its translation into English by that learned scholar has really
opened new Vistas in the history and culture of India.
The origin, growth and expansion of Indian literature during Ancient, Medieval and
Modern ages was deeply influenced by native and Foreign in various. Wars also gave birth to
the production of meaningful works.
The Ancient India is not only saw the culminating of Sanskrit language, But Varnacular
languages, such as Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Prakrit, Paishachi, Kannad, Tamil, Telugu, Hindi
and migrant groups and their languages such as Arabic, Persian and Urdu also entered into the
glorious field of Indian Literature.

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 The real credit of making the real wisdom hidden in past Indian literature to Western
world goes to Max-muller, William Jones and others. The British administrators like Bentinck,
Dalhousie and Indian princess such Mir-Osman-Ali Khan the VIIth Nizam of Hyderabad State
realised the great beauty and importance of Knowledge, teaching to students in mother tongue
of native language. The foundation of Oamania University in 1918 with Urdu as the medium of
in instruction can be deemed as revolutionary step in this direction.

15.2 GLIMPLES OF ANCIENT INDIAN LITERATURE

The origin of script proved a turning point in the progress of human civilizations. In the
case of Ancient India, Brahmi, Kharoshsti, Sanskrit, Kannad, Tamil, Telugu, Bengali, Hindi,
Urdu, Arabic, Persian origin of the script and expansion of language in above languages
was influenced various political and social factors. The vedic literature provided a social base
to understand the Aryan culture. The four vedas, Six vedangas, two epics and Bhagvadgeetha
became an integral part of Indians and their day to day life.
The advent of Mauryan age in Northern or Central India, heralded a new era. The
discovery of Kautiya’s Arthasastra by eminent scholar R. Shyama Sastri in South India and its
translation to English by above scholar has opened new Vistas in the field of Indian Literature.
The Satavahana age in the Deccan also became very significant due to their Unique
spirit of patronisation of native language or scholars. In this context the wonderful work of king
Hala Gadhasaptasati written in Prakrit, proved a great work to which depicted the colourful life
of village in Deccan during the first century AD, Brihatkatha, Katantra Vyakarana etc also
proved an asset to know the glimples of society of Satavahanage. The travel account of unknown
Roman, Sailor which was preserved in the form of Periplus of the Erithean Sea, which describes
the grand external trade carried out by traders of Satavahana age with Roman empire, traders
even today, stands as an good example.
The age of Guptas in the history of Ancient India was well described eminent historian
R.C. Majundar and his team as the classical Age the Gupta age produced Superior quality of
Sanskrit works. eminent poets, dramatists, gramarrious, Astronamers, Mathematicians, Surgens
etc in Sanskrit excelled themselves. Kalidasa, Vegbhata, Aryabhatta, Varahamitra, Brahmagupta,
Charaka, Susrutha etc. produced world class works in their respective domain. Harsha Charita
of Bana, Neganandam, Ratnavali of Harshavardhana are also well known works.
In South India after Satavahanas, Vishnukundin, Pallavas, Chalukyas, Rastrakutas,
Kakatiyas, Cholas, Reddi, Vijayanagara, Bahmani, Qutbshahis etc patronised varnacular literature.
Raja Raja Narendra of Vengi Chalukyan dynasty, Amogavarsha, Pallavaking
Mahendravarman, Reddy ruler Peda Komati Vema Reddy, Sri Krishna deva raya of Vajayanagara
(Tuluvadynasty) and Ibrahim Quli-Qutbshah of (Golkonda) were known for their patronisation
of poets, scholars and also for their great scholarship in different languages, mahakavi Sreenatha
in his works Kasikhadam, Bheemeshwara puranam, Harivilasam, Bammerapotana in his work
Andhra Mahabagavatam, Vinukondavallabharaya in his kreedhabhi rama in followed new style.
Their works became of valuable source to rewrite the history of Southern India. prose, poetry,
drama, dvipada, classics, etc are covered in their works. Jayapasenani Nrutya Ratnavali in
Sanskrit was well apprepciated by scholars.

15.3 MEDIEVAL LITERARY TRENDS

The establishment of Turkish rule of Delhi in 1206 AD, led to significant changes in the

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political, social cultural and economic conditions. As the Delhi Sultans primary aim is to convert
the land of Temples in to land of Masques (Daar-ul-Herb into, Daar-ul-Islam) became a biggest
threat to native culture. The defeat of Pruthviraj Chauhan in the Second battle of - Tarain (1192
AD) literarlly pushed the innocent Indian people into a critical stage.
The native people suffered under the oppressive rule of Delhi sultans. The traditional
Indian social structure has witnessed radical changes.
The Medieval Indian was under the helm of Delhi sultanate between 1206 - 1526 Ad,
Mughals (1526-1857), During this period South Indian or Deccan was under the rule of Kakatiyas
(Warangal), Musunuri-Velamas (1324-1474), Reddy’s of Kondavidu - Rajamundry (1324-1424
AD), Vijayanagara rulers (1336-1640 AD), Bahmani kingdom was founded in the year 1347
AD, The Bahmani sultans ruled between 1347-1510). Under their liberate patronisation persian,
Arabic and Urdu language made good progress. The rise of Bhakti and Sufusaints like Gesu
Daraaz, Shahwali, Baba sharfuddin, Tukaram, Eknath, Ramdas etc produced wonderful
Abhangus and poetry, Their works reflected the spirit of humanism and equality.
Under kakatiya, Reddy, vijayanagara rulers, local language like Telugu, kannad, Tamil
and Sanskrit also received great support of rulers.
The following are some of the very important works of Medieval ages.
(A) Muslim Works :
1) Alberumi’s India (Tahqua - e - Hind)
2) Isami’s Futuh-us-Salation
3) Barani’s - Tariq-e-Ferozshahi
4) Khafikhan’s - Muntakabul-lubabs.
5) Baburnama of Babur,
6) Humayannama of Gulbadan Begum
7) Abul Fazal’s - Ain -e-Akbari and Akbarnama etc are providing useful details.
(B) Telugu & Sanskrit works
1) Prataprundra Yasho bhushanam of Vidyanatha
2) Kreedhabhiramam of Vinukonda Vallabharaya ( A lover’s guide to warangal).
3) Pratapa Charitra of Ekamranatha
4) Pandita radhya charitam of Palkuriki Somantha.
5) Haravilasam, Bheemeshwara puranam of sreenatha
6) Amuktamalyada of srikrishna devaraya,
are providing lengthy details about the political anarchy, social conflict, economic crisis and
cultural conflict and interaction between mulkis and Non-mulkis.
The prabhanda literature of Vijayanagara period won the glorious laurals of centemporary
and modern scholars. The court of Srikrishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagara became popularly

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known as Bhuvana Vijayam, adormed eight great pacts and scholars.
Manucharitra of Allasanipeddana, Paarijatapaharanam’ of Nandi Timmana won the
laurels of scholars. Krishnadevaraya’s master piece work. ‘Amuktamalyada’ was considered
of scholars as one of the great literary work in Telugu which contains wonderful, natural ideas
of Srikrishna devaraya on polity, society, economy, military organisation etc.
The period of Qutbshahis (1518-1687 AD) also is known by excellent literary growth
many excellent works in Telugu language were written by scholar under the liberal patronisation
of Qutbshahi sultans. Addanki gangadhara, Ponnaganti Telaganarya, Saranga Tammayya,
Palavekiri ‘Kadiripati’ Aryalaraju Narayanamatya, Bhakta Ramdas were great scholars their
works contain glimpses of the cultural of the people of Qutbshahi age.
During this period Bhakti and Sufi Saints also produced wonderful works. Their aim to
reform the society, change the narrow minded approach of people. Bringing Hindu - Muslims
together proved successful. Gesudeeaz, Shaiksalim chisti, kabir, gurunanak, Tukaram, Eknath,
Meerabai and others made a valient attempt to crop up the spirit of Humanism and live and led
live concept. As the result Hindu Muslim sections in Andhradesa under Qutbshahis started
popular festivals like Ramzan, Bakrid, Muharram etc in a true spirit of composite spirit.
Check your Progress-I
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Srinatha Written the Books are.....
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Humayan Nama was written by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………

15.4 LITERARY TRENDS IN POST - QUATUBSHAHI OR MODERN

TIMES (1687-1858)
In South India during period between 1687 - 1858, significant changes occured in the
ruling dynasties. The society, economy, Religion, culture has undergone revolutionary change.
The entry of European trading companies into Indian market, destroyed the rural Indian economy,
Agriculture, handicrafts were seriously effected due to agressive imperialist policy of English.
Their success over native rulers in Bengal, Madras and Karnatka, provided further damage to
Indian economy.
The commercialization of Indian Agriculture, the Theen Khatiaya system’ etc were
attacked by learned Indian intellectuals such as Dadabai Nauraji (The Drdn theory) Balgangadhar
Tilak in his papers Marata and kesari, Suravaram Pratap Reddy in his Golkonda Patrika,
Kasinathuni Nageshwar Rao, T. Prakasham Swarajya, Raj Raja Ram Mohan Ray and
Dwarakanath Tagore’s ‘Bangadootha’ . The Hindu patriot of Ghosh brothers). Rayyat of Mandu
mulanarsinga Rao, Harijan, Young India of Gandhi etc really generated a type of new zeal in
Indian. The spread of English education in three presidencies between 1840-1911 and in also in
some princely states like Hyderabad created view vibrations in of middle class inteligentia.

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 There literary works really played a significant role in the generation of Natioanlist
spirit in the countrymen. Eminent congress men like Bhoga Raju Pattabhi Sitaramayya wrote
the History of Indian National Congress.

15.5 POST INDEPENDENT INDIA - TRENDS IN LITERATURE (1947-2020)

The post Independent era in Indian has witnessed the growth of literacy rate in a
tremendous way. The starting of planning Era in India under the dynamic leadership of First
Prime-Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and his Cabinet Introduced many programmes to establish
number of schools and colleges in various parts of India. As the result in the first 50 years of
i.e., between 1947-1997 A.D., significant changes took place in the subjects and mode of
imparting education to students of rural and urban sections.
Along with Varnacular literature European languages, specially English became the
root for all success, sinence, Technology, specially the invention and launching of Aryabhatta,
Rohini etc satellities, construction of a multi purpose projects, construction of multiple Rail
purpose projects produced a new set-up, the establishment of kendriya sahitya Akademy,
University Grant Commission. expansion of Universitites by Centre and states produced excellent,
qualitative literature in various fields. Specially in the field of literature & social sciences eminent
scholars like Birudu Raja Ramaraju, C. Narayana Reddy, Kaloji Narayan Rao, Hanmantha
Rao, Nayimi Krishna Kumari, N. Gopi, E.G. Parameshwaran, Ramayanam Narasimha Rao,
Sarojini Regani, Mukkamala Radha Krishna Sartma Romaya Thayar etc has produced great
works. Scientists like. Homi Baba, M.S. Swami Nataham did great contribution towards space
research and green Revolution.
The migration of Indian Youth to U.S.A. England, Canada, Australia, South Africa,
Japan and China contries also brought the cultures of different social groups together. The
ideas of scholars entered into Varnacular languages. Again they were translated into English
and other European languages.
The post Independent India also won the global awards in literature. Translation of well
works in to Varnacular language was also received great encouragement. Different languages
received respect in our constitution. In the name of language, culture new states came up.

15.6 GLIMPSES OF FINE IN INDIA PRE AND POST INDEPENDENT ERA

Since Ancient period Indians are well known for excellent taste towards Fine Arts.
According to old tradition, Fine Arts are 64 in number. But among them Dance, Singing, drama,
story, music etc became very popular in society.
In the excavations at Mohanjadaro, Harappa, the first evidence of Dancing girl figure
is discovered. In the course of time the fine arts received great support from various social
groups and Ruling Class.
During Vedic age and epic age prople in order to get some kind of relief from routine
work, preferred to enjoy playing some domestic games or sports. Even outside gemes like
horse riding, chariot races, Duel fights, Cock fights, run fights, dance, drama etc were enjoyed.
In this process specialised literature also emerged in various languages. Matthavilasa
Prahasana’ was a popular Drama work written by Pallava King Mahendravarman, Jayapa
senani, the military of kakatiya king Ganapatideva wrote an excellent work an Dance and its
styles; entitled “Nrittya Ratnavali’ in sanskrit. Perini shiva Thandavam became popular in

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Andhradesa during Kakatiya age.
During Reddi, Velama, Vijayanagara and Qutbshahi ages also rulers and their officials,
provincial governers encouraged poets, scholars, artists, dancers etc.
During the festival days like Dassera in the court of Reddir and Vijayanagara grand
celebrations used to take place. Katavema Redy and Kumaragiri Reddy were experts in Music
and Dance. Singabhupala II of Recharla family was an expert in Science, and music, He wrote
a book ‘Sangeetha Sudhakaram’ Veerabhadra Reddi of Rajamahendra varam kingdom was
also a great scholar and expert in music and dance. Palakuriki somanatha in his classical work
Panditaradhya charitam described twenty five kinds of veenas played by experts of his age. In
the same work the author also gave a list of variety of ‘gayaas’ sung by experts. They include
‘Prabhatapadamulu’, ‘tummeda padamulu’, ‘gobbipadamulu,’vennela padamulu etc., In
‘Bheemeshwara puranam’ ‘Sreenatha described a variety of geyam called ‘Jagada songs sung
by ‘Dakshavathi’.
Portugues horse traders Domigo paes and Fernao -Nuniz described the glittering Dassera
or Navaratri celebrations of Hampi, Under Rayas of Vijayanagara in their accounts. Nikitin the
Russian travellor described the journey of people going in bull carts to a hill and applying of
white powder on their forehead and body i.e., Srisailam and shivaratri festival.
After the establishment of Delhi sultanate rule at Delhi in 1206 AD and the Quatub
shahi rule at golconda fine arts were performed, enjoyed by both the sections.
During the Medieval times in Deccan along with many Hindu Temples, Matas, excellent
Islamic Architecture in the form of Mosque, Darga, Ashurkhana, Khanga etc emerged.
Aurangabad, Gulburga, Bidar, Hyderabad, Warangal, Hanmakonda, Nellore, Bodhan, Kadapa
etc became centres for wonderful. Islamic Architecture. Bidar Madaras, Meccamasji, Budshahi
- Bshur khana of Hyderabad, Chowmahala palace, Golgumbaz of Bidar became masterpiece
Architecture of Deccan.
During the Kakatiya age Hanamkonda Thousand pillar Temple, padampet Ramappa
temples became popular for their excellent Architecture Similarly, Buddami, Pattalkar,
Kanchipuram, Mahabalipuram, Tanjore, Kondavidu, Srisailam, Tirupathi, Lepakshi, Penugonda,
Chadragiri, Beleru, Halebeid, Dwarasamudra, Vengi, Vemulawada, etc became great Religious
centres and example of great Medival Hindu Art and Architecture. Vittala Temple at Hampi,
Brihadeshwara Temple at Tanjore earned good fame. Ranganantapas, Salabanjikas.
Roof decoration etc attracted art historians like, percy brown and longhurst. Cave cut
architecture under pallavas became great attraction.
In all famous temples of North, Central and South India, Devadasis enjoyed great
respect. The medieval rules also preferred cultural programmes in their Royal palaces on special
occasions.
During the period of British rule in India, many princely states became their good
friends, due to their agreement of treaty of subsidiary Alliance. As the result the British art,
architecture in secular and religious made also entered into Indian princely states. Medak Church,
All saints church, Mysore Maharajaplace, Salarjung Museum, Chowmahalla palace, Purani
Haveli, Falaqnama palace, the Dwisa of Mir-Momin Astrabadi (Alijakotla), Golkonda Tombs
king koti palace, etc became true symbol of composite Art & Architecture of Deccan -
Hyderabad. Migration of masons, poets, Artists, Singers, musicians etc from central Asia, Persia

163
to Deccan heralded a new healthy atmosphere specially Hyderabad.
The English language also came under the influence of local languages. The rise of
Journalism during British period in India in another significant development in literature. Bengal
Gazette, Sandhya Vangadoorta, Abhinav Bharat, Peoples herald, Swarajya, Marata, Kesari
etc., spread new rationalistic ideas in people. The effects of Socio-Religious reformers like,
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Devendranath Tagore, Eeshwarchadra Vidya Sagar, Dayanand
Saraswathi, Sir, Syed -Ahmed khan, Jyothiba phule, Bhagya Reddi Varma, Arege Ramaswamy,
Narayanaguru, and others created coverness in public. The new ideas led to the rise of
Nationalism.
The post -second world scenirio paved the way for liberalism & colonialism in new
form. The liberation movements in India, china, Africa, south-east Asia raw the emergence
great leaders such as Gandhi, Lenin, Hilter, Mao-Tse-Tung, Jawarlal Nehru, Chow-in-lai.
Panchasheel of India’s external policy became pillar to the Non-Alighment movement. Women
issues women progress, women studies and women skilled arts also emerged as an important
skilled arts also emergad as in important aspect during this age. Women studies in Modern India
has entered into acedemic program at University level. Women also entered into the field of
highest awards arena. Jnanapeeth, Sahitya Academy, Nobel prizes etc were won by women.
Indian Cinema field, Indian Television and advent of various private T.V. Channels made the
distance between people living / performing their duties / plays etc very near and short. Women
drama troops also specially created by few countries. In the era of moden science and Technology
human societies across the globe has witnessed radical change in every domain of day to day
life. Natural calamities struck the world. They made society to look towards fellow human
beings. During recent carona period new literature, songs, plays, dramas etc emerged with a
positive approach.
Check your Progress-II
Note: (a) space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. The book History of Indian National Congress written by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
2. Thousand Pillers Temple Constructed by
.....................................……………………………………………………………
.....................................……………………………………………………………
15.7 SUMMARY
Thus since Ancient ages to present times India became the hub for different types of
languages, arts and architecture. Native and Afaquees (non - locals) contributed to the enrichment
of Indian Culture.

15.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - MODEL ANSWERS

Check your progress answers-I
1. Kasi Khandam and Bhineswara puram

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2. Gulbadan Bagum
Check your progress answers-II
1. Bogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya
2. Kakatiyas

15.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following Questions in about 30 lines.
1. Write a note on Origin and evolution of Indian Literature
2. Discuss the Medival Indian Literary trends and its importance
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines.
1. Write about Literary trends in Post Modern period.
2. Explain the traveller accounts in Medieval period.

15.10 FURTHER READINGS

1. Carpenter . J.E. : Theism in Medieval India.
2. Iswari Prasad : History of Medieval India from 647 to 1526 AD.
3. Majummdar. R.C(Ed) : History and Culture of the Indian People Vol II.
4. Mehta J.L : Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India
Vol I.
5. Tarachand : Influence of Islam on Indian Culture.
- Dr. G. Anjaiah

.........................................................................................................................................

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 DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY
UG-V SEMESTER (B.A/B.COM/B.COM)
CBSC COURSE-DSE-B CULTURE HERITAGE OF INDIA SYLLABUS

Block I : Introduction to Indian Culture

Unit 1 : Sources of Cultural History of India

Unit 2 : Definition, Nature, Scope and Evolution of Indian Culture
Unit 3 : Salient Features of Indian Culture

Block II : Ancient Indian Cultures

Unit 4 : Harappa Culture

Unit 5 : Vedic Culture and Brahmanic Traditions
Unit 6 : Sramanic Cultures, Ajivikas, Lokayats, Jainism and Buddhism

Block III : Evolution of Composite Cultures

Unit 7 : Popular Hinduism and dissent sects, Savism and Vaishnavism

Unit 8 : Bhakti and Sufi Movements

Block IV : Modern Indian Culture

Unit 9 : Socio Religious Reform Movements

Unit 10 : Social Protest Movements
Unit 11 : Popular Culture and Folk Traditions
Unit 12 : Oral Traditions

Block V : Art, Architecture, Literature and Fine Arts

Unit 13 : Madhura, Gandhara and Amaravathi Art Traditions

Unit 14 : Hindu Architecture, Buddhist and Indo-Persian Architecture
Unit 15 : Major Trends of Indian Literature and Fine Arts

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 DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

B.A. III YEAR-SEMESTER-V

MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION PAPER

SUBJECT: HISTORY

COURSE V: CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA

Time: 3 hours
(Max. Marks: 100) (Min. Marks: 40)

SECTION –A

(MARKS: 5×4=20)

Instruction to the Candidates:

a) Answer any Five of the Following questions in about 10 lines each.
b) Each Question carries Four Marks.
1. Write a short note on Literary Sources for reconstruction of Cultural History
2. Trace out the Indian composite Culture
3. Explain the importance of Dravidian Culture
4. Discuss the Town Planning of Indus Valley people.
5. Briefly explain the Indian Vedas
6. Analyse the Ajivikas Philosophy.
7. Describe the important features of Pashupata Saivism.
8. Write about the principles of Theosophical Society.
9. Explain the vivid Dance form in India
10. Discuss the important monuments of Indo-Persian Architecture.
SECTION –B
(MARKS: 5×12=60)
Instruction to the Candidates
a) Answer all the following Questions in about 30 lines each.
b) Each question carries 12 marks.
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11. Describe the facets of India Culture and its significance
Or
Explain the Economic conditions in Harappan Civilization
12. Analyse the contribution of Vedic Culture to Indian Society
Or
Discuss the Contribution of Jainism to Indian Society
13. Write an essay on Vaishnavism and its contribution to Indian Culture
Or
Explain the principles and important Saints of Bhakti Movement.
14. Discuss the Social Reform Movement in India
Or
Write the causes and consequences of Peasant Movement
15. Analyse the Madhura art and its contribution to Indian Culture
Or
Discuss the architecture of Buddhism and its contribution to Indian Society.
SECTION –C
(MARKS: 20×1=20)
Instruction to the Candidates:
c) Answer all the Following Questions.
d) Each Question carries One Mark.
A) Multiple Choice Questions Choose the Correct Answers.
16. Nasik Inscription laid by
(a) Naganika (b) Balasri (c) Veda Sri (d) Yashodara
17. Rajatarangini was written by
(a) Harsha (b) Bilhanudu (C) Kalhanudu (d) Vishakadatta
18. Onam was celebrated in the State of
(a) Punjab (b) Telangana (C) Karnataka (d) Kerala
19. Harappans imported Silver from
(a) Afghanistan (b) Greek (C) Persia (d) Rome
20. Which Upaveda deals the Architecture
(a) Dhanurveda (b) Gandharvaveda (c) Ayurveda (d) Shilpaveda

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21. How many Puranas are there in India
(a) 16 (b) 18 (C) 14 (d) 12
22. who was the 23rd Jaina Thirtankara
(a) Parsvanatha (b) Rusabha (c) Neminatha (d) Vardhamana
23. the fourth Buddhst Coucnil conducted by
(a) Kanishka (b) Asoka (c) Harsha (d) Ajatashatru
24. who was the Founder of the Women’s University
(a) Vivekananda (b) Annie Bisant (c) D. K. Karve (d) Jyothibha Phule.
25. Gulamgiri was written by
(a) Ambedkar (b) Narayanaguru (c) Periyar (d) Jyothibha Phule.
B. Match the Following.
A B
26. Rigveda Buddhism
27. Ramayana Saivism
28. Sutta Peetika First Veda
29. Kapalika Ithihasa
30. Sravanabelagola Gomateshwara Statue
C. Fill in the Blanks.
31. Founder of the Buddhism———————————————
32. Kondakundcharya was belonged to————————————
33. Taj Mahal was constructed by _________________
34. Kuchipudi belongs to —————————————
35. Kakatiyas constructed a temple in Hanumakonda was

.........................................................................................................................................

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 GLOSSARY
1. Agraharas : A royal donation of land or village to brahmans.

2. Alluvial : Fertile soil that is formed due to the flowing of a river or

sea in a plain.

3. Amalaka : In Sanskrit, it refers to a fruit of Indian gooseberry. In

architecture, it is high flattened ribbed disc in the shape of
this fruit. It forms one of the crowing elements of the
north Indian temples.

4. Ambulatory : Passage adopted for walking

5. Antiquities : Ancient things.

6. Apsidal : Semi- circular or polygonal, usually domed projection of a

building, especially at the altar.

7. Bhagavata : A cult of devotion to Vishnu.

8. Bhakti : Devotion

9. Brahmadeya : Revenue from a village or a land donated to a Brahman.

10. Caligraphy : The art of fine hand – writing.

11. Capital : Head or upper part of the column, wider than the shaft of
the column.

12. Canonical texts : Authoritative or officially approved works of religious faith.

13. Chronicle : Registre or record that describes events of a period or

country in order to time.

14. Chronological : Date or year- wise.

15. Citadel : Fortress.

16. Clerestory : A way of lighting the interior of a building from above, by

raising the roof of some parts over the neighbouring part
and cutting windows in the vertical walls between the two
levels of the ceiling.

17. Cloister : A covered passage, usually, aroung an open court, with

archades (a series of arches) on the side of the court, and
walled on the opposite side.

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18. Corbel : Also called bracket is a projecting member from a wall or
column to support weight (corbelling is a method of
construction, where each successive block of stone
projects a little beyond the one below, resembling in inverted
step.

19. Conduits : Canals

20. Coenelian : Semi- precious stone used in ornament making.

21. Cupola : Domed roof or celing.

22. Dialectical : Investigating truth of opinions in a logical manner.

23. Ecology : Study of plants, animals or of people and institutions in

relation to their environment.

24. Ecozone : Habitable area.

25. Empiriacal : Way of judging things by observations and experiment.

26. Entablature : In classical architecture, it is the collective name for the

horizontal parts of a building above the supporting columns.

27. Erotic : Tending to arouse sexual love or desire.

28. Ethnographic data : Date that is available by a study of tribes or races.

29. Excavations : Digging of an ancient site for unearthing valuable remains

of by gone people and ages.

30. Flora and Fauna : Vegetation, animals and birds.

31. Functionaries : Those who hold office or a trust.

32. Furrow : Narrow track made by a plough.

33. Gable : Any triangular architectural section, usually ornamental,

as over a door or window.

34. Ganas : Demi – Gold attendants of Shiva.

35. Ganas : Family tree or pedigree.

36. Ghat : Mountain range.

37. Gotra : Family affiliation that distinguishes one Hindu family from
the other or preserves its identity.

38. Grid plan : Arrangment of town plan in a rectangular pattern.

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39. Horoschopy : The casting and reading of horoscopes, which is a diagram
of the signs of the Zodiac based on the configuration of
the planets and starts at a given moment, such as the
moment of a persons birth.

40. Iconography : A given set of symbolic forms bearing the meaning of a

stylized work of art. It also refers to the conventions
defining them and governing their relationships.

41. Idealists : Those scholars who, towards the end of the 19th Century,
came to believe that history as a discipline should have its
own methods of enquiring and regarded a process of
imaginative re-living as central to historical thinking.

42. Indology : Study of Indian history, languages and culture.

43. Inscriptions : Words recorded on monuments, stones, coins.

44. Intellectual history : Study of knowledge which is mainly derived from reason.

45. Jatakas : These refers to tales about the birth and life of Buddha.

48. Karma : Action or deed, and also the theory of conditioning one’s
birth by the deeds of the present or previous births.

49. Kharosthi : A script used in north-western India and derived from that
of Aramaic prevalent in Western Asia.

52. Kirthimukhas : Grotesque mask used commonly as a decorative feature.

54. Linga : The Phalic symbol worshipped largely by shaivites.

55. Linear : Involving measurement in one dimension long and narrow.

56. Liturgy : The rituals or established formulas of public worship.

57. Mandapa : An open or closed pillared assmebly hall, in front of the

shrine of a Hindu temple.

58. Madhyamika : A Buddist school, of which Nagarjuna was the most

famous exponent, which believed that the life of the world
is the same as Nirvana....and really there is no difference
between them at all".

59. Doctorine of Maya : Illusion especially, the visible material world conceived of
as being purely illusionary.

60. Matha : A centre of education and religion attached to a temple.

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61. Megalith : Large or big stone used as a monument.

62. Mithraic : Pertaining to Persion god, identified with sun.

63. Microlith : A very small tool made of a blade or flake. They served
as barbs and tips of arrows.

64. Mlechchas : Impure or sullied. Term used to describe the foreigners

during the post Mauryan period.

65. Monastic : Religious, pertaining to monastrey or Matha.

66. Monistic Vedanta : Philosophy that denies the duality of matter and mind and
tates that only one being exists.

67. Motif : A repeated figure or design in architecture of decoration

68. Murals : Large paintings or pictures, drawn on walls or ceilings.

69. Nagaram : Local council urban area.

70. Nayankara System : Uder this sytem, Nayakas or semi- independent rulers
were set up. They paid tributes to the king and maintained
the quota of troops allotted to them.

71. Niche : A recese in a wall for holding a stature or other ornaments.

72. Nirvana : The state of absolute blessedness, characterised by release

from the cycle of reincarnations and attained through the
extinction of the self.

73. Palmette : A stylished palm leaf used as a decorative element, notably

in Persian rugs and in classical mouldings, reliefs, frescoes
etc.

74. Panchabhuta Kshetras : Famous Saiva temple centres in South India.

75. Panchamas : The fifth caste or the untouchables.

76. Panchayatana : A Hindu temple with the main shrine surrounded by four
shrines at the corners.

77. Painted Grey Ware : Pottery of this type, consisting mainly of bowls and dishes,
has been found in as many as 500 sites in Punjab and
Ganga- Yamuna - Doab, during the period 1000- 600 B.C.
indicating Indo- Aryan settlements in a concentrated
manner, in these regions.

78. Paramatres : Withing the scope or limit.

173
79. Pastoral economy : An economy in which cattle or sheep - breeding is the
main source of living.

80. Patriarchal : A form of social organisation in which father is the head

of the family, clan or tribe. Descent is recokoned on the
male line.

81. Pennisula : Area surrounded by water on three sides and by hill or

land features on the fourth side.

82. Perforators : Objects with holes.

83. Phenomena : Remarkable thing or development.

84 Philology. : The scientific study or written records of literary, social

and cultural history in order to establish authemticity,
accuracy and meaning , especially historiacal and
comparative.

85. Pir : Sainte or spiritual guide

86. Polygamy : The practice of marrying more than one wife.

87. Prasastis : Accounts which generally indulged in praising or eulogising

the ruler of a state or an empire.

88. Prefects : Rulers or Governors.

89. Purna Ghata : A full jar. It came to be adopted as an auspicious symbol

of plenty or fertility. It was carved on either side of the
gate- ways of shrines.

90. Pushpapotika : An elaborate form of corbel, characteristic of the

Vijayanagar period.

91. Radio-carbon dating : The organic matter from exacavations that is scientifically
dated, where the amount of carbon is detected. The less
the carbon, the older is the age of material.

92. Rock-briuising : Etching or engraving or rocks.

93. Romantic school : School of thought characterised by preference to grandeur

or pictures sequences or passion or irregular beauty than
to finish and proportion.

94. Romaka Siddantha : One of the five astronomical system (Siddantas) known
as the 6th Century astronomer, Varahamihira.
.........................................................................................................................................
95. Sanctum : A sacred or holy place an inviolable private place.
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96. Sankhya : A system of Hindu philosphy based on the distinction
between spirit and matter.

97. Sati : The practice of a woman immolating herself on the funeral

pyre of her husband.

98. Scrapers : An artifact of chipped stone or flint probably used in wood

working or for scraping hides.

99. Seal : Animal or human figures made up of terracotta or red

clay, containing also an undeciphered script.

100. Sesterce : A silver or bronze coin of ancient Rome.

101. Shaikh : A Muslim of high social status or a religious guide.

102. Shikara : Tower surmounting the temple.

103. Shreni : Guild or organisation of merchants or artisans of different

trades for mutual aid.

104. Shruti : The literature which was transmitted orally as a sacred

revelation from one to the other.

105. Silecious rocks : Rocks containing silica, a hard white material, the varieties
of which are flint and quartz.

106. Smriti : A class of religious literature, comprising law, books, epics

and Puranas, especially the first.

107. Srenidharm : Rules and regulations govering the members of a Sreni or

guild.

108. Srenidharm : Rules and regulations governing the members of a Sreni

or guild.

109. Steatite : Kind of talc or soapstone.

110. Steppes : One of the vast, more or less level plains devoid of trees.

111. Stupa : A round brick structure, built over th relics of the Buddha
or others revered by the Buddhists.

112. Sunyata : Noureality; void

113. Synchronism : Going together or agreeing together in reckoning or

heppenings.

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114. Syntax : A branch of grammar which explains how the words are
put together to form phrases and sentences.

115. Tantric : A religious cult relating to the worship of Goddess Kali,

representing the female prsonification of divine energy.

116. Temperature climate : Climate which is moderate in heat or cold.

117. Terracotta : Backed clay that is kept in safe place. It is fragile.

118. Threshing : To beat out the grain from the stalk of beating or thresing.

119. Tropical climate : Hot climate.

120. Triton : He is a sea-gold in Greek Muthology, protrayed as having

the head and trunk of a man and the tail of a fish.

121. Ushnisha : A turban with frontal protuberance; India's Characteristic

head- dress; protuberance on the head of the Buddha.

123. Vajrayana : It is new branch of Buddhism that emerged in 7th century

A.D. in Eastern India influenced by Tantric rite. This
Thunderbolt vehicle (Vajrayana) gave female counterpart
to the existing male figures of the bhuddist Pantheon and
these counterparts were termed Taras (or Saviouresses).
The cult of Taras remains prevalent in Nepal and Tibet.

124. Varna : Colour- used more commonly for caste.

125. Varnasrama : The regulation that the traditional castes or Varnas have
to follow the professions or the practieces prescribed for
them in the Holy Scriptures.

126. Vaiseshika : A school of Hindu philosphy which postulated a dualism

of matter and soul and declared that salvation depends on
fully recognizing the atomic nature of the universe and its
differences from the soul.

127. Vijnana- vada : It completely rejected the realism of the Lesser Vehicle
and maintained a through going idealism not even allowing,
the quilified realism or the Madhyamikas.

128. Visishtadvaita : Expounded by Ramanuja of the 12th Century A.D.; this

philosophy of qualified monism rejects the absolute monism
(Advaita) of Sankara and lays emphasis on Bhakti as a
means of salvation.

129. Yavana : Used in Indian sources for Greeks.

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