Eng-HIS&CULT TS Early Times To1948

B.A.
THIRD YEAR
HISTORY
SEMESTER – VI
HISTORY AND CULTURE OF

TELANGANA
FROM EARLIEST TIMES TO 1948
Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD
2020
Unit-1: SOURCES, PHYSICAL AN GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS
Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historiography of Telangana
1.3 Divisions in Telangana History
1.4 Sources
1.4.1 Archaeological Evidences
1.4.2 Numismatic Evidences
1.4.3 Epigraphy Evidences
1.4.4 Literary Evidences
1.4.5 Foreign Accounts
1.4.6 Folk Studies
1.4.7 Interdisciplinary Researches
1.5 Geography of Telangana – General Features
1.5.1 Telangana Plateau
1.5.2 Altitude
1.5.3 Rocks
1.5.4 River Basins
1.6 Soils and Rainfall
1.7 Flora and Fauna
1.8 Geography and Environmental History of Telangana
1.9 Summary
1.10 Model Answers to Check your Progress
1.11 Model Examination Questions
1.12 Further Readings
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the scope of Telangana history
2. Explain the Sources for the study of Telangana History.
3. Discuss the Geographical conditions and its impact on Telangana Society.
4. Analyse the Deccan plateau and Telangana Plateau.
5. Describe the River basins and its impact on Telangana Economy.
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Telangana, being one of the earliest places in the Indian subcontinent which cradled the human
civilisation has a rich history. Whether preserved beneath the layers of earth or above in the form of
structures along with the other material evidences in the form of coins, inscriptions, artefacts and
sculptural material, they speak out ‘the history as it was’. Literary works from early historic periods to
contemporary times provided with facts and narratives, leaving the scope for interpretations and
discussion. Understanding the progression of history in Telangana by differentiating into stages, listing
out the sources and finally by correlating and interpreting the sources will enrich the study of Telangana
history.
Understanding geography of a particular region is to contextualise various periods of history. All
the life forms on the earth cannot survive unless the material conditions in terms of geography which we
call as environment support them. Likewise, the human evolution, spread or distribution, development in
terms of material cultures and sustenance – all depend upon the geographical conditions of that particular
region. To understand in a simple way, the life and cultures of the people living in coastal areas differ
from the life of the people of deserts. Agricultural practices of plateaus differ from the Gangetic plains.
So, Telangana which is part of Deccan plateau has its specificities in terms of geography on which lies the
progress of history in this region.
1.2 HISTORIOGRAPHY OF TELANGANA
What is historiography? It is the study of writing history. One has to keep in mind that
interpreting or writing history is often becomes subjective as the ruling class or the people in command
wants to portray. So, Telangana history was a victim in general as part of Indian history written with
class, caste and colonial biases and specifically was a victim of bias during the past seven decades when it
was not a separate state. As a result Telangana history was ignored, improperly recorded and distorted.
Attempts to rewrite the history of Telangana in a proper perspective have begun along with the movement
for statehood and are continuing. In this process, historians could bring out many sources for rewriting of
Telangana history.
1.3 DIVISIONS IN TELANGANA HISTORY
As we divide Indian history it is studied under three broader divisions:
a. Ancient history: it includes prehistory, proto-history and early history.
b. Medieval History: it studies a vast period covering the history of about ten or eleven centuries. It
is subdivided into early medieval, medieval and late medieval, broadly.
c. Modern history covers the period from the Colonial era till present times, including the Indian
independence movement in Indian context and the Hyderabad State of Asafjahis in Telangana
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context and finally the struggle for separate statehood for Telangana and the formation of
Telangana.
1.4 SOURCES
1.4.1 Archaeological Evidences
History gets preserved in the layers of earth as archaeological evidences. Excavating Telangana’s
historic past has begun in 1914 with the establishment of the Archaeology department by Mir Osman Ali
Khan, the seventh Nizam in his dominions under the stewardship of Ghulam Yazdani. Crowning glory of
this period was the excavation, conservation and preservation of Ajanta, Ellora and many rock cut sites in
the Hyderabad state. Many early historic sites like Satavahana site at Kondapur; numerous ruined Hindu
temples from Chalukyan period to late medieval; and mosques, tombs and palaces representing Indo-
Islamic architecture were also excavated, conserved and preserved. These efforts are being continued by
the department of Archaeology of AP and later from 2014 under Heritage Telangana (as the archaeology
department presently called). Latest excavations are undergoing at Phanigiri, a magnificent Buddhist site
in Suryapet district where a rare life-size stucco of Bodhisatva was found in 2019.
State Museum and Yeleswaram pavilion in Hyderabad, regional museums at Warangal,
Karimnagar, Panagal (Nalgonda), Pillalamarri (Mahabubnagar) and ASI museum at Kondapur showcases
the archaeological evidences of Telangana. Some of the important archaeological sites are given below:-
Pre-Historic Period: There are more than 100 identified pre-historic sites among which about 50 were
recorded in detail. Some best examples are Pandavula Gutta (Jayashankar Bhupalapally), Mudumal
(Mahabubnagar) and Akshara Loddi (Khammam).
Early Historic Sites: Sites representing Satavahana, Ikshvaku, Vishnukundi and Badami Chalukya are
spread over entire Telangana. Best known sites are Kotilingala, Dhulikatta, Peddabankur, Kondapur
(Satavahana); Phanigiri, Vardhamanukota, Gajulabanda (Ikshvaku), Keesaragutta, Thummalagudem,
Chaitanyapuri (Vishnukundi), Alampur (Badami Chalukya).
Medieval: Ramappa (Jayashankar Bhupalapally), Thousand pillar and Fort (Warangal), Kota Gullu
(Ghanpur group of temples), Golconda fort, Charminar, Qutbshahi tombs etc.
Modern: British Residency in Koti, Jubilee hall, Raymond’s tomb, Arts College, Osmania Hospital, High
Court, Falaknuma palace etc.
1.4.2 Numismatic Evidences
Numismatics is a most important primary material evidence for any period as it carries the
information of that period more accurately. Eminent numismatists from Telangana like Dr Deme Raja
Reddy and others recorded history by studying the coins. Study of coins tells us the knowledge of
metallurgy of that period, language, script, religious or social symbols and context. Kotalingalacoins
established the beginnings of Satavahana dynasty at Kotalingala and in north Telangana. Apart from this
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site, coins of Satavahana period were found at Peddabankur, Dhulikatta, Kondapur, and various sites
presumed as Satavahana forts. Coins of Ikshvakus are found at sites in Krishna Valley or south Telangana
at Phanigiri, Nelakondapalli etc. Coins of Badami Chalukyas and other Chalukyan dynasties are also
found in abundance. Kakatiya coins tell us about the titles of the rulers and the context. Coins of
Qutbshahis tell us that Golconda was called as Mohammed Nagar as inscribed on the coin.
1.4.3 Epigraphy Evidences
Inscriptions are the records of the deeds of the rulers or some influential section of the society of
the past. Earliest inscriptions of Telangana are of early historic period written in Prakrit language and
inscribed in Brahmi script. Many fragmentary inscriptions and a few full inscriptions of Satavahana
period are found in all Buddhist sites of Telangana. Mukkatraopeta inscription gives the first ever
epigraphic evidence of Asmaka mahajanapada. Ikshvaku inscriptions are found in Krishna valley, and
many in Phanigiri. At Tummalagudem (also called of Indrapalanagaram) in Nalgonda district, sets of
copper plate inscriptions of Vishnukundi were found which establishes Tummalagudem as the capital
ofVishnukundi dynasty. In a temple in Chaitanyapuri in Hyderabad, an inscription of Govindavarma a
Vishnukundi king establishes the presence of a Buddhist Maha Vihara in 5th century taking the legacy of
Hyderabad to early historic period. While the inscriptions at Alampur recorded the period of Badami
Chalukyas, inscriptions at Patancheruvu, Kolanupaka, and many other sites in south Telangana recorded
Kalyani Chalukya period.
There are many important medieval inscriptions among which Kurkyala inscription of
Jinavallabha is noteworthy as it is a tri-lingual inscription and Telugu part was written in Kanda padya.
Kakatiya period left us with many inscriptions, helping us to understand their times. Important among
them are inscriptions at Thousand Pillar temple, Ramappa temple, Bekkallu, Chandupatla etc. Coming to
Qutbshahi and Asaf Jahi inscriptions they were written in Persian and Telugu and are found at all public
places of those periods. Some Telugu inscriptions of this period (15th C AD) are mention-worthy like the
one at Tellapur in Sangareddy district which records Telangana word for the first time.
Language and script of inscriptions found in Telangana were – Prakrit and Brahmi in early
period, gradual entry of Sanskrit from Ikshvaku period; Telugu in medieval and gradual evolution of
present Telugu script from early medieval to medieval and finally in medieval in Telugu and Persian.
Inscription issued by Maha Laqa Bai, a poet, musician, dancer, courtier of Second Nizam is speaks of her
donations is found at her Tomb complex at Moula Ali.
1.4.4 Literary Evidences
Literature was the major source of writing history in the early 19 th and 20th centuries in Indian
subcontinent. That is why we can see many historians are literary personalities as they extracted history
from literary works of early to medieval periods. Though literature is one of the evidence it has to be
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correlated with the material evidences as there is always a possibility of incorrectness, subjectivity, bias,
exaggerations to creep in them. With this caution literary evidences help in writing history. First mention
of the people whom we call Telugus is in Aitareya Brahmana, a later Rigvedic text, which has the word
Andhra along with Pulinda which can be taken as the tribal denomination of the people here. Buddhist
literature is another rich source of evidence of our past. In Suttanipata, there is mention of Bavari, the
man who brought Buddhism to this land, who was residing in Asmaka, corresponding to north Telangana.
Several Jataka stories of Buddhism and some Jaina texts like Adi Purana (composed in 9 th Century) also
mention of this land on pre-Christian era.
Early literature of Satavahana period, Brihadkatha, Gathasattasai, Lilavai were written in Prakrit
and important as the earliest literature of this land. Since then though many texts were produced we lost
many as they were inscribed on palm leaves. Janashraya Chandovichhitti of Madhava Varma IV of
Vishnukundi dynasty, many texts produced under the patronage of Rashtrakutas and their sub-ordinates
Vemulavada Chalukyas. Interesting aspect of this period was that Kannada Adikavi Pampa lived in the
court of Vemulavada Chalukyas in Telangana. Kaktiya period saw a huge treasure of literature produced
which include, Prataparudriyam of Vidyanatha, NiroshtyaRamayanam of Sakalya Malla,
Madhuravijayam of Gangadevi, Jayapasenani’s great works NrittaRatnavali, SangitaRatnavali,
VadyaRatnavali in Sanskrit; Tikkana Somayaji’s part of Andhra Mahabharatam, Ranganatha Ramayanam
by GonaBudha Reddy, MarkandeyaPuranam by Marana, Andhra Dasakumaracahritra by Ketana, Nitisara
by Kakti Rudra, Panditaradhya Charitramu by Palkuriki Somana and SumatiSatakamu by Baddena etc.
RachakondaPadmanayaka king SavagnaSingabhupala’sRasarnavaSudhkaram is a acclaimed work on
music. Potana who lived during Padmanayaka rule, a native of Bammera wrote Andhra Mahabhagavatam,
BhoginiDandakamand VirabhadraVijayam and was identified a great writer from Telangana.
Under Qutb Shahi rulers Telugu, Sanskrit, Persian and Urdu were patronised. Some rulers like
Ibrahim Quli popular for his love and patronage for Telugu and was called as ‘Malikibharama’ was a poet
and patron of Addanki Gangadhara the author of TapatiSamvaranopakhyanam. The founder of Hyderabad
Mohammed Quli he himself was an accomplished poet whose verses were compiled into Kulliyat.
KancharlaGopanna popularly known as Ramadasu composed his keertanas during Abul Hasan Tanashah
period. Yayaticharitram written by Ponnaganti Telaganarya was another famous work of this period.
Kshetrayya dedicated 1500 padams to Abdullah Qutb shah.
Literary sources of modern period can be divided into pre-1948 and later period. Famous works
of this period came from Bhagyareddy Varma, Suravaram Pratapa Reddy, Dasharathi,
VattikotaAlwarswamy, MadapatiHanmantha Rao and others, which are different from the old feudal
period of medieval times and are related to society, politics and people of Telangana. This is the period
growth of such literature also contributed to the growth of press and library movement in Telangana.
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Though many literary personalities enriched literature in Telangana, Post-1956 witnessed
discrimination. Jai Telangana agitation of 1969 and later the last phase of movement for statehood to
Telangana played an important role in invigorating the dissent and protest against Andhra ruling class
through literature. While Kaloji stands as the leading light of Telangana’s poetry, poets, lyricists,
novelists like Gaddar, GoretiVenkanna, Varavara Rao, NandiniSidhareddy, AllamRajaiah represented life
of this land.
Literature representing the history and struggle for Telangana has entered a new phase from the
year 2000 onwards and as a results at least 5,000 songs were composed, a couple of hundred poetry
anthologies and a hundred stories and novels documented the modern history of Telangana.
1.4.5 Foreign Accounts
First record of Telangana in foreign accounts dates back to 3rd C BC’s work of Megasthenes’s
Indica, which mentions about 30 Satavahana forts. Later, though there are some indications of Buddhist
travellers to this land not much record is available. Kakatiya court received Marcopolo, who described
Rudrama’s capabilities and other socio-economic aspects of those times. Trader-travellers from Arabia,
Persia, Italy and Portuguese visited Golconda and documented Qutb Shahi kingdom.
1.4.6 Folk Studies
Though not much work has been done in the field of folk literature history of some heroes and
heroines of medieval period are preserved by people in the form of folk literature which is oral tradition.
History of tribal heroines Sammakka-Sarakka, Sarvai Papadu who rose from an ordinary toddy tapper to
a leader challenging the Moghul authority at Golconda, an innocent justice-seeking Gond tribal Kumram
Bheem’s armed struggle against Nizam – all are now revisited through folk studies.
1.4.7 Natural Sciences Interdisciplinary Studies
Some extinct forms of like Dinosaurs, flora and fauna of the past which are found in the Godavari
valley were studied with the help of Palaeo zoology, Palaeo Botany and Geology. Recently the
archaeology department of Telangana in association with Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
(CCMB) found the age and Genetic Marker of some bones found in megalithic burials in Telangana. This
helps to date the specific burial in particular and megalithic period in general.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your Answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Which inscription mentioned the Asmaka mahajanapada.
……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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2. Which source mentioned about the Bavari.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
1.5 GEOGRAPHY OF TELANGANA – GENERAL FEATURES
Telangana occupies a strategic place in the geography of India as it connects the north India
above Vindhyas with Southern peninsula with coordinates between 15o 50’ N to 19o 51’ N latitude and
77o 15’ E to 81o19’ E longitude. As a part of Deccan plateau it possesses some common characteristics of
Deccan plateau and also specific characteristics and called as Eastern Deccan plateau. The geographical
area of the state comprising of 1,12,077 Sq. Kms, extending to a north-south length of about 770 km, and
an east-west width of about 515 km. Telangana state is divided into 33 administrative districts stands as
the 12th largest state in India in terms of area corresponding to 3.4% of the total area of India. Telangana
plateauis part of Deccan plateau can be studied in terms of altitude, types of rocks and river basins.
1.5.1 Telangana plateau
Different sub regions of the plateau are identified with different names. To name a few, Bhainsa-
Nirmal Plateau, Bhongir-Ramannapet plateau, Devarakonda plateau, Nalgonda-Miryalaguda plateau,
Suryapet-Huzurnagar plateau etc. are part of Telangana plateau. Average height of this region lies
between 500 to 600 mts above MSL. The rock formations are characterised by hills and hillocks with
named differently at different sub-regions. Nirmal hillocks and Satmala hill tract extending the parts of
Boath, Normal, Utnoor and Khanapur areas; Rakhi hills in Karimnagar, Kanagal or Kandikal hillocks in
Mahbubabad and Kothagudem, Sirnapalli series in Nizamabad.
1.5.2 Altitude
The state can be divided into three categories based on the altitude based on the Mean Sea Level
(MSL).
a. Region having altitude above 600 mts above MSL – Mainly located in western part of Telangana
comprising of Hyderabad, Rangareddy, part of Medak and part of Mahbubnagar.
b. Region having altitude of 300 mts to 600 MSL–Broadly covers the western part of Telangana
Rangareddy, Mahabubnagar, Nizamabad, Warangal districts. In the north faulting has preserved a belt
of Gondwanas along with the lower Godavari and on the south lies the Krishna and Tungabhadra
valleys.
c. Region having altitude below 300 MSL–Large area covering the districts on the two sides of
Godavari, namely Adilabad, Karimnagar and Khammam and the districts of Warangal and Nalgonda
fall under this category.
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1.5.3 Rocks
Geologically, the plateau is chiefly composed of ancient Precambrian gneiss. Its nearly fully
eroded peneplain (a vast featureless, undulating plain which the last stage of deposition process) is
marked by almost completely graded valleys, and monadnocks (isolated hill of bedrock standing
conspicuously above the general level of the surrounding area commonly consisting of quartzite or less
jointed massive volcanic rocks) that range from hill groups to tors and arrangements of massive boulders.
Telangana plateau is made of vast sheets of massive granite rock, which effectively traps rainwater.
Under the thin surface layer of soil is the impervious gray granite bedrock.
Part of the Nallamala Range of hills, which are a section of the Eastern Ghats, fall
in Nalgonda and Mahbubnagar districts of the state in the Krishna Valley. The rocks of the Nallamala
ranges are part of Kadapa system which is a series some 20,000 ft. thick.The primary rocks
are Quartzite overlaid with an irregular slaty formation and some sandstone. These rocks are among the
oldest in the world and have been formed as a result of large scale volcanic activity hundreds of millions
of years ago. The foldings in the rocks explain the volcanic forces during the time of their formation.
Hyderabad is blessed with a unique landscape – spectacular rock formations which are about
2,500 million years old; among the oldest and hardest rocks in the world.
1.5.4 River Basins
Godavari and Pranahita rivers in North and Krishna and Tungabhadra in South form the natural
boundaries for Telangana. The plateau is drained by the Godavari River taking a southeasterly course; by
the Krishna River, which divides the peneplain into two regions.
Godavari basin: Being the longest river of South India, it has largest basin in which Telangana has a
major part. Godavari enters into the state at Kandakurthy in Nizamabad district, called as Triveni
sangamam as the other two rivers, Manjira, Haridra meets Godavari. Entire north Telangana falls under
Godavari basin as the river and its tributaries flow in this region. With the completion of Kaleshwaram
project the north and south Telangana are linked in a very big way in terms of irrigation and
environmental aspects. Pranahita, Indravati, Taliperu, Sabari, Manjira, Manair, Kinnerasani are the
tributaries of Godavari.
Krishna Piedmont: Krishna river enters into Telangana at Siddheshwaram in Mahbubnagar district.
Nalgonda, Mahabubnagar, Gadwal-Jogulamba and Nagarkurnool districts of south Telangana is the part
of Krishna valley. Forests in Nallamala range are probably is the one of the largest stretch of undisturbed
forest in South India. Tributaries of Krishna are Bhima, Dindi, Peddavagu, Musi, Paleruand Munneru
enriched the land in South Telangana. Apart from these two major rivers and their tributaries, many
rivulets and huge tanks constructed since early historic periods to late medieval period were forming the
network of riverine ecosystem of Telangana.
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1.6 SOILS AND RAINFALL
Telangana contains various soil types–they are red sandy loams (Chalaka), Red loamy sands
(Dubba), lateritic soils, salt affected soils, alluvial soils, shallow to medium black soils and very deep
black cotton soils. These soil types are favourable for the planting of a variety food crops, commercial
crops and fruits such as paddy, maize, cereals, millets, sugarcane, cotton, mangoes, oranges and flower
crops.
The Southwest monsoon brings rain to Telangana, and the rainy season begins from the second
quarter of June. The annual rainfall is between 900 and 1500 mm in northern Telangana and 700 to
900 mm in southern Telangana.
1.7 FLORA AND FAUNA
The plant and animal life of Telangana is typically a plateau based with a diverse nature. The
vegetation found is largely of dry deciduous type with a mixture of teak, and species of the genera
Terminalia, Pterocarpus, Anogeissus etc. Animal lifehas a diversity which includes tiger, panther, wolf,
wild dog, hyena, sloth bear, Gaur, Black Buck, Chinkara, Chowsingha, Nilgai, Cheetal, Sambar and a
number of birds including Indian Rollerand a variety of reptiles in rural landscape and forests.
1.8 GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF TELANGANA

If we study geography in an isolated manner without looking at the life forms including the
humans, it makes no sense in the study of history. As we study the human history as a narration of the
progress made from a pre-historic stage to present day, it is the correlation between the human beings and
the environs which played a major role, which is clearly evident in each phase of our history.
As discussed in the sources, the evidences of plant forms and living beings which we call as flora
and fauna is recorded on the earth, rocks and dried up surfaces in the river valleys in the form of fossils
which is studied under paleobotany and paleozoology. Finding of a dinosaur fossil named as Kotasaurus
yamanpallensis in Mancherial district prove the antiquity of the land and makes this region a rich garden
of fossils.
Geological formations of Telangana formed the finest and suitable conditionality for the human
evolution in the early part of pre-history. The rocky hillocks and river basins created conducive
environment for the most part of pre-history. The coarse-grained quartzite (Krishna, Tungabhadra valley),
chert and chalcedony (lower Godavari valley) and fossil wood (forests of Eturunagaram in Warangal
district) provided them raw material for making tools of chopper-chopping technique in the lower
Paleolithic age some 3 lakh years ago, different materials like chert, agate, chalcedony, quartz, bones,
fossil wood etc., provided them raw material for a variety of tools.
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Iron found in abundance in Telangana ushered a new stage in the human evolution as Iron age
dating back to 1000 BC. This also corresponded to Megalithic age which is a characteristic of Deccan and
especially Telangana. As the surroundings are full of rocks and boulders, burial culture developed
expressing in different types of burials.
Knowledge of Iron and interaction with the Neolithic cultures developed earlier in northern
counterpart has helped Telangana to develop agriculture, settled life in janapadas and finally giving birth
to a mahajanapada during 6th BC. All the above mentioned geographical conditions and availability of
raw materials helped present day Telangana to distinguish itself as the only Mahajanapada below
Vindhyas known as Asmaka.
Carrying the geographical specificities form early history, history is unfolded into medieval
period, as we could see the main mode of sustenance, i.e., agriculture is characterised by the crops of a
varied nature including paddy to semi-arid crops like maize.
In terms of architecture as one school of thought opine that Buddhist stupa is a continuation and
extension of a megalithic burial which is largely a Deccan specific. Hill forts (Giridurgas) and
fortifications made of stones in the late medieval period- all correspond to the geographical characters of
Telangana.
Rivers, tributaries and rivulets along with tanks provided a network of drainage system for
irrigation, transport and gave birth to big villages and towns in their basins.
Religious structures- starting from Buddhist viharas to later Brahmanical temples all sprung up
either depending on the river ecosystem or as hillock-based abodes.
Finally, in terms of polity, the geographical conditions gave rise to cultures and systems as we
could see the earliest empire of Deccan in the form of Satavahanas who rose from the banks of Godavari
at Kotalingala. Ikshvakus rising in Krishna Valley, Vishnukundis from Amrabad ranges of Nallamala to
become the lords of a big region between Godavari and Krishna, Vakatakas rule in north and parts of
south Telangana as a contiguity of Pravara-Wardha valley, Badami Chalukyas origin lying in Krishna-
Tungabhadra doab and expanding to major part of Deccan which was inherited by Rashtrakutas – all
point out to the geographical uniformity or influence. Kakatiyas to Asaf Jahis represented Telangana
identity politically as they are deeply entrenched into the land and the sky of Telangana.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II
1. The Godavari River entered in Telangana State at
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. The River Krishna entered into Telangana State at
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
1.9 SUMMARY
Every society leaves its past in the form of various evidences. Various types of evidences as
discussed above are the tools to record, re-write Telangana history. It is the duty of the historian to assess,
evaluate and use the evidence in the service of writing of history. Studying history by contextualising in
geography or geology makes sense as humans cannot survive and progress without proper conducive
material conditions. In this background, the rocks, soils, rivers and other forms of nature and environment
nurture civilisations with the human effort which is symbiotic. This is the environmental history of
Telangana, as we call it today traversing the paths of pre-history, Asmaka Mahajanapada, early to late
medieval periods and finally in to the 21st century as a state in India.
1.10 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check your progress answers-I
1. Mukkatraopeta.
2. Suttanipata
Check your progress answers-II
1. Kadanakurthy in Nizamabad district.
2. Siddheswaram in Mahaboobnagar district.
1.11 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following Questions in about 30 lines.
1. Explain the Sources of Telangana History.
2. Discuss the Environmental Conditions in Telangana.
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines.
1. Analyse the Literary Sources of Telangana History.
2. Describe the Rock formation in Telangana.
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1.12 FURTHER READINGS
1. Chandramouli, N : Rock Art of South India.

2. Telangana History-Culture : Telugu Akademi, Hyderabad.
3. Murthy M L K,(Ed.) : Pre- and Proto Historic Andhra Pradesh up to 500 BC.
4. Krishna Sastry, VV : The Proto and Early Historic Cultures of
Andhra Pradesh.
5. Thakur Raja Ram Singh : Some unique discoveries in Stone Age
Archaeology in Telingana region.
6. Thakur Raja Ram Singh : Living conditions of Paleolithic man in
Godavari valley from Basar to Bhadrachalam.
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UNIT-2: PRE HISTORY OF TELANGANA
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources
2.3 Stages in Human evolution
2.4 Ages in Pre History
2.4.1 Palaeolithic age
2.4.2 Mesolithic Age
2.4.3 Neolithic Age
2.4.4 Bronze age
2.4.5 Iron Age
2.4.6 Megalithic Culture
2.5 Rock Art
2.6 Summary
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the first stage of human history in Telangana
2. Explain Paleolithic to Neolithic, tool making and changing mode of subsistence
3. Discuss Development of Human knowledge from stone tool to metal
4. Anlyse Cult of Burial – megalithic cultures
5. Describe Earliest form of artistic expression through Rock Art
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Prehistory is the period in history where archaeological remains are the only evidences to
reconstruct that part of historic period. Stone and metal tools, bones, skeletal remains, burials, rock art
(paintings on the walls of the caves and stones) etc are the archaeological remains of prehistory through
which historians, anthropologists reconstruct the life of the human beings who lived in that timeframe of
history.
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2.2 SOURCES OF PRE HISTORY
 In India, first stone tool (a ground or polished stone axe) was found by Meadows Taylor at
Lingasagur in 1842.
 Robert Bruce Foote, pioneer of Indian Prehistory discovered first paleolith at Pallavaram near Madras
in 1863. He along with his son Henry excavated in Billa Surgam caves near Betamcherla in Kurnool
district in 1884. These excavations established the antiquity of human life in South India.
 The Department of Archaeology of Hyderabad State was established in 1914, by Mir Osman Ali
Khan, the seventh Nizam. Thus begun the explorations, excavations and studies in archaeology in
Hyderabad state. ‘Antiquarian Remains in Hyderabad state’ published by this department in 1953,
mentions about 118 sites as protected areas including prehistoric sites.
 In Telangana part of United Andhra Pradesh, some pre historic sites were found during the salvage
Archaeological excavations in Nagarjuna Sagar valley. Excavations done in these submerging areas
like Yeleswaram yielded many evidences of prehistoric times.
 Thakur Raja Ram Singh, an archaeologist by choice and advocate by profession did yeoman service
to Archaeology of Telangana. He explored the entire Godavari valley in Telangana part and found
many pre-historic and early historic sites.
 Skeletal remains of dinosaur fossil named as Kotasaurus yamanpallensis belonging to Lower Jurassic
age dating back to 160 million years, was collected from Yamanpalli in the Mancherial district of
Telangana. This fossil is fourteen metres in length and over five metres in height and presently at
display in the Dinosaurium at Birla Centre at Hyderabad. This is the evidence of antiquity of life in
Deccan.
2.3 STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
Homo habilis: Earliest member of human genus, 2.3 to 1.7 million years ago
 Homo erectus: lived during 1.9-1.7 to 2.5 lakh years ago
 Homo sapien neanderthalensis: 2 lakh years to 40,000 years ago
 Homo sapiens sapiens: 40,000 to present day
2.4 AGES IN PRE HISTORY

Prehistory is divided according to the ‘Three Age System’ which is applied to the sites
worldwide. Stone Age is divided into Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Age), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic
Age) and New Stone Age (Neolithic Age), which are further subdivided based on different characteristics.
Though there is a general periodization applicable worldwide, it differs to some extent in different areas.
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2.4.1 Palaeolithic Age or Old Stone Age
This is the oldest period corresponding togeologically Pleistocene period, which yielded animal
bones and stone tools. This age is of longer duration represented by many gradual changes, which is
further divided into three ages.The basis of subsistence was hunting and food gathering.
Lower Palaeolithic Age: (3,00,000 – BC 1,30,000 years)
 Human evolution, early humans.
 Tools of this age are represented with tools of chopper-chopping technique. Tools included hand
axes, cleavers, picks, discoids, chopping tools and a variety of scrapers. Raw material used was
coarse-grained quartzite (Krishna, Tungabhadra and Penneru), chert and chalcedony (lower Godavari
valley) and fossil wood (forests of Eturunagaram in Warangal district).
 Sites are concentrated in Lower Godavari Valley, Ramagundam, Godavarikhani, Sirpur, Vemanapalli
in North Telangana.
Middle Palaeolithic Age: (BC 1,30,000 – BC 50,000 to 20,000 years)
 Flake-tools like scrapers, borers and awls were dominant.
 Evolution of modern humans occurred during middle and upper Palaeolithic Age.
 Tools of this period are found in Godavari, Krishna in Telangana.
Upper Palaeolithic Age: (BC 40,000 – BC 10,000 years)
 Blades tool culture, bone tool culture and rock art are the characteristics of this period.
 Humans evolved as Homo sapiens sapiens, which is the sub species to which we all belong.
 Tools included hand axes, cleavers, picks, discoids, chopping tools and a variety of scrapers.
 Sites are concentrated of Godavari Valley are Boath, Adilabad, Utnur, Asifabad and some sites in
Karimnagar and Warangal district represent this period.
2.4.2 Mesolithic Age or Middle Stone Age (BC 10,000 – BC 3,000)
 It is the transitionary stage to the Neolithic Period.
 This stage was intermediary from hunting, food gathering stage agriculture of Neolithic period.
 Tools are microliths made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, agate, quart and crystal.
2.4.3 Neolithic Age (BC 3,000 – BC 1,500)
 Stone axes finished by grinding and polishing are called as neoliths which are the main character of
this period.
 Subsistence was dominated by to agriculture, stock-breeding
 Gordon Childe termed this age as ‘Neolithic Revolution’. This is also known as agricultural
revolution.
 Important features of this period are:
(a) Domestication of animals and plats
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(b) Use of polished stone axes and stone blades
(c) Settled village life
(d) Pottery production (first by hand and later wheel-made)
(e) Use of copper/ bronze tools in the later stages
 Human Settlements started in Telangana, Rayalaseema and deltaic zones of Godavari and Krishna
rivers
 Knowledge and usage of metals in this stage is a big leap in this period which led to human
civilisation
2.4.4 Bronze age (BC 3,000 – BC 1,000)
 Smelting- first metal to be smelted is copper
2.4.5 Iron Age (BC 1,000 to present age)
 This period also corresponds to a period known as Proto Historic period because in this period script
and formation of smaller kingdoms called as Janapadas has begun. Iron Age in Deccan also
corresponds to Megalithic Age.
 Iron Age in Deccan including Telangana and Andhra Pradesh overlaps and merges with the Early
Historic Phase. Dhulikatta, Yeleswaram, Nagarjunakonda, Kadambapur, Peddabankur, Kotalingala
and Kesanapally are some of the Iron age sites in Telangana.
2.4.6 Megalithic period: (BC 1,500- BC 300)
The south India Megalithic period represents the iron using culture, wheel-turned pottery and
elaborate tombs. Because of the knowledge of use of Iron in Telangana has begun in this age, Iron Age
also correspond to this age. Megalith word corresponds to burial practice unlike the other names
associated with the type of stone tools. ‘Mega’ means big and ‘lith’ is stone. People in this period built
different types of burials with stones which are huge in size. Practice of burial is associated with the ‘Cult
of the dead’ which is based on the life after death. The dead were kept in coffin or stone pit and big stones
were arranged in a pattern. They also buried many items and pet animals along with the dead as found in
many Megalithic burials in Telangana. In local parlance they are called as Rakshasa gullu.Megalithic
burials are of 4 types.
1. Pit Burials or Cairns
2. Cist Burials
3. Dolmens
4. Rock-cut burials
There are hundreds of major megalithic sites in Telangana:
North Telangana- Budigapalli, Kadambapur, Peddabankur, Kaparalagudu, Alipur, Dornakal, Mangapet,
Kolakonda, Narmeta
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South Telangana -Pullur, Shivaru Venkatapur, Chagatur, Peddamarur, Chinnamarur, Virladinne,
Uppalapadu, Amrabad region, Nagarjunakonda
Hyderabad & Rangareddy- Hashmatpet, Maulali, Bowenpally, Lingampalli, Gurramguda
1. Upper Paleolithic Age sites were located in
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. In Telangana an Iron Age sites were
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2.5 ROCK ART
First creative expression of the prehistoric humans is rock art. They did it as part of their struggle
for life with the nature and surroundings. Rock art is the term used to define prehistoric art in the form of
paintings, bruisings and engravings on the rock surfaces of caves, rock shelters and rock
boulders.Paintings and pictographs are done by applying natural colours on the rock to depict symbols,
motifs and figures. If the rock is chiselled with a help of stone or metal to depict a motif, symbol or
figure, they are known as petroglyphs, peckings, bruising or engraving. Paintings, petroglyphs Rock art in
Telangana spans from prehistoric phase to early historic period. Archaeologists classified the period of
the rock art site based on depicted images. Motifs related to fauna relate to Mesolithic, humped bulls to
Neolithic-Chalcolithic and petroglyphs with the circle-with-trident symbol and geometric designs are
assumed to be of Megalithic period.
 Sanganonipalli (near Makhtal in Mahbubnagar district): Mesolithic period- paintings of huge deer
figures, tortoise, human figures and other animals, all in red colour
 Dupadugattu (near Kodangal, Mahbubnagar district): Mesolithic & Neolithic period, humped bulls,
deer and geometric motifs in red
 Mudumal (near Makhtal, Mahbubnagar district): Megalithic, animal figures, humped cattle,
engraving of mother goddess etc in red
 Dongalagattu (near Kalwakurthy, Mahbubnagar district): Mesolithic – animal and human figures
 Edthanur (Sangareddy district): Mesolithic & Neolithic period
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 Wargal (Medak district): Megalithic and historic period, bruisings of humped bulls, human with
weapons, geometric symbols
 Kokapet (Rangareddy, near Kokapet): Mesolithic and megalithic paintings of deer herd, geometric
symbols and human figures in red
 Pandavulagattu(Jayashankar Bhupalapally district): Mesolithic period to late medieval period
(Kakatiya) – humped cattle, fish, human figures with weapons, horse riders, epic stories in red, white,
yellow, blue, green and brown
 Ramachandrapuram (Khammam district): Megalithic and early historic, painted engravings of hand
figures, animals, female vulvas, geometric symbols and motifs, paintings of anthromorphs, geometric
symbols and floral motifs in red.

1. In Mahaboobnagar District Mesolithic period paintings were found in
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Megalithic and early historic paintings found in Khammam District in
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2.6 SUMMARY
The Department of Archaeology of Hyderabad State was established in 1914, by Mir Osman Ali
Khan, the seventh Nizam. Thus begun the explorations, excavations and studies in archaeology in
Hyderabad state. ‘Antiquarian Remains in Hyderabad state’ published by this department in 1953,
mentions about 118 sites as protected areas including prehistoric sites. Upper Palaeolithic Sites are
concentrated of Godavari Valley are Boath, Adilabad, Utnur, Asifabad and some sites in Karimnagar and
Warangal district. Iron Age in Deccan including Telangana and Andhra Pradesh overlaps and merges
with the Early Historic Phase. Dhulikatta, Yeleswaram, Nagarjunakonda, Kadambapur, Peddabankur,
Kotalingala and Kesanapally are some of the Iron age sites in Telangana.

1. Sites are concentrated of Godavari Valley are Boath, Adilabad, Utnur, Asifabad and some
sites in Karimnagar and Warangal district.
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2. Dhulikatta, Yeleswaram, Nagarjunakonda, Kadambapur, Peddabankur, Kotalingala and
Kesanapally are some of the Iron age sites in Telangana.
Kesanapally are some of the Iron age sites in Telangana.
1. Sanganonipalli near Makthal.
2. Ramachandrapuram in Khammam district.
I. Answer the following Questions in about 30 lines.
1. Explain the Pre history ages in Telangana
2. Discuss the megalithic age culture in Telangana.
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines.
1. analyse the Neolithic age sites in Telangana.
2. Describe the Rock art culture in Telangana.
1. Chandramouli, N : Rock Art of South India

2. Murthy M L K,(Ed.) : Pre- and Proto Historic Andhra Pradesh up to 500 BC
3. Krishna Sastry, VV : The Proto and Early Historic Cultures of Andhra Pradesh
4. Krishna Sastry, VV : The science of Antiquity, Essays in Archaeology and History
5. Thakur Raja Ram Singh : Some unique discoveries in Stone Age Archaeology in
Telangana region
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UNIT-3: SATAVAHANAS AGE SOCIETY ECONOMY AND CULTURE
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sources
3.2.1 Archaeological Sources
3.2.2 Literary Sources
3.3 Origin and Chronology
3.4 Political Achievements
3.4.1 The Early Satavahanas
3.4.2 The Later Satavahanas
3.5 Administrative Features
3.6 Social Conditions
3.7 Economic Conditions
3.8 Cultural Conditions
3.8.1 Literary Developments
3.8.2 Art and Architecture
3.8.3 Religious Developments
3.9 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
3.11 Summary
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3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
1. Know the Sources and Political achievements of the Satavahana rulers

2. Explain the administrative system of the Satavahanas
3. Discuss the Socio-Economic conditions of the Satavahana Period.
4. Analyse the Cultural contribution of the Satavahana rulers.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Satavahanas were the first empire builders in South India. The kingdom was established on the
ruins of the Mauryan empire. They ruled over Dakshinapatha for about 250 years. During their rule,
whole Deccan was united and provided a stable rule for a long period. The rise of this empire saw the
birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of
architecture. They formed a cultural bridge and also played a vital role in developing the trade between
the North and southern India. Historians consider Satavahana period as the beginning of art in Deccan
region.
Geographically, the Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised Malwa, Kutch, Surashtra, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh and southern plains of the Gangetic valley. During the peak of its rule, it even extended
up to Karnataka and Tamilnadu. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times,
including Pratishthana (Paithan) Amaravati (Dharanikota) and Kotilingala. Broadly, the chronology of the
Satavanahana rule is considered to be from 1st century BCE to third Century CE.
3.2 SOURCES
The history of Satavahanas is known to us through Archaeological and Literary sources.
3.2.1 Archaeological Sources
Archaeological sources consist of mainly inscriptions and coins. A large number of inscriptions
were found in Western Ghats at Nasik, Kanheri, Naneghat, etc. They are in Prakrit language and Brahmi
script. About twenty four stone inscriptions are issued directly by the Satavahana kings and their family
members which are scattered all over the Deccan. Among the royal inscriptions, Naneghat Inscription of
Naganika (wife of Satkarni-I),Nasik Prasasti of Gautami Balasri and the Karle cave inscription of
Vashishtiputra Pulumayi II are significant. These provide substantial information regarding the
contributions of this family. Apart from the Satavahana inscriptions, Ashokan 13th Rock edict also speaks
about Andhrabrityas (Satavahanas). The conflict between Satavahana and Kalinga rulers over Godavari
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basin is records in Hatigumpha inscription, issued by contemporary Kalinga ruler Kharavela. Another
important inscription was the Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman, the Saka ruler. It also refers to Saka-
Satavahana conflict.
Coins
The Satavahanas left behind a plethora of coins of various denominations and types. The coins
are largely made of metals like copper, lead, bronze, sliver and tin. It can be observe that, the large issue
of coins from time to time necessitated not only the vastness of empire and new conquests, but also great
expansion of trade both internal and foreign. There are hoards of coins discovered at places like Tarahala
and Jogalthembi in western Deccan and at Kotilingala village in Karimnagar district which bear the
names of Simuka and other Satavahana kings. A hoard of Roman coins were found at Nustulapur in
Karimnagar district which throws light on maritime trade activity between Satavahanas and Roman
empire.
Photo Captions (Left to Right)
Coins of Gautamiputrasatakarni and Yagnasri Satakarni

Coin of Nahapana, restruck by the Gautamiputra Satakarni
Ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi
Monuments
A walled town was traced out in the excavations conducted in Dhulikatta or Dhulikota(means
mud fort) which refers to Satavahana period. V.V.Krishna Sastry believed that this walled town might be
one of the 30 fortified town of Andhras mentioned by Megastanese. Scluptures on various Stupas and
cave architecture also throw light on the conditions of the Satavahana period.
3.2.2 Literary Sources
The age of Satavahanas marks the beginning of the historical period in Telangana. Literary
sources include the works of native and foreign writers.
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Aitareya Brahmana was the earliest reference to the Andhras, which refers them as tribals along
with some other tribes viz., Pulindas, Sabaras, Pundras and Mutibas. Mahabharata also talks about that,
Kauravas gained the support of Andhras. The Puranas like the Mastya and Vayu provide a long list of
thirty kings known as ‘Andhrabhrityas’. The early Jaina sutra literature and the Buddist works like
Jatakas, Pitakas, Mahavasthu etc.,are giving references to the Andhras.
The Malavikagnimitram of Kalidasa, Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva, Harsha Charitra of Bana

also give some account of the Satavahana kings. The Gathasaptasati of Satavahana king Hala,
Brihatkatha of Gunadhya, Lilavathi of Kutuhala and Kamasutra of Vatsyana are very useful to about the
socio-cultural history of this period. Acharya Nagarjuna, the great Mahayana philosopher and
contemporary to Yagnasri Satakarni, compiled the works like Prajnaparamitha, Suhrulleka,
Rasaratnakara etc. These works also furnish valuable information about the conditions of the last
Satavahan rulers.
Coming to the foreign accounts, Indica of Megasthanese refers to the Andhras as powerful
people with 30 walled towns and has given particulars of their military strength. The same is also
confirmed by Pliny in his work. Arrain, another Greek writer, referring with Indica, mentioned that
Andhras were divided into a number of tribal kingdoms. The Periplus of Erythrean Sea of an anonymous
Greek sailor describes the conflict between the Sakas and Satavahanas for the supremacy of maritime
trade in the west coast.
3.3 ORIGIN AND CHRONOLOGY
The place of origin and chronology of the Satavahanas is a matter of debate among the historians.
The information provided by various sources is not sufficient to reconstruct the dynasty's history with
absolute certainity. As a result, there are multiple theories about the Satavahana origin and chronology.
Historians like E.J.Rapson, Dr.Vincent Smith and Sir R.G.Bhandarkar opined that the Satavahanas and
Andhras both were the same, as the Puranic list of Andhras has close relationship with that of Satavahana
inscriptions. Historians like Vincent Smith opined that Krishna-Godavari region of the Deccan in general,
and the places either Srikakulam or Dhanyakataka refer to the early rise place of Satavahanas. After the
death of Ashoka, the Andhras asserted their independence and extended their empire towards western
Deccan.This view was accepted by most of the historians like E.J.Rapson, R.G.Bhandarkar, L.D.Barnett
and Maremanda Rama Rao. It is important to note that Satavahana-kota/ Satanikota of Kurnool District is
the only village in the present Andhra Pradesh State which resembles the nomenclature of the
Satavahanas.
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The above view was challenged by the historians like P.T.Srinivas Iyyangar and H.C.Ray
chaudhari. They argued that Maharastra was the original home of the Satavahanas and Prastistana or
modern Paithan in the Aurangabad District was the early capital. The earliest inscriptions issued by the
Satavahana rulers are found in Maharastra. Meanwhile in no inscription Satavahanas are called Andhras.
They concluded that, the later Satavahana rulers who lost their power in Maharastra moved eastwards and
conquered Andhradesa.
These views were challenged by V.S.Sukthankar who argued that Bellary district of Karnataka was
the original home of the Satavahanas. He based his argument upon the names mentioned in the
inscriptions of Pulomavi-III, the last ruler of Satavahana dynasty. But, this argument was opposed by the
historians, as some of the names like Satavahanakota or Satanikota also exist in Kurnool District of
Andhrapradesh.
Some of the historians like P.V. Parabrahma Sastry, D.Raja Reddy, V.V.Krishna Sastri and Thakur
Rajaram Singh opined that, the Satavahanas rule begins in the Deccan with its capital at Kotilingala of
present Karimnagar district in Telangana State. It was one of the thirty fortified towns of Satavahanas that
were mentioned by Megasthanes. The recent archaeological excavations at Dhulikatta, Peddabankur, and
Kotilingala have thrown ample light on history of the Satavahanas in the region. Further, Karimnagar
region is marked by a number of early historical sites almost in every alternate village. It is likely that
Karimnagar might have been the nucleus of political activity of Satavahana kingdom.
There are two widely divergent opinions of scholars about the chronology of Satavahanas. Some
taking the initial year of Satavahanas to be 3rd century B.C., and others point to the 1st century B.C. The
first view taken on the basis of Puranas, which yields a date in the 3rd century B.C. for their begining. The
second view is held because the Puranas mention the Andhras as successors of the Kanvas, which
indicate the rise of the Andhras in 28 B.C. Various explanations are given for each view by different
scholars, and confirmations are sought in epigraphic and numismatic sources.
3.4. POLITICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
The Satavahana dynasty has a glorious history of political achievements. The political history of
the Satavahanas is divided into two phases, viz.,one of the early Satavahanas and the other of the later
Satavahanas. The rulers till Gautamiputra Satakarni are called the early Satavahanas, and those who ruled
after Gautamiputra Satakarni till the last ruler are referred to as later Satavahanas. According to Purnas,
the total 30 kings of Satavahana dynasty ruled nearly 250 years approximately i.e.,from 221 BCE to 220
CE. But the most accepted or agreed periods is 250 years, running from 1st Century BCE to 225 CE.
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3.4.1 The Early Satavahanas
Simuka
The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. According to the Puranas he is said to have
killed Susarman , the last Kanva ruler and established the dynasty. He made Dhanakataka as his capital,
first but later shifted to Pratishthanapura (Paithan in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra), and Kotilingala
in Karimnagar district, due to their strategic location. However, the rulers of this family for a long time
eulogised themselves as „Dhanakataka swamins‟ (Lords of Dhanakataka). The Naneghat inscription
portrays the figure of Simuka and the recently discovered coins at Kotilingala bear the name „Chimuka‟
which has been ascribed to Simuka. He ruled for twenty three years.
Kanha
Simuka was succeeded by his younger brother Krishna (also known as Kanha in the inscriptions).
At the time of Srimukha‟s death, his son Satakarni-I was a minor and thereby Kanha acted as his
guardian to safeguard the kingdom. He ruled nearly for eighteen years. He was the first to issue
inscriptions in Satavahana dynasty. His Nasik cave inscription refers to the construction of a cave for
Buddhists.
Satakarni-I
Krishna was succeeded by Satakarni I, the son of Simuka. He married Naganika ,daughter of the
Maharathi Tranakayiro Kalalaya, who is powerful in Southern Maharastra. This marital alliance helped
Satakarni to expand his kingdom. He conquered western Malwa, Narmada valley and southern part of
Vidarbha. All his greatness was described after his death in the Naneghat inscription issued by his wife
Naganika. He performed two aswamedha sacrifices, one rajasuyaga and donated thousands of cows,
Karshapanas and land to brahamins. This shows his faith in Vedic religion. He has ruled for 18 years.
Satakarni-II
The next important ruler of the family was Satakarni II. He was the sixth ruler of the dynasty and
ruled for 56 years. He extended the boundaries of his kingdom from the Vindhyas upto the river Ganges
in the north. His coins were found in Telangana, Northern Maharastra, Malwa and Madhya
Pradesh.According to the Yugapurana,after driving the Sakas out of Kalinga, he then advanced to
Pataliputra and annexed it. After Satakarni, there were eight kings about whom not much is known.
However, though weak, these rulers managed to hold the realm of the Satavahana power.
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Pulomavi-I
The glory of the Satavahana regime was renewed from the time of Pulomavi-I. He continued the
legacy of the Satavahanas. Scholars believe that he killed Susarma of Kanva dynasty and occupied
Magadha. |For the first time in the history of India, a south Indian king invaded on Pataliputra, the iconic
capital of Ancient India. This incident laid the foundation for an independent imperial regime of the
Satavahanas. He was succeeded by weak rulers who were driven away from Maharashtra to Andhra by
the Saka-Pahlava king Nahapana.
Kuntala Satakarni
Kuntala Satakarni ruled for a short period. His rule was memorable as Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as
the official language of the empire. He was mentioned in the literary works of Kavya Mimamsa of
Rajasekhara and Kamasutra of Vatsayana. Gunadhya and Sarvavarma, who wrote Brihatkatha and
Katantra vyakarana, were also poets of his reign.
Hala
Hala was the 17th ruler of the dynasty. He was a great poet. He composed Gathasapthasati in
Prakrit. His love with Lilavati, a princess from SriLanka was described in Prakrit work Lilavati by
Kutuhala. He patronised the poets and became known as Kavivatsala.
3.4.2 Later Satavahanas
Gautamiputra Satakarni (106-130 C.E)
Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest king not only of all the Satavahanas, but also of the
entire early South Indian kings. He was the 23rd ruler of the dynasty. He ruled for a period of twenty four
years. His greatness and achievements were recorded in the Nasik Prasasti. It was issued by his mother
Gautami Balasri during the 19th regnal year of his son and successor, Pulomavi II. When Gautamiputra
satakarni came to power, Satavahana kingdom was limited only to the places east of Pratisttapura in
Andhradesa. He conquered the neighbouring kingdoms viz., Assaka(Telangana), Asika,
Mulaka(Aurangabad district of Maharastra) and Vidarbha(Berar of Maharastra).
The next unique victory was on the Saka ruler Nahapana of Kshaharata family. It was known
from a large number of copper and silver coins of Nahapana found at Jogalthambi which were restruck
by Gautamiputra Satakarni. Later, he conquered Anupa, Aparantha, Saurashtra, Kukura and Avanthi,
which were all part of Satavahana kingdom once upon a time. Due to all these historic victories, the
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empire of Gautamiputra Satakarni extended from Rajasthan in North India to Vyjayanthi in Karnataka
and Kadalur in Tamilnadu.The Nasik inscription describes his as Tri Samudra thoya peetha vahana(one
whose horses drank the water of the three oceans)which suggests the fact that his armies had touched the
Bay of Bengal, the Arabian sea and Indian ocean. It is also known from the Nasik inscription, that he was
described as Kshatriya darpamana Mardana, Kshaharata vamsa niravasesaka(Nirmulaka)(destroyer of
the Khsaharatha family), Agama Nilaya and Ekabrahamana, shows that he upheld the Vedic dharama.
He was described as having performed asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices.
The next illustrious king of the family was Gautamiputra Satakarni. He was the twenty third ruler
who ascended the throne in 62 CE. The Nasik and Karle grants mention that he regained the lost
territories of Maharashtra region from the successors of Nahapana. The Nasik inscription issued by his
mother Gautamibalasri, gives a long eulogy about the achievements of Gautamiputra Satakarni. This
inscription speaks Gautamiputra as „king of kings‟ and ruler of Assika, Asmaka, Mulaka, Surashtra,
Kukura, Aparanta, Anupa, Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti. It also styled her son Gautamiputra Satakarni as
“Kshaharata vamsa niravasesaka” (Nirmulaka) (Destroyer of the Kshaharata family). He was also
referred to as the protector of varnasramadhrama and considered as an abode of learning. He was
compared with the epic and puranic heroes like Rama, Arjuna, Bhima, Nahusa, Yayati, etc. Among the
Satavahana kings he was considered as an invincible conqueror and a righteous administrator who
provided to his subjects peace, prosperity and happiness. For all his acts he was given the epithets
Satavahanakula-Yasa-Puthapanakara, Ekabrahmana, Agama Nilaya, Kshatriya Darpamana and
Trisamudratoyapithavahana, etc. He was described as having performed Asvamedha and Rajasuya
sacrifices.
Pulomavi-II(130-154 C.E)
Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son, Pulomavi II. He was also known as
Vasisthiputra Pulomavi. He ruled for twenty four years. Nasik, Karle, Amaravati and Dharanikota
inscriptions refer to his reign. He assumed the title dakshinapathapati or „the Lord of the Deccan‟, which
shows that he ruled a vast kingdom. During his time, the Satavahana kingdom had to confront with the
ride of the Saka chieftain Chastana who occupied Malwa and founded an independent kingdom at Ujjain.
Consequently, he was forced to shift the capital from Prathisthana to Dhanyakataka (Amaravati). During
his time the rule of the Satavahanas started declining. Vasisthiputra Pulomavi-II was succeeded by Sivasri
Satakarni who ruled for a very short period. As per the Junagarh inscription, Rudradaman, the Saka ruler
of Saurashtra defeated Sivasri Satakarni twice.
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Yagnasri Satakarni (165-194 C.E)
Yagnasri Satakarni was the 26th ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. He was considered to be the last
great known king of the Satavahanas. He took advantage of a civil war in the Saka kingdom between
Jivadama and Rudradama and invaded Ujjain. He controlled the greater part of western and central
Deccan. It is known by the discovery of some of his coins with his image and name. He also issued silver
coins with a ship having two masts, found on the Coromandel coast which indicate his love for navigation
and flourishing international trade during his times. He was a staunch supporter of Buddhism. He
patronised the famous Mahayana Buddhist scholar Acharya Nagarjuna. According to Tibetan and Chinese
historians, he had constructed a mahachaitya at Sriparvata (Nagarjunakonda) in honour of his guru,
Nagarjuna. The glorious reign of this ruler came to an end in 194 CE. After him three rulers Vijaya
satakarni, Chandasri and Pulomavi IV ruled for nearly seventeen years without any significant event.
Gradually, the Satavahana family passed away into oblivion. In their place had emerged the Chutus in the
western Deccan, the Abhiras in the Nasik area and the Ikshvakus in the Telangana-Andhra regions.
Thereby, the Satavahana rule came to an end in the early times of the 3rd Century A.D.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS -I

Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
1. Who was the founder of Satavahana dynasty ?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Who composed Gathasapthasati?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3.5 ADMINISTRATIVE FEATURES

The Satavahana coins, inscriptions and literature are the rich sources of our knowledge about
their administrative system.
The administration of the Satavahanas was simple and was carried on the lines of the Mauryan
administration. But, they added some features according to the local needs. The kings enjoyed supreme
authority in administration. Succession to the throne was hereditary. The king took simple titles like raja
or maharaja. The king was assisted by a number of ministers of different levels. Among the ministers,
Visvasa amatya held top position, as he was consulted by the king on all important matters. The
Rajamatyas were constituted next to the Visvasa amatya in the advisory body of the king.
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The Mahamatras (incharges of Departments), Bhandagarika (superintendent of stores),
Heranika(Treasurer), Mahasenapati (commander of forces), Mahataraka(Chamberlain) and
Nibandhakara (incharge of drafting State records) were some of the officials of higher levels to assist the
king in the smooth functioning of the government. Other officials are Prathiharas and Dutas
(Messengers), Ganapaka(Accountant), Lekhaka (officer incharge of registering documents) and
Pattikapalaka(Director of Archives). There was also a special official called „Uparakshita‟ who was
charged with the duty of building caves etc. for the monks. Sons of the king were trained with necessary
skills in the art of warfare and peace. An important practice of the Satavahana kings was to undertake
royal tours to keep in touch with the public opinion and to improve the efficiency in administration.
The Satavahana empire was divided into a number of provinces called aharas, for the sake of
administrative convenience. Govardhana(Nasik), Sopara, Mamala(Pune) etc., were some of the well
known Aharas. These were governed by the princes of royal blood or officers called amatyas and other
subordinate chieftains like the maharathis and mahabhojas. They are empowered to issue inscriptions,
coins and land grants. Satakarni II married Naganika, who was a daughter of Tranakayiro of the
maharathi family. According to the Nasik inscription, amatyas were subject to frequent transfers. The
village was the smallest and basic administrative unit. It was under the control of gramani or gramika. It
appears that there was considerable autonomy in managing the affairs of the villages and towns.
Apart from the central and provincial administration, epigraphical evidence reveals the existence
of several towns like, Sopara. Broach, Kanheri, Paithan, Kotilingala in the Satavahana kingdom. These
cities were administered by nigama sabha - an assembly of citizens. This kind of nigama sabha was
mentioned in Bhattiprolu inscription. This was the forum through which the citizens of the town acted and
voiced their grievance and feelings.
Land revenue was the chief source of income to the State. The State levied two types of taxes
known as rajabhoga and deyameya. The State collected 1/6th of the land‟s produce as revenue. Beside
land revenue, taxes levied on roads, ports, professions, mines and markets also formed as source of
income to the State. The military administration of the Satavahanas was also quite efficient. Their army
consisted of foot soldiers, cavalry and elephants. The Satavahanas continued the judicial system of
Mauryan rulers. King was the highest authority. But he always honoured the laws recommended by
judicial experts. Civil and criminal cases were dealt separately.
Although the Satavahanas followed patrirchy, some of the later Satavahana king‟s names bore the
traces of matriarchal lineage. But these metronymic titles had nothing to do with any practice of tracing
descent through the matriarchal line. The Satavahanas king, like the Mauryan emperors under took tours.
These tours enabled the kings to know the problems of the people.
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3.6 SOCIAL CONDITIONS
Glimpse of the social life of the Satavahana period could be analysed from some literary works
like Gathasaptasati of Hala, Brithathkatha of Gunadhya, and Lilavati of Kutuhala. The sculptures of
Amaravati, Bhattiprolu and Nagarjunakonda also gives us some information. During this period,
traditional four-fold caste system, consisting of brahmins, kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras was prevalent.
Brahmins occupied a high and honoured position, mostly they were engaged in performing of religious
rituals and administrative positions. Kshatriyas were prominently occupied in the governance of the State;
the vaisyas looking after mercantile and maritime activity and the sudras taking up agricultural operations
and crafts. Inscriptions of the Satavahana period have mentioned some crafts such as Halika
(agriculturist),Gadhika(those who prepared perfumes),Kolikas(weavers), Tilapisaka (engaged in the
extraction of gingerly oil), Kamara(blacksmith), Kularika(potters), Udayantrika (skilled persons in
irrigation), Dhannuka (grain merchants) and Vasakara(bamboo workers).
The unit of the society was the family. The traditional joint family system was in vogue during
this period. The eldest male member of the family was called gruhapati. In the family, the male members
were given importance over the female members. But, in some instances like donating land grants,
women also acted independently. The society under Satavahanas was patriarchal system.
Women were also occupied an important position in the society. This is clear from the fact that
Satavahana rulers used metronymics, ie., the names of their mothers preceding their names like
Gautamiputra, Vasisthiputra etc. Women also participated in the administration. The widow of
Gautamiputra Satakarni looked after the administration of the State as the guardian of her sons. Naganika,
the wife of Satakarni II, played a significant role in the cultural activities of the State. Whenever any gifts
were made, they were made jointly by the male and female members. Inscriptions from Amaravathi,
Nasik and other places bear testimony to this. Inter-caste marriages were prevalent. In addition to this,
marriages with foreigners were also permitted and they were accepted within the Hindu society.
Satavahana rulers themselves had entered into matrimonial alliances with the Sakas. Even widows were
respected in the society. The attitude of the people in general, was liberal and progressive. Thus, the
Satavahana society was free from many narrow attitudes which were found in the social set up of the
North.
Regarding the dress and ornaments worn by the people of the Satavahana age, the figures carved
on the Amaravati rails and the Karle Chaitya cave depict scanty dress and profuse ornaments. Women
wore a twisted cloth below the waist in two or three tiers with a knot at the right and the ends hanging
from it. Men had a loin cloth, part of which was sometimes thrown over their shoulders. They also put on
a head dress of twisted cloth. Ear-rings, bangles, bracelets and necklaces were worn both by men and
11
women. Almost all women adorned their legs with anklets. Wheat, rice and millets formed the staple food
of the people. The life of the village people was simple. Music and dance have developed. Musical
instruments like veena, mridangam, venu, pataha and sankha were used. Dice-playing, bullock
competitions and cock fights remained as pastime activities of the people of those days.
3.7 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
The prosperity of the Satavahana kingdom depended upon agriculture, industry and trade. Land
revenue was the chief source of income to the State. The State levied two types of taxes known as
rajabhoga and deyameya. The State collected 1/6th of the land‟s produce as revenue. The State
encouraged land grants to Brahmins and other needy people. The king had his own private landed
property called rajakheta. The Nasik inscription refers to odayantrakas which might refer to a guild of
wage-workers or water machines. These were used to draw water from wells and tanks. Some times,
buffaloes and donkeys were also used for drawing ploughs. Beside land revenue, taxes levied on roads,
ports, professions, mines and markets also formed as source of income to the State.
Industries and commerce occupied a place of importance in the State‟s economy. Gathasaptasati
describes the list of village professional groups. These groups formed into a sreni(guild) namely
Kularikas or potters, Odayantrikas or makers of hydraulic engines, Tilapisakas or oil pressers, Dhannikas
or corn dealers, Kolikas or weavers, and Vasakaras or bamboo workers. The head of each guild or Sreni
was known as sresti. The guilds promoted the trade or crafts in many ways. They provided banking
facilities to the people. They received cash deposits as well as endowments of land. The interest or
income was utilised as per the wishes of the donors or depositors.
Agriculture and industry stimulated the growth of internal and external trade. Paithan, Tagara,
Junnar, Nasik, Amaravati, Vijayapura, Kudura, Dhanyakataka, Dhulikatta, Peddabankur, Kondapur, and
Kotilingala were important inland commercial centres. Satavahanas maintained trade contacts with the
roman empire. Muslin, spices and medical herbs were the chief exports. In return, wine, copper,tin, lead,
coral, topaz, gold and silver were imported. Balance of trade was in favour of India. Barukachcha was the
most important port on the west, followed by Sopara and Kalyan. On the eastern side, Ghantasala, Guduru
and Arikamedu were the important ports.
The Caravan and river boats were the chief means of transport for external trade. Barter of goods
was the order of the day. However, coins of lead, potin, copper and silver were struck by the Satavahana
kings. A silver coin known as karshapana was commonly used in that age. The gold coin of the age was
known as suvarna. Gold was freely mined in the Satavahana kingdom. Satavahanas also maintained good
commercial relation with Southeast Asia. As a result of the contacts, Buddhism flourished in that region.
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3.8 CULTURAL CONDITIONS
Satavahanas contributed a great deal in the field of art, literature, and religion.
3.8.1 Literary Development
In the Deccan region, Aryanisation brought a change in the field of learning and education.
During Satavahana period Prakrit and Sanskrit languages were prevalent. In the early period, almost all
the documents and inscriptions of the Satavahanas were recorded in Prakrit.
The Satavahana period witnessed some of the outstanding literary works. Gunadhya wrote
Brihatkatha in local Paisachi Prakrit. He was the first poet from Telangana who hailed from Medak
District. It was the earliest collection which deals with the adventures of a hero, Naravahanadatta. The
original work is lost. Its stories were later retold in works like Kathasaritsagara. The Satavahana king
compiled the work Gathasaptasati in Prakrit language. It consists of 700 erotic verses. Rural life and
local traditions are described in this work. Some pure Telugu words are also traced in this book. The
marriage of Hala formed the theme of another Prakrit work, called Lilavati-Parinaya by Kutahala. Hala‟s
minister Sarvavarman wrote a Sanskrit grammar work by name Katantra.
It should be noted that Sanskrit was also developed in the later phase of Satavahana period.
Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman is written in Sanskrit. The famous Mahayana Buddhist
philosopher, Acharya Nagarjuna wrote Pragnaparamita Sastra, Madhyamika Sutra and Ratnavali, etc. in
Sanskrit language. He was a contemporary of Satavahana ruler Yagnasri Satakarni.
3.8.2 Art and Architecture
The Satavahanas started a new chapter in the history of Deccan architecture. The monuments
raised under the patronage of the Satavahanas are distributed throughout the length and breath of Western
Deccan and Telangana. They can be divided into two categories - (i) Rock-cut architecture of Western
Deccan and brick-built structures of Eastern Deccan. The rock cut architecture of the Satavahana period
consists primarily of Buddhist monuments. They are the stupas, viharas and chaityas. The Karle Chaitya
is regarded as the most famous of this style.
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Karle Chaitya Amaravati Stupa
Coming to the brick –built stupa structures, they are found at Amaravati(Andhra Pradesh),
Phanigiri (Nalgonda), Nelakondapalli (Khammam), Kotilingala (Karimnagar), Dhulikatta, Peddabankur,
Kadambapur, Kondapur (Medak), Nagarjunakonda etc. The stupas of Telangana are of the same style as
the stupa at Sanchi. The Buddhist stupa constructed at Amaravati was the largest in South India. Marble
was used in the construction of this stupa. Symbolic representations of the Buddha as well as human
figures appear in the sculptures of these stupas. It is important to note that one of the schools of Indian art
is named after Amaravati. They are the specimens to study the art and life of the Satavahana period.
The Satavahanas also patronised the art of painting. The best example of Satavahana paintings are
found at Ajanta caves which number nine and ten are classical examples of their contribution. The
mastery over perfect human anatomy, judicious balance in composition, creating an illusion in depth, and
modeling are some of the characteristics of Ajanta paintings. It can be concluded that, Satavahanas
worked for the cause of promoting fine arts.
3.8.3 Religious Developments
The Satavahanas are known for their policy of religious tolerance. The Satavahana period
witnessed the progress of Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism. They respected Jain, Buddhist and Hindu
scholars and philosophers. Early Satavahana rulers were the followers of the Vedic religion and worked
for the cause of its development. The inscriptions of Satavahana kings also mentioned the performance of
various Vedic sacrifices and pleasing brahmans by rich gifts, including villages, cattle, gold vessels, and
thousands of karshapanas (Naneghat inscription). The Nasik epigraph refers to different Hindu Gods and
Goddess. In Gathasaptasati‟s begning and end, recited the glory of Pasupati and Gowri. Gautamiputra
Satakarni adorned the titles such as aagama nilaya and ekbrahmana. All these show the patronage of
brahmanical religion by the Satavahana rulers.
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Jainism could not make headway in Telangana during this time. But recent discoveries are
providing information that Seethalanadha, the tenth Jain Tirthankara hails from Bhadrachalam in
Khammam district of Telangana State. His grandson propagated Jainism in Andhradesa. Buddhism was
able to receive strong foothold in Telangana, not because of the Satavahana kings, but mainly because of
the support it received from gahapatis, kamaras and vanijas and their women folk. The Bavari story in
Suttanipada and Kathavastusagaram refers to the spread of Buddhism in Andhradesa. Nagarjunakonda,
Phanigiri (Nalgonda district), Kotilingala, Dhulikatta, Peddabankur (Karimnagar district), Kondapur
(Medak) of Telangana were the popular Buddhist centres of Telangana during this period. The
Prajnaparamita literature, which formed the basis of Mahayanism, was produced in the viharas of the
Krishna valley by Acharya Nagarjuna.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS -II
Note : (a) Space is given below for writing your answer.

1. What is Nigama Sabha?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the important Literary work of Satavahana Period?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3.9 SUMMARY
Satavahana‟s were the first solid and strong dynasty of South India. The Satavaha empire at its
peak included not only Telangana and Andhrapradesh, but also parts of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. The Satavahanas are refer to as Andhras in the Puranas, who
were stated to be 30 in number. They were the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with the
portraits of the rulers. Goutamiputra Satakarni was the most prominent ruler of Satavahana dynasty. He is
called as rajrano, i.e., “king of kings.” As the successors of Yagnasri Satakarni were very weak, the
feudatories declared independence and established their rule. Satavahana administration was carried on
the lines of Mauryan administration. The period of the Satavahanas witnessed free will of women and
development of agriculture. Free trade was able to establish the quality of Indian products in the global
markets. The Satavahanas are known for their policy of religious tolerance. Buddhism, Brahmanism and
Jainism flourished during their tenure. Satavahanas contributed a great deal in the field of art, literature
and culture.
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Check Your Progress Answers -I

1. Simuka was the founder of Satavahana dynasty.
2. Hala, the 17th ruler of the Satavahana dynasty composed Gathasapthasati in Prakrit
Check Your Progress Answers -II

1. During the period of Satavahanas, cities were administered by nigama sabha - an assembly of
citizens. This kind of nigama sabha was mentioned in Bhattiprolu inscription.
2. Gathasapthasati, Lilavathi, Katantra vyakarana, Kamasutra,Sruhullekha etc.
I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.

1. Explain the Satavahana Administrative system ?
2. Discuss the Economic and Social conditions of the Satavahana period.
3. Write about the cultural contribution of the Satavahanas.
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Write a note on Satakarni-I rule

2. Discuss the greatness of Goutamiputra Satakarni
3. Explain the contribution of Acharya Nagarjuna to culture.
4. Analyse the Literary Development in Satavahana period
1. Satyanarayana : A study of the History and Culture of the Andhras
2. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L : The Age of Satavahanas

3. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L.(e.d.) : Indian History and Culture &
Basaveswar Rao,K
4. Sharma, R.S. : Ancient India
5. Raghunatha Rao, B.S.L : History and Culture of Andhra Pradesh
6. Nilakanta Sastry, K.A. : History of South India
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UNIT – 6: KAKATIYA POLITY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Contents
6.0: Objectives
6.1: Introduction
6.2: Sources
6.3: Rise of Kakatiyas
6.4: Political achievements of Sovereign Kakatiyas
6.5: Administrative System
6.5.1: Central Government
6.5.2: Provincial Administration
6.5.3: Village Administration
6.5.4: Military System – Nayamkara System
6.5.5: Judicial System
6.6: Society, Economy and Culture
6.7: Summary
6.8: Model Answers to Check Your Progress
6.9: Model Examination Questions
6.10: Books for Further Reading
6.0: OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
 Know the emergence of Kakatiyas as a political force in Medieval Telangana.
1
 Explain the Unification of Telugu Speaking people.
 Discuss the expansion of Kakatiya political hegemony over Coastal Andhradesa and achievements of
Kakatiya rulers.
 Describe impact of Muslim invasions and decline of Kakatiyas.
 Analyse the political system, society, economy and culture of Kakatiya period.
6.1: INTRODUCTION
During the period between 10th century to 1323 CE, Andhradesa was ruled by Kakatiyas. They
were the contemporaries of medieval rulers like Yadavas of Devagiri, Hoyasalas of Dwarasamudra,
Pandyas of Madurai and Delhi Sultans. The credit of uniting Telugu speaking people, establishing the
first vast empire for the first time goes to Kakatiya rulers. Their long rule of nearly three centuries as
semi-independent and Sovereign rulers provided an identity to Telugu people and their abilities. They
won the total support of all the sections. Eminent historians and scholars like Nilakanta Sastri, M.Rama
Rao, M.Somasekhara Sarma, B.N.Sastry, P.V.Parabrahma Sastry and American scholar Cynthia Talbot.
Wrote excellent works on the political, socio, economic and cultural history of Kakatiyas.
In recent years different public welfare programmes introduced by Kakatiyas became an

inspiration to the present policy makers. The irrigation works or ‘Golusucheruvalu’ of Kakatiya rulers
inspired the present Telangana State Government to launch the prestigious ‘Mission Kakatiya’ to
improve irrigational facilities to agriculture.
6.2: SOURCES
The following Archaeological and Literary sources of Kakatiya rulers are providing useful
information about the different aspects of Kakatiyas. Among the Archaeological sources epigraphs,
coins, monuments are very important.
A) Epigraphical Sources: The epigraphs or inscriptions issue by Kakatiyas, their minister, Generals
and contemporary rulers are providing very useful information about various aspects of Kakatiya history.
Some of them are quoted here.
1) Mugallu grant, dated 956 CE, of Eastern Chalukyan prince Danarnava, it referred for the first
time about the name of a Kakatiya chief named Gundyana.
2
2) Hanamkonda Thousand Pillar Temple inscription dated 1163 CE, of Rudradeva, clearly
mentioned the declaration of Sovereign power by him.
3) Bayyaram Tank Inscription of Mailambika sisters of Ganapatideva, dated 1219 CE, throws some
light on the genealogy of Kakatiyas. According to the information stated in this epigraph the
Bayyaram Tank was constructed by her.
4) Motupalli Abahya Sasanam, dated 1244 CE, issued by king Ganapatideva, describes the external
trade carried out from Motupalli port. It also mentioned the elaborate arrangements by King to
protect the external traders by providing them with concessions.
5) Malkapuram, epigraph, dated 1261 CE, by an official of Rudramadevi’s reign reffered about the
educational institutions (Vidyamandapams) of Kakatiya Age.
6) Chandupatla, dated 1289 CE, issued by Puvvula-mummadi, who was working under
Rudramadevi’s General Mallikarjuna, gives very useful information regarding Rudrama’s death
in her attempt to crush the Revolt of Kayasta Ambadeva.
B) Literary Sources: During the period of Kakatiyas many Sanskrit, Telugu works were written by
poets and scholars. Among them ‘Panditaradya Charitram and Basavapuranam of Palkuriki Somamatha,
Shivayogasaram of Kolani Ganapatideva, Pratapacharitram of Ekamranatha, Kreedhabhiramam of vinu
Konda Vallabharaya. Prataparudra Yashobhusahanam of Vidyanatha, Nrutyaratnavali of Jayapa Senani
and Siddheshwara Charitam of Kase Siddappa’ are providing very useful information about the political,
socio, economic, religious life of the period.
Besides the above mentioned Sanskrit and Telugu works, the works written by contemporary
Muslim scholars such as ‘Tarik-e-Ferishta of Muhammad-Qasim-Ferishta, Futuh-us-Salatin of Islami and
Tarikh-e-Feroz Shahi of Zia-uddin-Barani are providing some facts about the Muslim in Warangal and its
conquest. The Travels of Marco-Polo is providing information about the flourishing State of external
trade during the reign of Rudramadevi.
6.3: RISE OF KAKATIYAS
There are still many doubts among the scholars regarding the origin, native home, their caste
and how the name ‘Kakatiya’ is derived. According to the view of many historians Kakatiyas started their
service in the army of Rastrakutas. Kakatiya ‘Gundyana’ was the first member of the dynasty. Magallu
grant of Eastern-Chalukyan Prince Daanarnava deted 956 CE, reffered about him. After serving under
Rastrakutas early chiefs of Kakatiya family entered into the service of Eastern Chalukyan Rulers. During
this period they became the provincial officials. They worked at Koravi and Khammam.
3
According to a group of scholars Kakatiyas were the native people of a Village named
‘Kakatipuram’. But so far no clinching evidence is found to established where exactly this Village is
located. Another group of historians opined that the name ‘Kakatiya’, derived from their family deity
‘Kakatamma’. On the basis of information collected from various sources eminent historian
P.V.Parabrahma Sastry viewed that they acquired the name Kakatiya, due to the worship of Goddess
Kakati, one of the incarnation of ‘Durga’.
Scholars divided the Kakatiyas into two categories i.e., Subordinate chiefs and Sovereign Rulers.
A brief account of Subordinates is described in the futher pages.
Subordinate or Feudatory Chiefs (956 CE- 1162 CE): Kakatiya Gundyana was the first historical person
among the Feudatory chiefs. He was mentioned in the Magallu grant of Daanarnava. The Baggaram
epigraph of mailamba mentioned him as ‘Pina Gundyana’. He was the Contemporary of Rastrakuta king
Krishna III. He interfeared in the internal conflict between Eastern Chalukyan ruler Daanarnava and
Rastrakutas. Gundyana has played a significant role in the Success of Daanarnava against his rival
Ammaraju (Step brother). Prince Daanarnava honoured Gundyana for his help. The Magallu grant
describes the above developments. After the decline of Rastrakutas power in 973 CE, Gundyana refused
to recognize the lordship of Chalukyas. Finally Gundyana declared his authority in the Koravi region. He
also assisted Mudiganda Chalukyas to establish their control over Mudigonda. Viriyala Yerranna, the
dynamic General of Gundyana helped Mudigonda Chalukyas. But in the fight Gundya lost his life. Viriyala
Kamasani wife of Yerranna (maternal aunt) of saved the young Beta-I. He was made the incharge of
Anumakonda Visaya.
Beta-I (1000-1052 CE): He was son of Gundyana. He was a capable General. He was dhief of
Anumakonda Vishaya. He invaded on Kanchipuram as per the orders of Chalukyan King Someshwara I in
the year 1051 CE. The details are not clear.
Prola-I (1052-1076 CE): He was the son of Beta I. He served under Someshwara I, the Chalukyan King. He
proved his abilities and won his confidence. From his reign only Anumakonda became the capital to
early Kakatiyas. He built a big tank named Kesmudram at Kesamudram Village, Warangal.
Beta-II (1076-1108 CE): Beta-II was the son of Prola-I. He served under Vikramaditya-VI, the Eastern
Chalukyan Prince. He supported Vikramaditya-VI against his brother Bhuvanaikamalla Someshwara in
the war of succession. After the victory, Vikramaditya bestowed ‘Sabbinadu’ Madalam (Karimnagar)
with thousand Villages. He also assumed the titles like Tribhuvamalla and Mahamandaleshwara.
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Rameshwara Dikshita was his spiritual guru. He was succeeded by his son Durgaraya. He ruled up to
1116 CE.
Prola-II (1116-1157 CE): Durgaraju was succeeded by his brother Prola-II. His military achievements are
mentioned in the Anumakonda Thousand Pillar Temple epigraph of his son Rudradeva. Prola-II
supported Someshwara-III to seize the Kalyani Chalukyan throne. Tailava and his feudatories Medaraja
of Polavasa and Gundaraju of Manthena were defeated by Prola-II. But, unfortunately, Prola-II lost his
life in the hands of Velanatichola King’s general Inagala Brahmi Reddi. So under these conditions Prola’s
son Rudradeva came in to power in 1158 CE. He declared his sovereign power in the year 1163 CE.
6.4: POLITICAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF SOVEREIGN KAKATIYA-RULERS – (1163-1323 CE)

Rudradeva (1163-1195 CE) was the First Sovereign ruler among the Kakatiyas. His military
conquests were well described in the Anumakonda Thousand Pillar inscription issued by him in the year
1163 CE, to mark his sovereign power. He was a great warrior and assumed a title Raya Gajakesari’ and
issued coins in his name. According to the information collected from Anumakonda Thousand Pillar
record, he defeated the chiefs of Nagara (Karimnagar) Dommaraju, Medaraja-II of polavasa
(Karimnagar), Malligadeva and Choda Udaya. His army also inflicted a defeat on Telugu Chola King
Kanduri Chola Bhima. Vellanki Gangadhara the dynamic General of Rudradeva has played a key role in
the military conquests and consolidation of administration. During his reign Rudradeva also faced the
challenge of Yadavas of Devagiri. Inorder to accommodate the growing population of his State he laid
the foundation for the construction of a new capital city at Orugallu or Warangal. He was killed in the
war with Yadava King Jaitugi’ in the year 1195 CE. Mahadeva, the younger brother of Rudradeva became
the new king of Kakatiya State. He ruled up to 1199 CE. He lost his life fighting with Yadava army. His
young son Ganapatideva was set free by Yadava king Jaitrapala to divert the attention of other rulers
towards Devagiri. Racherla Rudra the most trusted and capable officer of Ganapatideva, installed young
prince (Ganapatideva) on the throne and managed the affairs of the State.
Ganapatideva (1199-1262 CE): Ganapatideva was one of the greatest rulers of Medieval South India. His
long rule nearly more than six decades has expanded the territorial authority of Kakatiyas over Coastal
Andhra. He also came into conflict with Yadava rulers. Among his Contemporaries Jaitrapala, Singana
and Mahadeva of Yadava dynasty, Virabullala-I, and Narasimhadeva-II of Hoyasala dynasty,
Prithvishwara of ‘Velanadu’ were note worthy. The Kakatiya army led by King himself scored grand
Victories. Prithvishwara the ruler of Velanadu and his supporters were crushed by Ganapatideva. His
forces next conquered ‘Divisima’ after defeating its ruler Pinna Choda of Ayya-family. Malayala Chauda
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(chauda) the capable commander of Ganapatideva has played a significant role in this victory. But
Ganapatideva permitted Divi ruler to rule his principality as a subordinate to him. He also realized the
strength of Divi ruler. He entered into matrimonial alliance with Divi ruler. GanapatiDeva married Pina
Choda’s two daughters Naarmba and Peramba. These victories established the sway of Kakatiyas over
entire Godavari. Telugu people of Telangana and Andhra region were united under Kakatiya rule. He
ruled his people with great care.
Ganapatideva, helped Nellore Telugu Choda King Manumasiddhi, son of Tikkabhupala against
his enemies. In the 1208 CE, the Kakatiya forces defeated all the opponents of Manumasiddhi and
installed him on the Nellore throne. After this victory, Kakatiya forces marched on to Kanchi and
defeated the local ruler.
Tikkabhupala, king of Nellore Telugu Choda kingdom and friend of Ganapatideva died. His son
Manumasiddhi lost his seat to his rivals. Under these conditions Manumasiddhi deputed his court poet
Tikkanna to the court of Ganapatideva with a request to help him. The Kakatiya forces led by Induluri
Somaya achieved success over the opponents of Manumasiddhi. Kayasta Gangaya Sahani, the General of
Ganapatideva also defeated Vijayaganda Gopala and others. Later Gangaya Sahani was appointed as
‘Bahattara Niyogadhipati by Ganapatideval. Ganapatideva in his last years came into conflict with
Pandyan army, The main reason for this conflict was, Pandyan forces attacked Nellore Telugu Chola
kingdom. Ganapatideva led his army to protect Manumasiddhi-II. But in the battle of Muttukur (Nellore)
fought in 1263 CE, Kakatiya forces suffered a humiliating defeat in the hands of Jatavarman Sundara
Pandyan. Manumasiddi-II lost his life Nellore was annexed in to Pandyan kingdom. After this defeat
Ganapatideva retired from active politival life. He nominated his daughter Rudramadevi as his successor
to the throne. Ganaptideva’s rule of nearly six decades made Kakatiyas popular in entire South India. He
was a great administrator, statesman and great personality. He strengthend the matrimonial relations
with all powerful families. He gave his daughter Rudramadevi to Chalukya Veerabhadra the prince of
Nidodhavolu. He reorganized his army, completed the construction of Warangal fort. He transferred the
capital from Hanmakonda to Warangal.
Rudramadevi (1263-1289 CE): As it is stated aove, that Ganapatideva selected and nominated his
daughter Rudramadevi as his successor, She took the reins of the State in the year 1263 CE. She was well
trained in Warfare and state affairs by her father. Her twenty six years rule has witnessed allround
progress in the kingdom. She ruled her people with great spirit. She crushed the revolt of her cousins
Harihara and Murari.
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Rudramadevi enjoyed the services of many loyal and experienced officials. Kayasta Jannigadeva,
Tripurari and Gonaganna Reddy. Recherla Prasaditya, Malyala Gundiya, Inuluri Annayya also served
under her. Ganga and Yadava rulers invaded on Rudrama’s kingdom’ But she defeated them. Her
authority was established over Godavari region, Mahadeva Yadava king suffered a humiliating defeat in
the hands of Rudrama’s forces. Recherla Prasaditya her General led the army against Yadavas.
Velugotivaari Vamsavali, described Prasaditya as ‘Kakatiya Rajya Sthapanacharya’. After his defeat
matrimonial relations developed between Kakatiyas and Yadavas. Ellannadeva member of Yadava family
married to Rudrama’s daughter.
The last stage of Rudramadevi’s rule was terribly disturbed due to the revolt of her official
Kayasta Ambedeva. According to Tripurantakam Inscription, Ambadeva along with his supporters
challenged Rudramadevi. So the marched along with her forces to crush him. But according to
Chanduptla epigraph dated 1289 CE, she died in her struggle with Ambadeva. She was succeeded by her
grand-son-Paataparudra-II.
Prataparudra-II (1289-1323 CE) and the decline of Kakatiya Kingdom: Prataparudra-II was the last
member of Kakatiya dynasty. He was trained by Rudramadevi. As she had no male issue, she adopted
him and declared him as her successor before the Ambadeva’s Revolt. After her grandmother’s death,
he ascended the throne.
Prataparudra-II dispatched his army under the able commandership of Kolanu Munumagannaya
son of Kolani Somamantri and Induluri Annaya on to Kayasta Ambadeve. Ambadeva was defeated by
Kakatiya forces. The other revolted chiefs of Nellore Rajaganda Gopala etc., were crushed. The Yadava
army was also suffered a defeat in the hands of Prataparudra’s army.
The un-expected enemy from North (Delhi) in the form of Khilji invasions of South Indian Hindu
kingdoms has commenced from 1290 CE. The Yadavas of Devagiri suffered a defeat in the hands of Delhi
Sultanate forces. In the year 1303 CE, for the first time Alauddin Khilji’s Generals Malik Fakruddin , Juna
Khan made an attack on Warangal. But, they suffered a defeat in the hands of Kakatiya army in the
battle of Upparapalli. In the year 1309 CE, Khilji army attacked Warangal second time. Malik Kafur led
the Sultan’s army. He defeated Prataparudra-II and sued him to accept Subordinate position. The defeat
of Kakatiya King has encouraged the local subordinates and chiefs of Kakatiyas to revolt against
Prataparudra-II. The capable commander of Kakatiya army Juttayya Gonkaya Reddi crushed the revolted
chiefs such as Kayasta Maliideva, Nellore Ranganatha and others. He reestablished the control of
Prataparudra-II. In the year 1316 CE, Alauddin-Khilji died. As the result political situation in Northern
7
India changed. Prataparudra-II stopped paying tribute to Delhi Sultan. So in the year Ghiyasuddin-
Tughlaq Shah seized the throne of Delhi Sultanate. The new Sultan decided to punish Kakatiya King. So
he dispatched huge force under Ulugh Khan (son of Ghiyasuddin). Prataparudra-II faced the Delhi forces
with great spirit. But he was defeated and became captive along with some of his officials, on his way to
Delhi; he committed suicide by jumping into river Narmada. Thus the rule of Kakatiyas came to an end.
Andhradesa passed into the control of Muslim rule. Warangal was renamed as Sultanpur. The Governors
of Delhi Sultan ruled the local people in a most oppressive way. So against the survived Chiefs, Generals
and officials of Prataparudra started liberation movement. In the forth coming lesson you will read
about it.
6.5: ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM UNDER KAKATIYAS

Contemporary inscriptions of Kakatiya rulers, their officials and literary works of the period are
providing some information about the nature of Kakatiya Administration. The Kakatiyas followed the age
old system of hereditary monarchy. Even though they were sudaras, they followed the principles laid
down by political thinkers like Nrada, Sukra and Kantilya. They introduced popular and sound
administration. King was the supreme head of the State and administration. There was no uniform
opinion among the historians about the native of the Kakatiya Administration. Burton stein an eminent
American historian said the Nature of Kakatiya polity was very close to Cholas ‘Segmentary State’. But
most of the native historians like C.V.Ramachandra Rao said, there is no similarity between Kakatiya
polity and Cholas Segmentary State. Learned scholar Romila Thapar described kakatiya polity as
‘Metropolitan’ Sate like Mauryan polity. Most of the scholars described the nature of Kakatiya polity as
decentralized monarchy.
6.5.1: Central Government: King was the Supreme head of the State. He was the head of army and
justice. But he honoured the principles laid down earlier political thinkers. King was assisted by a group
of council of ministers, officials in the management of State. Pradhani, Amatya, Mantri, Senadhipathi
were important members of Central Council. King used to preside all the meeting. The feaudatory kings
were also taken into confidence. The entire state administration was divided into 72 departments or
Niyogas. A contemporary work Purusharthasaram of Shivadevayya is supporting the above information.
The head on 72 Niyogas was called as Bahattara-niyogadhipathi. King personally led the army whenever
the situation demanded. The credit of recognizing right of daughter on the Royal throne goes to
Kakatiya Kings.
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6.5.2: Provincial Administration: The political authority of Kakatiyas has greatly expanded over entire
Andhradesa due to their military achievements. So from the period of Ganapatideva their kingdom was
divided in to Rastras or provinces, Sthalas and Nadus. An inscription dated, 1313 CE, from Srisailam of
the period of Prataparudra-II is giving some details about provincial, local administration. It also
mentioned some of the provincial units like Kammanadu, Sabbinadu, Pakanadu, Renadu, Venginadu,
Mulkinadu etc. in number of epigraphs found in Warangal, Anumakonda, Matterwada and Orugullu are
mentioned as ‘Sthalas’. Each Sthala roughly consisted of 20 villages. Provincial Governors and incharge
officers of Sthalas functioned as per the rules laid by centre.
6.5.3: Village Administration: Village stood as the lowest unit of the entire administration of
Kakatiyas. The Tweleve village servants or employees or professionals known as ‘Ayagars’ or panniddaru
Ayagars took the responsibility of serving the villagers. Among them Karnam, Reddy, Purohit, Black
Smith, Carpenter, Goldsmith etc were some of the Ayagars. The Ayagars were given lands or Mera in
crop for their services. Tax exemption was given to the lands granted to Ayagars. Karnam, Reddy, Talari
are chief Government Servants at village level.
6.5.4: Military organization – Nayakara System: Kakatiya rulers were known for their sound military
organization Chaturangabalas consisted in their army. They also built many forts, Nayankara units were
created. They gave some villages. Nayakas were asked to fix number of forces Prataparudra’s Nitisaram
describe the appointment of Nayakas and allotment of Villages by King to them. Nayakas used to
maintain fixed number of horses, Infantry and elephants. Land became the link between king and the
nayaka. The subordinate rulers of Kakatiyas also maintained army for the king. During the period of
Prataparudra-II, the Nayanka Units were reorganized. The Nayankara system became more active under
Vijayanagar rulers.
6.5.5: Judicial System: The Kakatiyas followed the judicial system of earlier times. The king was the
chief judge. The court was referred as Dharmasthanam in contemporary Sources. At village level
Karnam, Reddy, Talari exercised the judicial and police powers. In Guntur epigraphs boundary disputes
between villages were recorded. The king deputed the head of the village and Mahajans to solve the
issue. Even canal disputes were solved by judicial officials.
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1. Who was the Kakatiya ruler suicide
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Purushotha Saram written by
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6.6: SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE UNDER KAKATIYAS
Inscriptions of Kakatiyas, literary works such as Kreedhabhiramam, Basavapuranam,
Pratapacharitam and Marcopolo’s Travells etc are providing some glimpses of society, economy and
culture of Kakatiya period. Brahmins, Vaishyas, Sudras were main social groups in society. Several Sub-
Social classes or castes also emerged during this period. Kreedhabhiramam of Vinukonda Vallabha Raya
mentioned eighteen castes (Ashtadasakulas) which lived in the fort Warangal. Large number of ‘Samyas’
also came into existence. The Samya of Brahmins was known as Mahajanas. The Samya of Vaishyas was
known as Nakaram. The ‘Samya of PanchanamuVaasu was also mentioned in sources. Each Samya was
headed by its president. He used to exercise great powers over his caste men. The head of the Samya
received some taxes from his own caste people. Brahmins held high positions in military organization
and general administration.
Pratapa charita of Ekamranatha and few epigraphs also referred about different castes like
gollas, barbers, sales, potters, Vaishyas, Brahmins, Telikas, Boyas, Carpenters, Medharas (Basket makers)
and upparas etc. Saivism, Vaishnavism became very popular in society. In the early stages Jainism
received Patronisation of Kakatiyas. Veerasaivism became Very Popular. Dance, music, puppet shows,
cock fights etc, are the chief pastimes of people, child marriages, devadasi system, polygamy etc are
prevalent in society.
Economy: Kakatiya kingdom was known for its sound and fablous economy and fiscal policy. Agriculture
stood as the primary occupation of majority people. After the conquest of coastal Andhra bytheir forces
the rich natural resources passed into the control of kakatiyas. Land Revenue was the chief source of
income to state. The Agricultural land was divided into two categories i.e. ‘Magani’ and Metta. Regular
agricultural fields are known as Achukattuboomulu. Land tax was described as ‘Ari’. Food crops were
cultivated on large scale. New land was brought into cultivation. It was known as Dashabhandha lands.
10
Tax exemption was given to those peasants, who brought these new land into cultivation ‘ Food crops
such paddy, barley, jawar were cultivated on large scale. Among the agricultural taxes Diddhayam or
Sangamu, Pannu, Kanika, Darshanam, Niruvdi, Ardhayam, Pullari (tax on grass land) were collected by
different officers.
Internal and external trade was very hectic during this period. Orugallu, Anumakonda, Alampur,
Panugallu, Motupalli, Vemulawada, Machilipatnam etc are big trade centres. Local trade was carried out
at Santas or Pemtas. Textiles of Orugallu are very famous. Trade and Professional guilds came into
existence. Setti was the head of guild. The Motupalli port earned special name for external trade.
Among the exports Textiles, Spices, Diamonds etc occupied important place. Special officers known as
‘Sunkamanyagarlu’ were appointed to collectthe taxes. In contemporary epigraphs Burrasunkam,
pellisunkam, Revusunkam, Alam (tax on vegetables) Antharayam (tax on Arecanut) etc are mentioned.
This makes clear that kakatiyas collected number of taxes and customs.
Culture: Jainism received the support of early Kakatiya chiefs. Bodhan, Vemulawada, Patancheru,
Kolanupaka, Anumakonda etc are famous jain centers in early days of Kakatiyas. Kase Diddappa’s work
Siddheshwara charitam describes, how the Jainism was patronized by Prola-I and Bet-I. They donated
land and cash to jain Basadis. But Saivism and Vaishnavism became very popular under sovereign
Kakatiya kings.
Among the saivites sects like Kalamukhas, Kaapalikas, Pasupatas, Aaradhya Saivites and
veerashivites were there. Vemulawada, Dharmapuri, Kaleshwaram, Nandikandi, Alampur, Pangal,
Sanigaram, Kanteshwar, Ainavolu are famous Saivite centres. Golakimatas were founded at Manthema,
Malkapuram, Somadila and Madadam. Vaishnavism also enjoyed people’s good will during this period.
Rudradeva built Thousand Pillar Temple at Anumakonda. It is a Trikuta Alayam. Shiva, Vishnu and Swaya
were worshipped here. Ganapatideva’s sister Mailambika built a Gopala Krishna temple at Inugarthi.
Among the famous temples of Kakatiya times Thousand pillar temple (Anumakonda) Ramppa
temple (Palampet), and temple built at pillalamarri, Nagulapadu, Raikal, Ghanpur, Bejjanki, Kaleshwaram
etc are known for their wonderful Art and Architecture.
Telugu and Sanskrit literature received great patronization under Kakatiyas. Basavapuranam and
Panditaradhya Charitam of Palkuriki Somanatha, Kreedhabhiramam of Vallabharaya, Nitisaram (Sanskrit)
work of Rudradeva, Nrutya Ratnavali (Sanskrit) of Jayapa are well known works of this age. Tikkana, the
famous Telugu poet of Nellore Telugu Chola king Manumasiddhi-II translated fifteen parvas of
Mahabaratha into Telugu. His another famous work was NirvachanottaraRamayanam. Thus during
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Kakatiya period society was in a solid position’ communal harmony was unique feature. But the Muslim
invasion and their success caused great damage to Kakatiya culture.

1. Which fort was controlled by Kakatiyas.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Thousand Pillars Temple was built by

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6.7: SUMMARY
The advent of Kakatiyas in Telangana region as chiefs and transformation of their position into
sovereign rulers was an historic event in the history of Medieval South India. They expanded their
authority to Coastal Andhra the grand military achievements of Ganapatideva. Kakatiya Gundyana,
Prola-I, Beta-I, Prola-II and Beta-II were important chiefs. Rudradeva was the first sovereign Kakatiya
king. After him, Mahadeva, Ganapatideva, Rudramadevi and Prataparudra-II ruled Kakatiya kingdom
between 1195-1323 CE, Kakatiyas united Telugu people. They provided popular administration’
patronized fine Arts. They encouraged Agriculture, trade and commerce. Religious freedom was granted
to people. Many tanks, temples, forts were built by them. The Muslim invasious from 1290 CE, onwards
has caused great loss to the political power and people of Kakatiya kingdom. In the year 1323 CE,
Warangal was captured by Delhi Dultanate (Trghlaq) forces and it was named as Sultanpur.
6.8: CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ANSWERS

Check your preogress answers-I
1. Pratapa Rudra-II
2. Sivadevayya.
1. Motupalli
2. Rudradeva
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6.9: EXAMINATION MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Answer the following Qestions in about 30 lines.
1. Write a note on Political carrier of Ganapatideva.
2. Ex[plain the achievements of Prataparedra-II
II. answer the following Questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Analyse the administrative system of Kakatiyas.

2. Discuss the Socio-economic conditions during Kakatiya rule.
6.10: FURTHER READINGS

1) Rama Rao.M. : Studies in the early history of Andhradesa
2) Satryanarana.K. : A Study of History and Culture of Andhras-Vol-I&II.
3) P.V.Parabrahma Sastry : The Kakatiyas

4) Yazdani(ed) : Early History of Deccan
5) Telugu Akademy–B.A.III year : Telangana History and culture.
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UNIT-7: MUSUNURI NAYAKAS AND PADMANAYAKAS POLITY, SOCIETY,
ECONOMY AND CULTURE
Contents
7.0: Objective
7.1: Introduction
7.2: Sources
7.3: Musunuri Nayakas:
A) Prolaya Nayaka (1325-1335 CE)
B) Kapaya Nayaka (1335-1368 CE)
7.4: Origin of Padmanayakas / Rachakonda, Devarakonda Velamas
7.5: Important rulers of Padmanayaka dynasty or Rachakonda
7.6: Polity, Society, economy under Musunuri Nayakas & Padmanayaks
7.7: Cultural contribution – Literature, Art & Achitecture
7.8: Decline of Musunuri, Padmanayakas
7.9: Summary
7.10: Model Answers to Check your progress
7.12: Further Readings
7.0: OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to
1. Know the conditions prevailed in Andhradesa after the decline of Kakatiyas.

2. Explain the Starting of liberation movement and the rise of Independent kingdoms in Telangana.
3. Discuss the political history of Musunuri, Padmanayaka rulers and their achievements.
4. Analyse the Polity, Society, and Economy of their age.
5. Describe the Cultural contribution of Musunuri, Velama rulers.
1
7.1: INTRODUCTION
The conquest of Kakatiya kingdom in the year 1323 CE, by Delhi Sultanate, placed the Telugu
speaking people under the rule of Delhi Sultan. But the oppressive rule of the Viceroy of Delhi Sultan,
increased the problems to local Hindus. As a result some of the surviving officials of Prataparudra-II,
with the support of local people tried to liberate them from the Muslim rule. In this process, in the ex-
Kakatiya territories Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka and Musunuri-Kapaya Nayaka played a significant role and
they founded a kingdom which became popularly known as Warangal kingdom. Another officer of last
Kakatiya ruler, Pratapareddi-II Prolayavema Reddy liberated the Coastal Andhra region from the control
of Delhi Sultan’s viceroy rule and founded, Reddi kingdom at Addanki, By 1336 CE, Harihar-I and Bukka-I
founded the Vijayanagara kingdom on the banks of the river Thungabhadra. Their heroic efforts
provided a new strength and confidence to the local Hindus.
7.2: SOURCES
Archaelogical and literary sources have provided very important information regarding political
conditions prevailed in Andhradesa after the decline of Kakatiyas. They are also giving some information
of socio, economic religious and cultural conditions.
Among the Archaeological sources contemporary epigraphs issued by kings and their officials
are playing an important role and supplying very useful information.
Vilasa Copper plate grant of Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka, Musunuri Kapaya Nayakas ‘Prolavaram
epigraph’ deted 1345 CE, Kaluva Cheruvu grant of Reddi Queen Anethalli dated 1423 CE, Kapaya
Nayakas inscriptions from ‘Mallavaram’, Srisailam, Recherlapadma Nayakas epigraphs, Pillalamarri,
Ainavolu, and Ganapeshwaram are giving valuable information. Among the literary works of the
contemporary works Tarik-e-Ferishta of Md Qasim Ferishta giving very accurate
informationVelugotivaari Vamsavali (ed. N.Venkata Rammaiah), ‘Hara-Vilasam’, ‘Bheemakhandan’,
‘Kashikandam’, etc are providing useful historical information about Musunuri chiefs. ‘Tarikh-e-Ferishta’
of Muhammad-Qasim Ferishta, ‘Futuh-us-Salatin’ of Islami, ‘Tarikh-e-Feroz Shahi’ of Ziauddin-Barani,
‘The Travells’ of Marco-polo etc are also providing interesting information about liberation movement
and foundation of Vijayanagara, Bahmani, Reddi kingdoms and their wars with Musunuri Nayakas.
2
7.3: MUSUNURI NAYAKAS 1325 – 1368 CE
A) Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka (1325-1335 CE): Musunuri Prolay Nayaka was the first to unite and
mobilize the people of ex-Kakatiya territories against the oppressive rule of Delhi Sultan’s Viceroy. He
belongs to a ‘Sudra’ cast. ‘Potinayaka’ was his father. His ancestors served under Kakatiyas. Along with
Prolayavema Reddy, Kapaya Nayaka, Harihara-I, Bukka-I, Musunuri-Prolayanayaka also survived in the
war with Delhi Sultanate army. He escaped and with hardwork he rose to highest position. He became
very active in the ‘Recapalli’, Bhadrachalam area. Recapalli became his main centre. He restored many
temples and protected Brahimins. Granted them donations. His activity also became an inspiration to
Singama Nayaka of Recherla Velama family. He founded Velama kingdom at Rachakonda (Nalgonda) and
ruled most parts of present Nalgonda and Mahboobnagar. Prolaya Nayaka donated, ‘Vilasa’ village to a
Brahmin scholar named ‘Vennamma’ of Bhardwaja Gotra.
Prolaya Nayaka became a model to his energetic contemporaries like, kapaya, prolayavema
Reddi, Harihare-I & Bukka-I. He died in the year 1335 CE.
Musunuri Kapaya Nayka (1335-1368 CE): Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka was the son of Prolaya’s (Yerapota
Nayaka) cousin brother. He succeeded to the (Rkapalli) throne in the year 1335 CE and ruled till his end
in the year 1368 CE. The epigraphs from Prolavaram Gurijara, Pillalamarri, Ganapeshwaram, literary
works like Venugoti-Vaari-Vamshavali, Pratapa-Charitra, Tariq-e-Ferishta of Muhammed-Qasim-Ferishta
are providing very useful information about Kapayanayaka’s great qualities, achievements, his efforts to
restore Hindu religious institutions, People of Andhradesa and his relations with his contemporaries
such as Harihara-I & Bukka-I, ProlayavemaReddi, Ala-uddin-Hasan-Gung-Bahmani and Velama rulers.
Inscription described him with resounding titles such as ‘Andhradesa-Deeshwara’ and Andhra
Suratraana. In order to restore Telugu people and temples he took many steps. He renovated the fort of
Warangal and made it as his head quarters.
Kapaya Nayaka was involved in number of wars with his contemporaries. These wars became
essential to protect his own territories and to expand his authority. In the year 1336 CE, Kapaya Nayaka
defeated Delhi Sultan’s Viceroy Maliq-Maqbool at Warangal and captured it. The Muslim Viceroy and
soldiers were driven out of Warangal. Thus he put an end to the rule of Tughlaqs over Telangana. He
helped Alauddin Hasan Ganj Bahmani to declare his independence. Kapaya Nayaka made elaborate
arrangements to protect his power and Warangal. He was involved in wars with Bahmani Sultan
Alauddin-Hasan-Ganj-Bahmani. In the year 1350 CE, Muhammed-Bin-Tughlaq dispatched his army under
3
the commandership of Sikander-Khan. The Sultan’s army seized Kaulas fort (Nizambad). Kapayas forces
suffered a defeat and concluded a peace treaty. At this same time Recherla chief Singamanayaka
revolted against Kapaya Nayaka.
Amanagallu fort was captured from Velamas by Kapaya Nayaka. ‘Errapotha Lenka’ was
appointed as the Governor to this new region.
In the year 1356 CE, once again Kapaya clashed with Bahmani Allauddin-Hassan Ganj Bahmani.
Kapaya suffered a defeat at Bongiri peace treaty was concluded. Kapaya Nayaka’s son Vinayakadeva
faced the Bahmani Sultan’s (Muhammad Shah-I) forces in the year 1362 CE. In the battle Kapaya’s son
lost his life. This forced kapaya to request the assistance of Delhi Sultan Feroz Shah-Tughlaq against
Bahmani Sultan.
The Delhi Sultan rejected the plea of Kapaya. As a result Bahmani forces attacked Warangal in
the year 1364 CE. Under these helpless conditions Kapaya Nayaka concluded a peace treaty with
Bahmani-Sultan (Muahmmed Shah-I) and paid huge war indemity to Sultan, Golkonda fort, 400
elephants, 250 horses, 33 lakh cash was paid to Sultan. The Bahmani-Velama alliance became very
dangerous to Kapaya’s power. Finally Kapaya died in the battle of ‘Bheemavaram’ (1368 CE) in the hands
of Recherla Velama ruler Anapotanayaka (son of late Singamanayaka). The entire terrirtory of Musunuri
chiefs passed in to the control of Recherla Velama rulers.
Kapaya Nayaka made elaborate arrangements in Telangana and over Coastal Andhra by
appointing his own relatives and trusted men as officers/viceroys. ‘Anavota Nayaka’ (cousin) was
appointed by Kapayanayaka as the viceroy of ‘Toyyeru’, later Rajamahendravaram. ‘Muppa-Bhupa’ was
appointed as the viceroy of ‘Sabbinadu’. ‘Madikisingana’ was patronized by Muppa Bhupala.
‘Manchukonda Kunaya Nayaka’, a son-in-law of Kapayanayaka’s brother built the fort of ‘Korukonda’.
‘Kunavaram’ is named after this chief. Kapyanayaka arranged the marriage of his sister’s daughter with
Kunaya Nayaka’s son Mummadi-Nayaka. Koppula family member ‘Namaya Nayaka was another great
supporter of Kapaya. He was made as the Governor of ‘Pitapuram’.
Thus Kapaya made all possible efforts to consolidate his authority, but the changed political
conditions in Telangana and Velama-Bahmani friendship led to his end.
4
7.4: ORIGIN OF RACHAKONDA, DEVARAKONDA VELAMA KINGDOM – THEIR SERVICE,
CONTRIBUTION TO TELANGNA
Recherla rulers earned a great name in the History of 14th century Telangana for their heroic
deeds and glorious cultural service. They wer subordinates under Kakatiyas. They belongs to ‘Velama’
cast. Betalanayaka was the first members of Recharla family. According to eminent scholar N.Venkata
Ramanaiah, during the reign of Ganapati Deva Betalanayaka worked as the viceroy of ‘Amanagallu’. His
successors, Damanayaka, Recherla prasiditya, and Recherla Rudra served under Ganapatideva and his
daughter Rudramamba between 1199-1289 CE. The Velamas served under Kakatiyas with loyalty and
has played a dynamic role in the expansion and consolidation of Kakatiya authority in Andhradesa. The
Recherla Velamas were the contemporaries to Reddis of Addanki, Bahmanis of Gulbarga, Sangamas of
Anegondi. They were the above rulers.
The famous rulers of Recherla Velama dynasty were:
1) Recherla Singama Nayaka (1325-1361 CE)

2) Anapota Nayaka (1361-1383 CE) & Mada Nayaka-I (1361-1383 CE)
3) Singama Nayaka-I (1383-1399 CE) & Vedagiri-I (1384-1410 CE)
4) Anapota Nayaka-II (1399- )
5) Madanayaka-II ( )
7.5: IMPORTANT RULERS & THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS
1) Betala Nayaka: Betala Nayaka was the earliest member of Recherla Velama dynasty. According to
‘Velugoti Vaari Vamshavali’, ‘Amanagallu’ is present in Nalgonda (Near Miryalaguda) was his native
place. Between the years 1225-1253 CE, he and his successor ruled Kakatiya Aamanagallu and
Pillalamarri area, as Ganapatideva’s subordinates. Thus Recherla Velamas continued their support to
Ganapatideva’s successors. They played very important role in crushing the internal and external
attackers of Kakatiya kingdom. After the defeat of Prataparuda-II in his last war against Delhi Sultanate
forces, the Velamas declared their independence.
Betalanayaka’s three sons namely Daamanayaka, Recherla Prasaditya and Recherla Rudranayaka
also served the Kakatiya kings. They held highest positions as commanders under Kakatiyas. Eminent
historians P.V.Parabrahma Sastri and Nelaturi, Venkata Ramanayya appreciated the significant role
5
played in protecting Kakatiya kingdom after Mahadeva’s death in the battle against Yadavas. Recherla
Rudra was described as ‘Kakatiya Rajya Sthapanacharya and Rayapitha mahanka. Betalanayaka’s second
son ‘Recherla Prasaditya’ served under Rduramadevi. He led many battles and protected Warangal
kingdom. ‘Recherla Venna’ son of Damanayaka faced the mighty army of Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khilji in
1309-1310 CE, and defeated them in the battle of Upparapalli. Yerayachanayudu son of Recherla Venna
led the Kakatiya army in 1316 CE, against Pandyan army. He was given the title like ‘Pache Pandyadala
Vibhala’, Kanchi Kavatachurakara and Pandya Gaja Kesari by king Prataparudra-II. Yerayachanayaka’s
son ‘Singamanayaka-I was considered by scholars as First Independent kingdom founder of soverign
Velama kingdom.
2) Singamanayaka (1325-1361 CE): Singamanayaka was the first soverign king of Recherla Velama
dynasty. He was the son of Yerrayachanayaka. Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka, Kapayanayaka, Prataparudra-
II, Prolayvema Reddi and Harihara-I & Bukka-I, and Alauddin Hasan Gangu Bahmani were his
contemporaries. Singamanayaka-I, proved his abilities as a brave General during the reign of
Prataparudra-II. He look active part in the battles against Pandya, Kapili rulers and against Tughlaqs
army in 1323 CE. He established his authority over Antharvedi, Yeleshwaram area. He also defeated
Somakula Kshtriya chiefs and captured some parts. But he was brutally stabbed at Jallipalli fort’ by
‘Tambullajiyya in 1361 CE. His sons struggle very hard against his enemies and (Soma chiefs) achieved
success.
2) Anapota Nayaka (1361-1384 CE): Anapota Nayaka was the son of Singamanayaka-I. he took the reins
of the Velama kingdom in a very critical situation. He attacked Jallipalli ruler and defeated him and his
supporters Reddis. He rebuilt Rachakonda fort. Shifted his capital from Aamangallu to Rachakonda. The
Recherla Velamas and Reddis of Kondavidu became deadly enemies from his period.
In the battle of ‘Dharamikota’ Anapotanayaka defeated Reddi ruler Anavema Reddy. He

captured Srisailam region. Anapota Nayaka defeated and killed Musunuri Kapayanayaka in Battle of
Bheemavaram in the year 1368 CE. Velama armies also captured Bhongir, Sanigaram etc. the ‘Ainavole’
inscription describes his victories.
He assumed the title of ‘Andhradeshaa-deeshwara’. He entered into friendly alliance with

Bahmani Sultan against Reddis of Kondavidu. He built the steps to paatalaganga at Srisailam to facilitate
the pilgrims.
6
During his reign only the Devarakonda Velama kingdom was founded. Anapotanayaka-I’s
Madayaka,(brother) was made as the king of Devarakonda. The successors of Anapota-I ruled
Rachakonda Velama kingdom. The successors of Madanayaka ruled from Devarakonda. Anapota-I died
in the year 1383 CE.
3) Kumara Singama Nayudu (1383-1399 CE): He was the eldest son of Anapotanayaka-II and Sarvagna
Singabhupala. He defeated Vijayanagara army led by SaluvaRayadeva General of Harihara-II in the battle
of Kothakota During his era the Velama-Vijayanagara conflict reached to Apex. Singamanayaka-II along
with Pedavedagiri of Devarakonda, invaded on Kalinga and captured Gautami region form the control of
Reddis. The simhachalam inscription of SingamaNyaka-II is supporting above achievement. The struggle
between Velamas, Vijayanagara rulers and Bahmanis continued till 1397 CE. Finally in the battles of
Kandanavole and Pangallu (1397 CE), Vijayanagar army led by Bukk-I inflicted a defeat on Velamas and
their ally Bahmani Sultan Feroz Shah. Two years after this defeat Singamanayaka-II died. He was a great
scholar and patronized many poets and scholars. ‘Rasaranava Sudhakaram’ a work on ‘Alankarasastra’,
‘Sangeeta Sudhakara’ a commentary on music, ‘Ratnapanchalika’ a drama are his works. His court poet
Vishveshwara wrote a book entitled ‘Chamatkara Chandrika’ Kumar Singama Nayudu assumed titles like
‘Sarvagna’, Sarvagna Chudamani’ etc.
Anapotanayaka-II (1399-1421 CE): Anapotanayaka-II, the eldest son of Singamanayaka-II succeeded to

the throne of Rachekonda in 1399 CE. He was a great warrior. He was involved in a series of wars with
Reddi, Bahmani Vijayanagara rulers. During his period the Reddi-Bahmani relations turned against
Velamas. The attempt made by Pedakomati Vema Reddi’s friend (Bahmani Sultan) Feroz Shah on
Rajamundry. But his attempt was spoiled by Allada Reddi of Rajamundry. Peace treaty was conclude
between Velamas and Vijayanagara due to the efforts of Devaraya-I.
RaoMadanayaka (1421-1430 CE): After the death of Anapota Nayaka-II, as his sons were too young to
take the reins of Recherla Velama kindom, his younger brother Madanayaka ascended the throne of
Rachakonda and ruled till 1430 CE. During the reign of Madanayaka the enemity between Velamas and
Bahmanis reached to peak level. Devaraya-II and Bahmani Sultan Ahmed Shah were involved in a war in
1424 CE. In this war Madanayaka assisted Vijayanagara ruler, Bahmani Sultan deputed huge army under
the commandership of Azim Khan on to Warangal to punish Velamas. The Bahmani General destroyed
many temples and caused great damage to Velamas. As the result Madanayudu concluded a peace
treaty with Bahmani Sultan Ahmed Shah in the year 1425 CE. This led to the decline of Velamas power in
Telangana region and consolidation of Bahmanis power. Madanayaka was good scholar. He donated
7
many villages to tmples and Brahmins. His wife Naagambika constructed a tank named nagasamudram
at Rajagiripalam near Rachakonda.
Sarvagnan Rao Singama Nayudu (1430-1475 CE): Singama Nayudu-III son of Anapotanayudu-II who was
also known as Sarvagna Rao Singamanayudu asceded the Rachakonda seat in 1430 CE. His brother
Lingamanedu younger brother of Pinavedagiri of Devarakonda ruled at the same time. Both of them
dynamic rulers. But they failed in checking the aggressive attacks of Bahmanis on Velama territories. He
tried to check the Bahmanis with the assistance of Kapileshwara Gajapati. But it failed due to the death
of Kapileshwara in 1470 CE and outbreak of civil war between his sons. Finally by the year 1475 CE, the
Velama kingdom disappeared. Bahmanis seized its territories Nizam-ul-Mulk Ibrahim became incharge
of Telangana.

1. The Delhi Sultan’s viceroy Maliq Maqbool was defeated by
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Who shifted the Capital from Aamangal to Rachakonda.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
7.6: POLITY, SOCIETY, ECONOMY UNDER MUSUNURI NAYAKAS & PADMANAYAKS
Contemporary inscriptions of Musunuri Nayakas, Recherla Padmanayakas are providing glimpse

of the administrative system, society and economy of this age. There was no much change in above
aspects from Kakatiya age.
The administration of this period was to a great extent a replica of Kakatiya. The Musunuri,
Velama rulers tried to protect Vedic Dharma-Varnashrama Dharma. Their main motto was to serve their
people with great care. They followed the principles laid in Hemadri’s ‘Vrathakhanda Kalpa Tharuvu’ on
state management.
King was assisted by ministers, officials, number of other employees, Prime Minister,
Senadhipathi (Commander-in-Chief, Purohit (priest) were important members of the council. Velamas
also recruited Brahmins as their ministers. Peddanna, Potaraju, Bachana, Singana, are famous ministers
8
of their times. Ministers also participated in the battles. There was no specific division between civil &
military departments. ‘Yuvaraja’ (their prince) was given great importance whenever the ruler was not
blessed with children, his brother, or nearest relative also discharged the duties of a ruler.
King was the Supreme head of the State. He was also the head of Administration. His word was
law. He was the chief judge and supreme commander of army. Their kingdom was divided into number
of ‘Simas’. Each ‘Sima’ was created, with a Fort as its headquarters. Each ‘Sima’ was created around a
big city. There are ‘Nayankars’ in each sima. Sima’s were further divided into ‘Mandalas’ Members
belonging to Royal family were appointed as incharges of Simas. The officials were given the
responsibility of protection of Sima, its people and collection of land revenue.
The Velama kings paid special care for Fort administration. Bhongir, Rachakonda, Devarakonda,
Jallipalli, Orugallu, Amanagallu, Ananthagiri, Anumula, Sthambagiri etc important forts of their times.
Village stood as the base to entire administration. Village servants have played a key role in
village administration. Karna, Thalari are very important employees of village ‘The punishments were
very severe. The king was chief judge. At village level the village officials; at Sima level the in charge
officials solved the legal cases.
B) Society: The society during Musunuri-Velama age was known for its dynamism. Varnashrama
system was hounoured. The invasion of Muslims on Andhradesa, their rule over Telugu country has
shown some impact on social-structure. Some changes took place Brahmins lost their old status. Sudras
emerged as powerful force. The people depended upon their ancestral profession. Shivism, Vaishnavism
received royal patronage. Religious freedom given to people. Temple became an important centre. It
played a significant role in socio-economic and cultural life of the people. People believed in tradition,
blind beliefs, enjoyed different games, sports. Women position was not so good. Prostitution was the
profession of some women. Sarvagna Singa Bhupala honoured prostitutes. ‘Bhongiridandakam’ of
Potana kavi describes the influence of prostitutes. Men and women were variety of dresses according to
their status.
C) Economy: Agriculture was the primary occupation of majority people of this age. The Velama
kings encouraged it. Many new lands were brought into cultivation. Old tanks, wells, lakes, canals were
repaired. New tanks were constructed. Peasants enjoyed ownership right on their land. Village council
was powerful body. It decides many matters such as sale, purchase, donation of land by owners
Anapotanayaka built a tank named Anapota Samudra’, Rao Madhavanayaka’s wife Nagambika built
9
‘Nagambika Samudram’. The variety of rice, vegetables, plants, fruits and flowers were cultivated. A
cattle rearing was an important profession of people in rural level. Temples also reared number of cows
and oxen. The stables of cattle (Temple) are known as ‘Khilaras’. Different types of crops both cash and
food was grown on larger scale. Village craftsman produced variety of products. Weekly Santa’s or
Angadi was the place where local consumers used to purchase their needed articles, cloth, cattle etc.
Annual Jataras, Thirunallu also attracted huge sellers and buyers. The Velama rulers earned huge
revenue in the form of sales Tax. The Velama kings followed Shivism and Vaishnavism. Religious
tolerance was their great quality. They honoured Brahmins. Donations and gifts were given to various
temples.
7.7: CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION – LITERATURE, ART & ACHITECTURE

A) Growth of Literature: The Velamas patronized Telugu, Sanskrit scholars. Most of them are good
scholars. Naganatha author of ‘Madana Vilasa Bana’ was patronized by Anapotanayaka. Sarvagna Singa
Bhupala was a great scholar. ‘Rasarnavasudhakara’ was his great work in Sanskrit. ‘Ratnapanchalika’ was
a famous drama written by Sarvagna Singa Bhupala. This drama was played during the period of
Vasantosthavam infront of Prasanna Gopala Temple at Rachkonda. In the court of Singama Bhupala
Vishweshwara, Bommaknti Appamarya. ‘Chamatkara Chandrika’ was the famous work of Vishweshwara.
Shakalaya Bhattu wrote a book named Niroshtya Raonayamam.
The important tulugu scholars of the Velama age include: Poosapati Naganatha (Vishnupurana),
‘Gaurana’ (native of Ramagiri) wrote a famous books entitled Harichandraphakayanam and Navanatha
Charitram. He was the contemporary of Sreenatha, the court poet of Pedakonati Vema Reddi Koravi
Goparaju, Bammera Potanna also belongs to his age. Thus under the liberal Patronisation of Velamas
literature made grand progress.
B) Art & Achitecture: The Musunuris and Velamas continued the temple construction, renovation of
Kakatiyas ‘Rachakonda’ and Devarakonda the two imperial headquarters became centres for many
beautiful temples. Bhairava Temple, Rama Temple in the Rachkonda fort were built by them. Laxmi
temple was also built at Rachkonda. At Devarkonda many temples were built to Shiva, Rama. The
‘Someshwara Temple’ at Bongir fort was built by them. They also renovated many temples at Fort
Warangal.
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7.8: DECLINE OF MUSUNURI & VELAMAS
The Musunuri and Velamas ruled most parts of present Telangana with great dedication. But the
rise of Bahmanis, Vijayanagar, Reddi, kingdoms dragged them into struggle for supremacy. The lack of
farsightedness among them finally gave an opportunity to Bahmanis to conquer their territories.
1. Anapota Nayaka constructed the Tank was
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Madana Vilasa Bana was written by.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
7.9: SUMMARY
The heroic efforts of Musunuri Prolayanayaka, Kapayanayaka and Velama rulers gave a new
strength to people of this region. They preserved rich culture of Kakatiyas. They ruled the people of
Telangana with great care. They laid foundation for futher rulers of this region.
7.10: MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Kapaya Nayaka.
2. Anapota Nayaka.
1. Anapota Samudra.
2. Naganatha.
7.11: MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1 Discuss the achievements of Musunuri Prolayanayaka.
2 Discuss the political achievements of Velama rulers.
3 Examine the cultural contribution of Velamas.
4 Describe the growth of fine arts under Velamas.
11
1) Epigraphical sources helping in the study of Musunuri chiefs.
2) Administrative system under Velamas.
3) Growth of Telugu literature under Velamas.
1. B.N.Sastry, (Telugu) : Recherla Padmanayakulu, Moosi Pub, Hyd-1990.
2. B.S.N.Hanmantha Rao : Andhrula Charitra (Telugu) Vishalandra Pub, Hyd-2012.
3. Suravaram Pratapa Reddy : Andhrula Sangika Charitra (Telugu) Oriental Longman, Hyd-1992.
4. A.Satyanarayana & D.Satyanarayana : Telangana Charitra-Samskruthi-Rastra Avatharana

Udyamaalu (Telugu) Sangam Books India Pvt.-2016
5. Telangana Charitra & Samskruthi, Telugu Akademy – (2019) (B.A. III year).
12
Unit-8: BAHAMANI POLITY, ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Contents
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sources
8.3 Political Conditions
8.4 Administrative System
8.4.1 Judicial Administration
8.4.2 Military Administration
8.4.2.1 Police Administration
8.7 Religious Conditions
8.9 Summary
8.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the Political History of Bahamanis.

2. Explain the Social Conditions of Bahamani Kingdom.
3. Discuss the Economic Conditions of Bahamani Kingdom.
1
4. Analyse the Religious cConditions of Bahamanis.
5. Describe the Cultural Conditions of Bahamanis.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The Bahamani Sultans ruled Deccan nearly from 170 years. They have taken keen interest for the
development of the Kingdom. They encouraged agriculture, local industries, trade and commerce. They
fought with the Vijayanagar dynasty for the Raichur Doab. They extended their empire between the seas.
They contributed a lot for the development of culture and architecture in the Deccan. They patronized
Sufi saints in Gulbarga and Daultabad.
8.2 SOURCES
Many literary and foreign sources were available to reconstruct the history of Bahamani
Kingdom. Ferishta had written “Gulshan-i-Ibrahimi” which gives detailed information about the polity,
economy and socio-cultural conditions during Bahamani period. Mulla Muhammad Lary had written
“Siraj-ut-Tarikh Bahamani” gives vivid description about the Bahamani rule. Mulla Daud Bidri had
written “Tohfat-us-Salatin Bahamani” also provides information about the Administration, Polity, Socio-
Economic, Religious and cultural conditions during the period. The Work “Tazkirat-Ul-Mulk of
Rafiuddin also gives the information about the Bahamani Kingdom.
Nikitin had given valuable information about the Bahamani dynasty. The inscriptions, coins and
monuments also gives detailed information about the kingdom.
8.3 POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Allauddin Bahaman Shah (1347-1358), the founder of the Bahamani Kingdom, had to overcome
the opposition of the local chieftains who had proclaimed sovereignty. The partisans of Tughluq dynasty
and the supporters of Ismail Shah had to abdicate in favour of Bahaman Shah. Those chieftains who, after
defeat, agreed to pay tribute were accepted as loyal subjects; the recalcitriant elements were put to death
and their properties were confiscated. Narayana a chieftain of Jamkhandi and Muinuddin a fief holder of
the same neighbourhood were loyal to Delhi. They fought against the Bahaman Shah, but were defeated
by Bahman Shah. Kapaya Nayaka of Warangal defeated by Bahaman Shah and occupied the fort of
Kaulas.
Bahaman Shah was succeeded by his son Muhammad Shah-I (1358-1375 AD). He came into
conflict with Telangana as well as Vijayanagara, whose rulers demanded the restitution of the territories
2
seized from them by his father- Kaulas from Telangana and the Raichur Doab from Vijayanagar. The
Telangana and Vijayanagar forces attacked on Kaulas. But the allied forces were utterly defeated.
Muhammad Shah-I got victory and was collected huge indemnity from Kapaya Nayaka. Golconda
received from Kapaya Nayaka. Mudgal fort, which was situated in Raicur Doab was captured by
Vijayangar forces. Muhammed Shah-I immediately started attacks on Vijayanagara forces and recaptured
the fort of Mudgal. He also fought for the Raichur Doab. But due to the conditions both with concluded
peace.
Muhammad Shah was succeeded by his son Mujahid Shah(1375-1378 AD). He provoked a clash
by demanding the surrender of the Raichur Doab. On Bukka’s refusal, the Sultan crossed the two rivers
and sent a force to capture Adoni, and himself marched upon Vijayanagar. For nine months he besieged
the fort without success. Mujahid was killed by his own uncle, Dawood Khan, who made himself king.
Very soon Dawood was murdered by instigation of Mujahid’s sister; his brother, Muhammad Shah-II,
was proclaimed king. He ruled (1378-1397 AD) for nearly twenty years. He was a man of peace devoted
to learning. The state suffered with a famine during the years 1387 to 1395. The sultan organized relief
measures throughout the kingdom. One thousand bullocks travelled round the clock between his
dominions and Gujarat and Malwa, bringing grain in large quantities. They were sold at low prices.
Muhammad Shah-II died in the year 1397 AD.
Firoz Shah (1397-1422 AD) was a scholar-statesman of extraordinary talent and a warrior of
exceptional ability. He is well versed in mathematics, botany, logic, rhetoric and allied subjects, beside
law and linguistics. He acquired mastery over several languages, including the vernaculars spoken in the
Deccan. During the reign of Firoz Shah the Bahamani and Vijayanagar rulers took up arms thrice for the
possession of the Richur Doab. Harihara-II organized an expedition against the Raichur Doab with the
support of Narsing Ray of Kerla situated in Gondwana. Firoz Shah started attacks on Narsing Ray and
plundered southern Gondwana, pursued the vijayanagar forces as far as their capital. He made several
people prisoners, among whom were Brahmins. They were however, released on payment of eleven lakhs
of hons (I hon= 3 ½ tankas) as ransom, the Brahmins paying six lakhs and the Raya five. The second war
was fought in 1406 AD when Deva Raya-I was the ruler of Vijayanagar. The sultan crossed the
Tungabhadra and laid siege to Vijayanagar. Deva Raya-I sued for peace and gave his daughter in
marriage to the sultan. He ceded the fort of Bankipur as dowry and paid a large indemnity –ten lakhs of
hons, five mounds of pearls, fifty elephants and two thousand male and female slaves who were experts in
singing. The third war was fought in 1417Ad, when Firoz Shah laid siege to the fort of Panagal, situated
in Nalgonda district. It belonged to the king of Vijayanagar. The sultan invested the fort for two years
without success.
3
Ahmad Shah-I (1422-1435 AD), the younger brother of Firoz Shah came to the throne. He
invaded Vijayanagar, which was ruled by Vijaya Raya. Vijaya Raya surrendered to Bahamani sultan and
concluded a treaty. He agreed to pay a vast amount as tribute. The sultan, after crushing the Vijayanagar
forces, invaded Telangana in 1424 AD. He captured Warangal and slew its king. The regular employment
to new comers from Persia, Iraq, Arabia, etc., in civil and military services gave rise to bitter rivalry
between them and the local Muslims, the Deccanis. The quarrels between the two factions often led to
pitched battles, notwithstanding the commonness of their religion. The sultan changed the capital from
Gulbarga to Bidar, where he got a beautiful city built.
Ahmad Shah-I son Ahmad Shah –II (1436-1458 AD) came to the throne. He collected the arrears
of tribute from Vijayanagar. Deva Raya-II purchased peace by surrendering a number of elephants and a
large amount of money. The rivalry between the Deccanis and the Afaqis took a serious turn by now.
Both the sections of the ruling class began a bitter struggle for power. In this struggle religious
considerations played little role. In 1446-1447, when an expedition against Konkan was planned by the
sultan, the Deccanis joined hands with two Hindu rajas. As a result, the Bahamani forces suffered disaster
and a large number of Afaqis were killed. All the Afaqi officers were murdered in cold blood by their co-
religionists. 1200 Sayyid and 1000 other were put to death, besides numerous children. The Deccani
Muslims appropriated the property of the Afaqi Muslims and captured their wives and daughters as
prisoners.
Hymayun (1458-1461 AD), the son of Muhammad Shah-II, earned the notoriety of a cruel tyrant.
He indulged in the most despicable acts of sadism to suppress a mutiny led by his own brother, Hasan
Khan. Two thousand city guards were tortured to death. Hasan Khan and his followers were imprisoned,
and the mutiny was suppressed.
Humayun’s son Ahmad Shah-III (1461-1463 AD), was a boy of eight when he ascended the
throne. During his reign the king of Malwa, a “pious” Muslims, taking advantage of the weakness of the
administration, had committed such outrages on the possessions of the faithful as had not been perpetrated
even by the ferocious Chengiz Khan in his conquests.
The boy-king was succeeded by his younger brother, Muhammad Shah-III(1463-1482 AD). The
queen-mother, suspecting Malik Shah Turk, one of the three regents, of treachery, got him executed.
During his reign the Bahamani forces annexed Goa, the best port of the Vijayanagar Empire. The forts of
Rajahmundry and Kondapalli were seized from the Gajapatis of Orissa. Saluva Narsimha, the feudatory
chief of the south-eastern part of the Vijayanagar Empire, asserted his independence and annexed several
tracts of the empire to his dominions. Bahamani sultan defeated to Saluva Narsimha. During the reign of
4
Muhammad Shah-III the Bahamani kingdom for the first time extended its borders from sea to sea. The
inner-party rivalry between the Deccanis and the Afaqis took a violent turn during the closing years of
Muhammad Shah-III. Muhammad Gawan, one of the most capable ministers of the dynasty, was unjustly
executed by the sultan, strongly influenced by the false reports of the Deccani faction. The sultan
discovered his mistake too late. He tried to down the remorse in drink until he died in 1482 AD.
Mahmud (1482-1518 AD), the son of Muhammad Shah-III, was forced to retire to Bijapur, owing
to the fierce fights between the Deccani and the Afaqis. He left the administration of the Kingdom in the
hands of Malik Hasan, the Prime minister. He was an inglorious reign, during which the governors of the
provinces began to rule as independent sovereigns, owing nominal allegiance to the Sultan. Muhammad
was followed by his four sons, who ruled successively for about ten years. During this period the
provincial governors threw aboard their semblance of allegiance and began to rule as real monarchs. Such
was the origin of the five kingdoms of the Decccan- the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar, the Adil Shahis of
Bijapur, the Imad Shahis of Berar, the Barid Shahis of Bidar and the Qutb Shahis of Golconda.
8.4 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
The Bahamani kingdom ruled the Deccan from 1347 AD to 1526 AD. Their capital city is
Gulbarga. Its founders set before themselves the model of Delhi administration, which was based on the
Shariat or Muslim law. The Bahamani institutions were therefore modelled on those of Delhi, which were
inherited from those of Arabia, Baghdad and Turkestan. According to the Amir Khusru’s writing Khalifa
is the head of the both the world and the divine world. Sassanid rulers of Persia built their court buildings
like a temple and the people considered their ruler as the God and all were his slaves. But Khalifas
strongly condemned this theory and they are declared themselves as the ambassadors (Niyabtu-i-
Khudavandi) of divine. Most of the Delhi Sultans declared themselves as divine slaves and divine
shadows. Most of the Sultans were followed this theory in the world general and India particular. In the
Deccan the Bahamani Sultans were also followed this theory.
The Bahamani Sultan, like the Indian monarch, was the lord of the realm and the head of the
State. He was the supreme commander of the armed forces and the highest judicial authority. Besides, he
was the “shadow of the god on the earth”. The nobles (Umra) were in a way his subordinate allies. The
masses of people (the various classes of cultivators, artisans and merchants) were below them, separated
by almost impenetrable barriers. The native chieftains shared power with them as junior partners. The
sultan was advised, but not always guided, by a council of eight ministers an associated of the Prime
Minister in the administration. The qualities of an ideal king were set forth in a brochure, called as
“Nasaih-ul -Mulk”. It was prepared by the first Prime Minister Saifuddin Ghori.
5
The king was the supreme authority; he was the fountain head of the justice and administration-
the pivot on which the whole empire moved. He was the state and his will is the government; but king had
a council of his own to help and serve him. During the first sultan Allauddin Bahman Shah (1347-
1358AD) reign the administration as Sahib-e-Arj (Army Supervisor), Qur Begi Maisarsh ( Commander of
the Left Wing), Qur Begi Maimanat (Commander of the Right wing), Dabir (Secretary), Diwan ( Finance
Minister), Saiyad-ul-Hujjab (Lord Chamberlain), Haijjib-ul-Qasbah ( Commissioner of the City). It was
mentioned by Taba taba in his book “Burhan-i-Masir”. Later sultans took modifications in the existing
administrative system.
The Bahamani administration composed as:
1. Vakil-us-Sultan (Prime Minister)
2. Amir-i-Jumla (Finance Minister)
3. Vazir Ashraf (Member for Foreign Affairs)
4. Nazir (Secretary, Finance)
5. Kotwal
6. Vazir-i-Kul (Auditor General)
7. Sadr-Jehon (Member, Judiciary)
Appointments to ministerial posts were made after great deliberation and care. Only persons of
outstanding merit and experience were eligible, army experience was considered necessary. Members of
the royal family were invariably not appointed to such posts.
The duty of every Member was to look after the affairs of his own department and to represent
them to the king and get his ultimate sanction. Vakil-us-Sultante was the head of the council. He had his
own Secretary called Peshwa. Vakil represented the king in his absence and hence was called Deputy
King or Naib Badshah”. The Kotwal, besides being a custodian of peace and tranquility, functioned as
special Megistrate in particular criminal cases. He was also in charge of the Jails. Sadr-Jehan Qazi-ul-
Quzzat was the judicial Member and was also in charge of ecclesiastical affairs. Thus we see that the
Bahmani Government functioned under the aegis and patronage of the Kings through a council composed
of seven members.
6
The king conducted the affairs of Governor through his Durbar and Dewan meeting of the
ministers. The durbar was a larger body in which all the ministers, nobles, officials and Ulemas
assembled. General complaints and grievances were heard and decisions taken. Reports from provincial
Governments were considered and royal orders and decrees used to be read out. The Durbar during the
reign of Bahamanis was an instrument to show off the pump, power and splendour of kingship.
Mohammad Shah-I enhanced the presentation value of the Durbar by placing Takht-u-Firoza acquired
from Warangal. He got the hall decorated with rare carpets, furnishings and curtains. The Durbar was
held in the morning of very Friday and dismissed before noon.
The kingdom was divided into four provinces or tarafs: Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar and
Telangana, along with Indur and Kaulas. Every taraf was under a tarafdar, or governor. The tarafdar
looked after peace, law and order in his area. Tarafdars were appointed personally by the Sultan, and on
his advice, his assistance were appointed. The civil and military affairs looked after by Sar-i-Lashkar.
Allauddin Hassan gave various titiles to the tarafdard. Daulatabad tarafdar was given title of Masdi Ali,
berar tarafdar was given the title of Majlis Ali and the Telangana Tarafdar was given title of Azam
Humayun and Gulbarga Tarafdar was given title of Vakil-us-Sultanate. Under the Tarafdars there were
many tanedar. The Tarafdars influenced both the tarafs and the Sarkars. , tanedars are commanding a fort.
Who was responsible for maintaining of peace, law and order in the area of the forts. Every taraf
consisted of Sarkars or Districts; they were further divided into Parganas or Tahsils. Each pargana had a
group of villages under it.
Sultan appointed officers on important provinces. Saifuddin Ghori, Prime Minister was on
Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Bir and Patan was under the charge of Mohammad Khan, on the North Mahur
Ramgir and a portion of Berer were under the charge of Sistan. Bidar, Kaulas and the districts of
Telangana were under the charge of Azam Humayun.
8.4.1 Judicial Administration
The Bahamani sultans were the custodians of Muslim law and defenders of the faith. They had no
authority to alter it, though they had the right to interpret it. The Bahamani sultans provided a well-
organised department of justice and an effective system of checks and balances. All judicial proceedings
were open, and responsibility was divided among officials of different ranks. Nikitin refers to “several
courts of justice “situated in the king’s palace at Bidar.
The highest court of criminal appeals was the Durbar where the sultan himself dispensed justice.
It was held every Friday. The next higher one for civil and criminal appeals was the Sadr adalat. Presided
7
over by the Sadr or the Quazinul-quzzat. The Sadr who presided over the Sadr adalat was the highest
officials of the judiciary. He was also a member of the central cabinet. Under him there were judicial
officers like Sadr Qazis, muftis, muhtasads, faujdars, darogas etc. they formed the staff of the Sadr adalat.
The Sadr Jahan was the highest official of the ecclesiastical department; all the major religious disputes
were referred to him.
At the provincial and district levels there were two kinds of courts- the court of shara and the
court of the common law. The former was meant for the Muslims. It was presided over by the qazis and
the religious preceptors. The latter was meant for the non-Muslims, presided over by the qazis. They were
assisted by the Hindu pundits.
In the province the tarafdar or governor was the highest judicial officer representing the sultan. In
villages and taluks criminal cases were tried by tanadars; they forwarded the files to the qazi, who gave
him verdict. The village panchayats exercised limited civil powers. Land disputes were occasionally
referred to the tanadars and tarafdars.
The Bahmanis tried to implement the laws of the Shariat to the best of their capacity. Murder was
the punished by murder. Those who abetted murder were also awarded capital punishment. Rebels were
punished with utmost severity. Thieves and dacoits came next. The fact that the heads of 8,000 dacoits
were piled up near the gates of Gulbarga. The first sultan gave public audience twice a day, transacting
business and administering justice to the poor and friendless.
Exemplary punishments were awarded to those who committed serious offences. “A Syed
traveller once complained against Sher Malik, a respectable and reputed amir, for having maltreated and
dishonoured him. The sultan hanged him for the crime. Mujahid robbed some golden coins from the royal
treasury and he was flogged for it. The grandson of Hazrat banda Nawaz drank wine and indulged in
adultery. He, too, was publicly flogged.
During political crises not even a semblance of trail was gone through to get rid of suspects,
however exalted they be. Khwaja Mahmud Gawan, the most talented and faithful minister of Muhammad
Shah-III was orderd to be summarily executed a story implicating Gawan in an act of treason.
In districts and tehsils the vast masses of people were little in contact with the practical
application of the law. The traditional system of village administration was hardly interfered with; the
village panchayat was left free to carry on its functions so long as they did not come into clash with those
of the qazi.
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8.4.2 Military Administration
The military administration of the Bahamanis can be studied under two heads such as Central and
provincial. The central military administration was headed by the Amir-ul-Umra the Commander-in-
chief. The Amir-ul-Umra had 1500 soldiers under his direct command besides other officers commanding
1000, 500, 300 and 100 soldiers. The army under the central authority consisted of 50,000 cavalry and
25,000 infantry during the reign of the first sultan Allauddin Hassan Bahaman Shah. It was increased
gradually by the later kings.
The subordinate officers of the Amir-ul-Umra commanded their separate contingents and were
given either fiefs or a fixed sum form the State to maintain a stipulated number of soldiers. The value of
their fiefdoms was counted in terms of money. Thus an amir of 1000 was granted an iqta whose value was
equivalent to 2,00,000 hons.
During the reign of Muhammad Shah-III drastic reforms were introduced by Muhammad Gawan,
the Prime Minister, in the system of assigning lands to the nobles. Their aim was to curb the power of the
fief-holders. Hitherto the allowances for the maintenance of troops (whether in cash or land) was
calculated at the rate of 1,00,000 huns for 500 horses and 2,00,000 huns for 1,000. Though the amount
had been originally fixed in proportion to the troops at the command of the iqtaidar, the system in course
of time had become prone to corruption: grants were made without reference to the stipulated number of
troops. Later the value of the iqtas was raised to 1,25,000 huns to 2,50,000 huns respectively. A system of
inspection and control was introduced and deductions made when the troops were not regularly
maintained.
Nikitin, the Russian traveler, described Muhammad Shah-III as being “in the power of the
nobles”, of whom Gawan, the initiator of the aforesaid reforms, was one. He kept an army of 2,00,000
men. In the battle against Vijayanagar “Malkhan led 20,000 horse, 60,000 foot and 20 elephants. Bedar
Khan led 30,000 horse. His brother 1,00,000 foot and 25 elephants. The sultan 10,000 horse, 20,000 foot
and 10 elephants. Vazir Khan 15,000 horse, 30,000 foot and 10 elephants. Kutar Khan 15,000 horse,
40,000 foot and 10 elephants. Each Vazir (minister) 10,000 or 15,000 horse and 20,000 foot.”
The Bahmans improved the methods and techniques of warfare. Muhammad Shah-I used
gunpowder in 1366 AD in the siege of Adoni, which was in the hands of the Rayas of Vijayanagar. The
latter, despite their 40,000 cavalry and 5,00,000 infantry, could not withstand the onslaught of the
Bahmans, who had with them only 10,000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry. They had strong artillery
consisting of the able gunmen. They had a strong artillery consisting of the able gunmen.
9
The provincial military organization was headed by the Tarafdar, who had both civil and military
authority. He maintained an army of 10,000 soldiers and render service whenever asked by the king. The
Bahmani armies were composed of both the Hindus and Muslims. The army was divided into many
Lashkars. Every Lashkar had a number of elephants and firearms. The chief weapons of attack were
lance, mace, battle-axe, sword and bow. Ferishta mentions that the Bahamanis used firearms and
maintained an “Atish Khana”. The officer in charge of the “Atish Khana” was called “Mir-i-Atish”. The
“Atish Khana” maintained guns and other firearms useful for the war purposes.
8.4.2.1 Police Administration
The department of Police exercised extraordinary powers. Its head was the Kotwal or
commissioner. He wielded great influence in the court as well as the council. He had subordinate officers
under him and thousands of constables and policemen. He functioned as a special magistrate in certain
criminal cases; He was also the in charge of jails. Cities and towns were guarded by armed policemen.
According to Nikitin, “throughout the night the town of Bidar is guarded by 1,000 men Kotwals, mounted
on horses in full armour, carrying each a light.” The traditional practice of village watchmen guarding
each village during night.

1. Who was the founder of Bahamani Kingdom.
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2. Who was the first Prime Minister of Bahamani Kingdom.
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In 14th century, the society was divided into four classes viz the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Sudras. Later the society divided into five classes such as the aristocracy, the traders, the artisans, the
peasants and the slaves. The Brahmans occupied an important place in the society. They served as
ministers, army generals, army chiefs, advisers and religious heads. The Kshatriyas looked after the
administrative affairs. Other services were provided by the traders of Vaishyas. Sudras provided all types
of services.
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The aristocracy consisted of different grades of nobles: the Khan, the Malik, the Amir etc., whose
official status was decided by the size of the iqtas granted to them in lieu of military service. Most of
them were foreigners (Turks, Persians, and Arabs etc) and Hindu converts who proved their loyalty on
fields of battle. Some of them held responsible positions in the state service. The revenue farmers,
unconverted Hindu chieftains and subordinate officers in the state occupied lower positions in the ladder.
Some of the nobles were ministers of state, governors of provinces, heads of district administration etc.
The Ulema or state theologians formed an important part of the aristocracy. They occupied
religious and judicial posts in the state. They were mostly Persians. A large number of Muslim traders
who migrated from abroad received royal patronage. The wealthy among them found it easy to be
admitted into the ranks of the nobility. Most of them gained the upper hand in commercial activities.
Though direct evidence is lacking, it will not be far from truth to state that Hindu merchant-princes like
Avaci Tippaya Setti were a rare phenomenon under the rule of the Bahmans. Bankers and money-
changers formed an important part of this class. Several economic and social factors helped to modify the
rigidity of the caste system and changed the relative position of the upper castes. The introduction of
Islam, with its declaration of equality and denunciations of caste distinctions, opened its doors to the
members of the lower casts.
Brahmins married in the same caste, but not the same Gotra. Marriage with the same gotra is
prohibited among the Brahmins. Marriage with the niece (sister’s daughter) was in vogue among
Lingayats. Among Reddy, Lingayat and other caste people, marriage in the same caste was common.
Child marriages were common among the traders and sudra families. Divorce was very difficult
in those days. If the husband is handicap, leper or immature mental state, unfit for sexual act, or suffering
from incurable diseases, then the wife was eligible for divorce. Similarly if the wife is barren (could not
get children), not cooperates with the husband in the sexual acts, sometimes male child is not born to that
lady, husband can divorce the wife and marry a second wife. Widow re-marriages were not allowed.
Dowry was essential at the time of marriage. There was Sthree Dhan. Dowry was in vogue in upper class.
It was common in the Deccan. From the dowry, if Sthree Dhan is not given, then the husband has to give
equal share in the property on par with his son.
As per the “Brihaspati Smriti” wife should also die immediately after the death of her husband
(this was called Sati). This tradition was followed by the upper class of the people in the Deccan. When
the Bahamani defeated the Reddy kings, queens of the defeated Reddy kings took to sati. This was
mentioned by Farishta in his writings. Yadava Ramadeva’s queen Kamaisa became sati. The book “Guru
Charita” has praised greatly the Sati practice. Sati was not practiced by sudra. Pregnant women, women
11
carrying children and Sudra women were prohibited to perform Sati. Lower castes did not follow the
practice of Sati. They practiced the widow remarriages. The women of lower class and lower caste had
more freedom, and they had equal participation in fairs and festivals.
Sultan lived in the royal palace. It has variety of fruit gardens, flowers, trees, birds and curtains.
Ministers, royal family members, officials, landlords and nobles lived in big palaces with highly
decorated buildings. Palaces were filled with furniture, chairs and curtains. Nikitin mentioned that the
lords lived a lavish life indicating their status in the society. Palaces are built on a strong foundation.
Walls are constructed with mud and the foundation is laid with hard stones, which was found in the
excavation at Navasa (Ahmadnagar District in Maharashtra). The houses consisted of three or four rooms;
one of them is a kitchen room. The upper ceiling of the building consisted of mud and grass. Use of mud
in the construction of all types of houses was common in those days. Rich people’s house consisted of,
one verandah, drawing room etc. common people house have one or two rooms with bathroom. These
houses were built with mud and wood.
Vivid varieties of rice were used for preparation of food. Higher class people consumed quality
rice. The food was eaten with curd, buttermilk and several types of vegetables. Wheat, millets (Jawar) and
barley was also eaten during that period. Green-gram is used in the food, and ate bread made with jawar
powder. This was the menu of the common people. The sun flower oil was consumed by most of the
people. On the eve of the festivals people consumed sugar and jiggery. Different types of pickles were
also eaten. Nikitin mentioned that the Hindus had different faiths, and they did not dine together. Some
people ate meat, chicken, fish and eggs. Hindhu kings were mostly belonged to Marathas or Reddys.
Higher class women remained behind the veil of Pardha. Nikitin wrote that the Brahmins and their
surrounding area people could not ate meat, chicken, fish and eggs. Common people ate different types of
food. According to Isami in the royal place different types of Non-vegetarian and vegetarian food was
prepared, after taking food they chewed the betel leaves and in the palace table imported from China was
used for dining.
In those days people used to wear Dhoti and Uttariam and tied head dress. Wearing of footwear
was common in those days. Women wore sarees and Cholis (blouses). During the fairs and festivals, silk
and costly dress was worn by the people of higher class. Woolen blankets were used during winter
season, similar to the dress that of the Muslims used in Delhi. Two piece clothes were used as head dress.
Dress made of silk was worn beyond the elbow and another dress beyond the knee was used. Trousers,
petticoats and dupattas were used. They covered the complete body with the dress. Both the Hindu and
Muslims wore different ornaments, neck ornaments, rings to the fingers studded with varieties of coloured
12
stones were worn by the people. During the summer season, Uttariam was not worn by the common
people. Farmers and crafts men never wore the Uttariam.
Joint family system was common in those days. The eldest person looked after the house hold
affairs. Sometimes though the brothers were living separately, participated together in the religious
performances, festivals and fairs. Polygamy and polyandry was accepted but practically was very
difficult. Ferishta mentioned about the child marriages in the Deccan. “Jnaneshwari” and “Leela Charitra”
supports the child marriages. Brahmins on the eve of marriage ceremony ride on horse. According to the
contemporary writings Deshmukhs, Kumbhi, Sutar, Lohar, Gurav, Sonar, Daangar, Jangam, Mahar and
Bheel used horses. In the Muslim marriages horses were used. The Mang community bride rode on a
buffalo, and the Kikaris and Burudus did not use any animal to take their bride, simply the bride walked.
Other communities’ peoples especially artisans rode on a bull.
The Bahmani sultans during leisure time went to hunting with the army and concubines. They
enjoyed in hunting.
Domestic slave under the Bahamanis occupied a peculiar position. The Muslim slave had the
same social rights as any other member of Muslim society. If he was originally a Hindu, probably of a
lower caste, his social status was decided better. A slave under the employ of the sultan was usually
manumitted after some time, and was provided with an honourable position, even with rank and an
elevated social status.
The mother of the boy king, Shamsuddin Dawood-II, was a manumitted slave girl. After her son’s
accession to the throne, she was raised to the rank of dowager queen. Firoz Shah in his last days relegated
his power to two slaves, Harshiyar and Bedar. Their influence over the old king was so great that they
could gather a force 20,000 of cavalry and 30 elephants to subdue the king’s brother, Ahmad Shah, who
was to ascend the throne after the sultan’s death. Slaves like Yusuf Adil, Malik Hassan and Khasim Barid
rose to the highest rung of the official ladder.
There were slaves among the native, too. Nikitin mentions the sale of “black people” in the city
of Bidar, besides “horses, goods, stuffs, silks and all sorts of other merchandise”. These “black” slaves
served native as well as foreign chiefs. They were not engaged in production.
Agriculture was the back-bone of the state. Cultivators depend on rainfall. Short fall of rain is
common in the Deccan. They were depended on well and tank irrigation. The cultivators cultivate their
13
lands on traditional method. They used wooden plough for cultivation. Most of the land cultivated food
grains. Paddy, Bajra, Jowar, Bengal gram, green gram and red gram etc were cultivated. Vegetables and
fruits were also produced in Deccan. Traditional manure was used for the land.
The Bahmanis continued their predecessors’ practice of systematic survey and settlement of
lands. This was a mean of augmenting revenue. The Bahmanis retained the tradition of granting fiefdoms
to subordinate chiefs. Individual villages or group villages were distributed to the nobles on condition that
they supplied on demand a stipulated number of troops. These were called iqtas. The grantees collected
revenue from the iqtas for their own maintenance and the maintenance of troops. Thus, the grants were
conditional. As long as the iqtadar fulfilled the conditions, he could appropriate the entire revenue from
the area. The villagers continued to own the land, either as a community or as individuals, as before. The
iqtadars says Sinha: “were actually feudal lords”.
The Bahamanis collected land revenue 1/6 of the gross production. Later on, during Muhammad
Shah’s reign, when a systematic survey was under taken the able guidance of Prime Minister Muhammad
Gawan, land was classified according to its fertility, irrigational facilities and nearness to the market.
Based on these considerations land revenue was fixed. Wet, cash and garden crop yielded more revenue
while the dry crop was assessed low.
Three or four famines swept the countryside during the rule of the Bahamanis. The relief
measures were undertaken by Muhammad Shah-II. Popular tradition credits Ahmad Shah-I with a miracle
which is supposed to have brought rain to the people of the ‘Deccan. This earned him the title of Wali
(saint), which is still current in Bidar and its neighbourhood. During the reign of Muhammad Shah-III a
severe drought occurred in the Deccan for two years.
Most of the industries that flourished for lng and those patronized by king’s and nobles continued
to thrive. Warangal was famous for its carpets and tanning industry. Bhongir in Nalgonda district and
Nirmal in Adilabad were reputed for the manufacture of swords, arrow-heads, knives and daggers,
besides crucibles and vessels made of brass, bronze and other metals. The weaving industry of the coastal
Andhra continued to prosper. Nicolo Conti says that the ships built during the reign of Allauddin
Bahaman Shah-II were larger than those built in Italy. Bidar was a pot-manufacturing centre, and the
Bidri work was famous in India and abroad. Trade in diamond was of particular importance. The diamond
mines situated a Kollur in Krishna must have continued working during this period. Besides these,
Ahmad Shah-I obtained possession of a diamond mine at Kulum, situated in Gondwana. Nikitin, relying
on a popular tradition, says that diamonds were available on the top of a rocky hill, situated 30 kors from
Bidar. Referring to crude diamonds, he says that each was sold for “2,000 pounds weight of gold per
14
lokot(meaning perhaps carat), the Kona diamond is sold at 10,000 pounds of gold per lokot”. At Raichur
diamonds were sold at the rate of “5 rubles a parcel”, but the least ten; crude diamonds were sold at a
tanka a parcel.
Tanned leather was exported from Thana to Arabia and Persia Gulf. Barbosa mentions that
Portuguese traders used to visit Bijapur and other centres regularly to purchase velvet cloth and fine
muslins. There was extensive trade with Arabia, Persia, Africa and the countries of Europe. The main
exports were textiles, Bidri works, carpets, and other traditional articles like spices and precious stones.
The main imports were horses, silks, Chinese goods, spices, drugs, pearls and perfumes. According to
Fersihta, Firoz Shah “every year dispatched vessels from the ports of Goa and Chaul to procure the
manufacture and curious productions of all quarters of the world.
The main outlets of foreign trade were Dabul, Chaul and Goa on the west Coast and
Machilipatnam, Motupalli and others on the east. Barbosa noted that fine muslins and calicoes were
produced in the Bahamani kingdom and exported from Chaul along with cereals like wheat, rice, millet
and gingelly. According to Nikitin, Dabul was a very extensive sea-port, where many horses are brought
from Mysore, Rabart (Arabia0, Khorassan, Turkestan and Neghostan.
Inland trade too advanced. In Bidar there is a trade in horses, goods, stuffs, silks and all sorts of
other merchandise and also in black people, but no other articles is sold but Indian goods. At a place
called Shikhbaludin Peratry and a bazaar named Aladinand a fair was held once in a year “where people
from all parts of India assemble and trade for ten days”. As many as 20, 000 horses are brought there for
sale from Beder, which is 20 kors distant, and besides every description of goods; and that fair is the best
throughout the land of Hindustan.
Ibn Batuta refers to trade guilds which were very active in Bidar, Gulbarga, Paithan and the ports
of Dabul, Chaul and Goa.
The rates of duty collected on essential goods and animals were nominal. Their purpose seems to
be not revenue but encouragement to trade. Horses per head one dinar, cows and buffaloes per head one
fanam, goat per head 5 jital, camel per head ½ jital, elephant per head one dinar. No customs duty was
imposed on grass, wood and stores but salt tax was remained.
Rich merchants hailing from Iran, Turkey and other countries were patronized by the Bahamanis.
They came to occupy positions of vantage.
The Bahmani Sultans established mints at Bidar, Gulbarga and Fathabad. The Bahmanis from the very
beginning attached great importance to monopoly in coinage. Muhammad Shah-I, the organizer of the
15
state, prohibited the circulation local coins of different values and denominations. He minted gold coins in
large quantities and made them legal tender throughout the kingdom. Copper coins, the silver ones, struck
by them at Gulbarga were also on the Delhi model, but in different sizes. After establishment of mint
copper coins become more plentiful, and a large variety of dies are shown on plates VII and XI.
8.7 RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS
The Lingayat movement born in the 12th century spread very rapidly. In the time of Bahamanis it
was flourishing, having hundreds of votaries in its fold. The Lingayat Movement was started by Basava
and Chenna Basava in the 12th century. Lingayatism was opposed to Buddhism and Jainism. It
emphasized the existence of one God. It was advocated, the abandonment of cremation purification death
ceremonies and inequalities of caste and sex, reform of marriage and the conception of one brave
community led by a leader.
Majority people in Deccan were Hindus. They performed pooja for their god and goddesses.
Nasik and Paithan were the important centres for Hindus. Vithoba temple at Pandaripur is pious for both
the Kannada and the Maratha people. Dattatreya was chief god at a pious place Gangapur. In Tulzapur,
Bhavani temple was famous. According to the 1398 AD inscription of this place a fair was held every
year. This fair was started during the Feroz Shah period. Tulzapur, Kolhapur, Matapur and Saptashrungi
the four places are important Bavani places. Sirpur near Akola was a Jaina worshipping place. Riddipur
near Buldana is famous for Mahanubhavas.
Along with Hindu religion, Islam is one of the largest religions in the world played an important
role in the Deccan society. It was established by Prophet Muhammad in Saudi Arabia. According to Islam
every Muslim must pray 5 times a day as Namaz, observe Roza (during Ramzan month), Friday prayer in
Jama Masjid, Jakat, they must visit Mecca at least once in their life and to follow Kalma is very
important. The Sufis were ascetics who renounced the world. They were men of learning. Though often
householders, they were genuinely indifferent to material comforts. Claiming to be true Muslims, they
believed in an ethical religion and strove to attain salvation by graded exercises practiced in seclusion.
Naturally, the uninitiated masses felt drawn to their life of piety. The Sufis freely mixed with the sadhus
and sanyasins. The Hindu ideal of a Guru found its parallel in the Sufi. In short span of time Sufism got
popularity.
One of the outstanding Sufi saints of the Deccan was Shaikh Zainuddin Dawood. He lived when
Muhammad Shah-I was ruling the kingdom. He retired to the tomb of Burhanuddin, his preceptor, and
challenged anyone to remove him from there. Another reputed Saint was Hazrat Syed Muhammad Gesu
Draz. He was born in Delhi in 1321 AD. He arrived at Gulbarga with a number of disciples during the
16
reign of Firoz Shah and settled down in the beautiful Khanqah (mutt) near great mosque. He preached the
Chisti order of Sufism. The sultan granted number of villages to the saint for the support of himself and
his disciples. The great saint died within a month of Ahmad Shah’s accession. Gesu Daraz died in the
year 1422 AD. The sultan, before leaving Gulbarga for Bidar, got erected the present magnificent tomb of
Muhammad Gesu Daraz at Gulbarga. Side by side with the tomb one finds a saivite temple of Chenna
Basava, a Lingayat who turned into a Sufi saint while in the company of Gesu Daraz. His teachings “were
like those of Khaja Saheb, emphasizing universal brotherhood and unity of godhead”. Ahmad Shah
himself attained sainthood, bearing the title Wali. The Muslims of Bidar even today call him Ahmad
ShahWali, and the hindus Alam Prabhu.
The Hindus celebrated Dassara, Deepawali, Sankranti, and Holi etc. Muslims celebrated Ramzan
and Bakrid. Sultans participated in both the Hindu and Muslim festivals.
The educational system introduced by the Bahamanis must have helped people to overcome the
traditional ideas of obscurantism in howsoever small a degree. The need to fill up the lower
administrative posts with natives loyal to the ruling class impelled the letter to throw open their
educational institutions to all the castes and creeds without distinction. They established mosque schools
imparted not only religious but secular knowledge was. They were mostly residential in nature, enjoying
state grants. Persian and Arabic were taught in these schools. Besides these there were high schools and a
few colleges. There were two colleges, one at Bidar and another at Ellichpur, each of them equipped with
big libraries. The college at Ellichpur received an annual grant of 3,000 dinars. Besides this there were
schools in Daultabad, Gulbarga and in fact in all other places. In the non-residential schools students were
given monthly stipends and scholarships. The teachers were paid handsomely. The caste distinctions were
not observed in admitting students, several boys belonging to all castes must have joined them.
Though direct evidence is lacking, one can presume that natural and biological sciences, besides
mathematics, history, geography and religion must have been taught in these institutions. Islam must have
been presented in the brightest of colours, coupled with powerful attacks on Hinduism. The Bahamanis by
themselves were great patron of learning. During the reign of Muhammad Shah-I a number of eminent
scholars from Middle East crowded his capital. They made the Deccan “the centre of the learned and the
envy of all parts of India”.
17
Muhammad Shah-II established free schools for orphans at Gulbarga, Bidar, Khandahar
Ellichpur, Daulatabad, Chaul, Dabhol, etc., in which Muslim children were taught, clothed, fed and
housed.
The Bahamanis had a big library of their own, to which Firoz Shah made several contributions.
He increased the number of books to several thousands. It contained rare and valuable books brought
from several countries. During the reign of Ahmad Shah-I the capital became a rendezvous of the learned
and the pious from Iran, Iraq, and Arabia etc. Ahmad Shah-II was the sultan; Shaikh Ibrahim dedicated to
him his work “Maarif-ul-Ulum”, in which he catalogued all the known sciences of his day, along with
their definitions.
The great University at Bidar, which was constructed during the reign of Muhammad Shah-III,
was an imposing structure of three storeys. Renowned scholars from various countries gathered here. The
library attached to the university must have been a very large one. Rare and valuable manuscripts were
presented to it. Muhammad Gawan, the prime minister, “was frequently to be seen in the corridors of the
college in his spare hours; but we also read in his letters how eager he was to get the best among the
learned in Iran and Iraq to come and lecture at Muhammadabad-Bidar. In fact, he left no stone unturned to
get such giants of contemporary learning as Maulana Nuruddin Jami, the great Persian scholar Jalaluddin
Dawani, Shaikh Sadruddin, Abdur Rahman Rawasi and other to come to the Deccan.
Many scholars written works about Bahamani rule. Adhari written a work on “ Bahaman Nama” ,
Isami wrote “Futuh-us-Salatin, Gesudaraz work on “ Anis-ul-Ushshaq”, Muhammad Gawan work on
“Riyaz-ul-Insha and Manazir-ul-Insha and Syed Ali Taba Taba”Burhan-i-Masir were most important and
provide useful information.
The migration of Turks, Arabs, Persians, etc., to the Deccan helped a lot to the development
architecture. The foreigners brought with them architectural ideas which had developed in the Middle
East for centuries. When they began to construct religious and secular buildings like palaces, mosques
and tombs, they came into contact with the traditional that had already developed. The distinctive features
of Turkish, Arabic or Persian architecture are seen in the standardized style of the palace, the mosque and
the mausoleum. Their buildings had bulb-like domes, small towers, arches etc. the mosque consisted of a
large, rectangular courtyard without a ceiling; it was surrounded by arches on all sides. The call to prayer
was made from a tall tower or minaret. There were arches in the gateway. Decorative devices consisted of
raised plinths, stone-carving and inlay, besides fretwork and engraved calligraphy. Many of these were
new to the Indian architects. The Bahamanis utilized freely the services of local designers and craftsmen,
who were among the most skilful in the world.
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The Jame Masjid at Gulbarga was constructed during the reign of Muhammad Shah-I was
magnificent structure. It discloses the hand of an expert designer, who borrowed from the styles of Persia,
Syria and turkey but abandoned some of their traits under Hindu influence. The unique features of the
mosque are that its courtyard is entirely covered. No other mosque in India presents this characteristic.
The tombs of the kings from Mujahid-I to Ahmad Shah-I though free from Iranian influence,
reverting to the orthodox Tughlaq style with its sloping walls and flat domes, the western corner of
Ghiasuddin’s tomb “shows a marked Hindu influence which was to develop further in Firoz Shah tomb
and in Afzal Khan’s Mosque and entirely replace the Tughlaq tradition in the course of time. The tomb of
Firoz Shah, the most imposing sculpture at Gulbarga, represents an intermixture of Iranian, the Hindu and
Delhi styles. The unique feature of Firozabad, a city which was Firoz got built for the vast member of his
wives- Hindu as well as Muslim is the combined use of dome and pyramid roof.
The mausoleum of Hazrat Gesu Daraz, the great saints of Gulbarga, along with that his son, is a
“perfect specimen of Perso-Deccani or Bahmani architecture, and is built on the principles already
adopted in Firoz tomb”.
Bidar, too has a number of buildings which display originality in design and workmanship. The
grandest building is the throne hall whose composite structure displays Hindu jambs which support the
arches in the doors of the palace. The credit for the construction of this building goes to Ahmad Shah-I.
His tomb, whose interior is decorated, shows excellence in workmanship. The inscriptions are painted in
bright colours, studded here and there with precious stones of inestimable value. At Bidar we find a
beautiful tomb of Shah Khalilullah, an Afaqi nobleman. This has no dome at all.
The way Ahmad Shah Wali’s death anniversary is celebrated every year by Hindus as well as
Muslims. The public of Bidar must also be attending physical exercises for athletic training; their traces
are discernible even today. The city was divided into four talims, called after their founders, viz., Siddiq
Shah, Nur Khan, Maniyar and Pansal. They radiate from the Hindu monument, Chaubarah.

1. Who was started the Lingayat Movement.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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2. Who established orphans Schools at Gulbarga and Bidar.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
8.9 SUMMERY
Allauddin Bahaman Shah (1347-1358), the founder of the Bahamani Kingdom was an extended
kingdom. The Prime Ministers actively taken steps for the extension of the empire and strengthen the
Kingdom. Muhammad Gawan played an important role in the Kingdom. He established a Big Madrasa.
He encouraged education and literature. The local (Deccani) and non-local (Afaqis) conflict started during
this period. Most of the rulers fought against the Vijayanagar Empire and got victory. They constructed
big forts in different parts of the Kingdom. The Sufi Saint Gesudaraz occupied prominent place in the
history of Deccan.
Check Your Progress Answers-I

1. Allauddin Bahaman Shah.
2. Saifuddin Ghori.
Check Your Progress Answers-II
1. Basava and Chenna Basava.
2. Muhammad Shah-II.

1. Explain the Socio-Religious conditions during Bahamani rule.
2. Discuss the Cultural Conditions during Bahamani Rule.
3. Analyse the Economic conditions during Bahamani Rule.
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Explain the role of Mohammad Gawan in the development of Administration.
2. Analyse the important Sufi saints in the Bahamani Kingdom.
3. Discuss an important monuments constructed by Bahamanis.
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8.12 BOOKS FOR FURTHER READINGS
1. Haig, Woolsey : The Combridge History of India, Delhi, 1965.

2. Satyanarayana, K : A Study of the History and Culture of the Andhras, Vol-II, New Delhi, 1983.
3. Sherwani, H.K : The Bahamanis of the Deccan, Hyderabad, 1953.
4. Sinha, S.K : Medieval History of Deccan, Hyderabad, 1964.
5. Yazdani : Antiquities of Bidar, Calcutta, 1922.
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Unit-9: QUTB SHAHI POLITY, SOCIETY ECONOMY AND CULTURE
Contents
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sources
9.3 Political History
9.3.1 Sultan Quli Qutb Shah (1512-1543)
9.3.2 Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah (1543-1550)
9.3.3 Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah (1550-1580)
9.3.4 Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah ( 1580-1612)
9.3.5 Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612-1626)
9.3.6 Abdullah Qutb Shah (1626-1672)
9.3.7 Abul Hasan Tanashah (1672-1687)
9.4 Administration of Qutb Shahis
9.5 Military system of Qutb Shahis
9.6 Judicial System
9.7 Land Revenue System
9.8 Socio-Religious Condtions
9.10 Trade and Commerce
9.11 Cultural Condtions
9.12 Summary
1
9.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the Political Conditions of Golconda Kingdom.

2. Explain the Economic Conditions during Qutb Shahi Rule.
3. Discuss the Social Condtions in Golconda Kingdom.
4. Analyse the Religiosu Condtions in Qutb Shahi Rule.
5. Desctibe the development of literature during Qutb Shahi Rule.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The founder of the Qutb Shahi dynasty was Sultan Qutb-ul-Mulk. After disintegration of
Bahamani kingdom, several governors declared their independence. Sultan Quli also declared
independence and established Golconda kingdom with its capital Golconda. They were ruled from 1512
to 1687AD. They were fought with contemporary Vijayanagar, Bijapur, Berar, Bidar and Ahmadnagar
kingdoms. Mughal rulers slowly came to Deccan and established their supremacy over the Deccan. The
Qutb Shahi sultans encouraged Agriculture, irrigation, industry, trade, literature and architecture. The
Qutb Shahi kingdom occupied prominent place in the history of Deccan.
9.2 SOURCES
Ghazinagar inscription of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah, Badshah-e-Ashurkhana, Darus Shifa

inscription of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, Miyan Misq inscription of Abul Hasan Tanisha, the
Pangal and Koilkonda inscriptions were useful to reconstruction of the Qutb Shahi History.
Mirza-Ibrahim-Zubari‟s work Basantin-us-Salatin (Dastur-ul-Amal) is providing very usefull,

authentic information about the Qutb Shahi polity, its nature and structure. The author tried to describe
the Qutb Shahi administration in just thirteen pages. According to eminent historian H.K. Sherwani,
Mirza-Ibrahim-Zubari was a contemporary of Abdullah-Qutbshah (1626-1672). This book was written on
the model of Siasat Nama written by Nizam-ul-Mulk-Tusi, the court scholar of „Sultan-Malik-Shah-
Seljuki‟, the ruler of Central Asia. The author of Siasat Nama discussed the duties and objectives of a
2
Sultan. The Qutb Shahi Sultans followed the guidelines laid in Siasat Nama. But they also honoured, the
local peoples desires and local laws in running the administration.
9.3 POLITICAL HISTORY
Qutb Shahi sultans, Sultan Quli, Jamsheed Quli, Ibrahim Quli, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah,
Sultan Mohammad Qutb Shah, Abdullah Qutb Shah and Abul Hasan Tansha were ruled the kingdom
nearly 175 years. They were extended their Kingdom and fought with surrounding dynasties.
9.3.1 Sultan Quli Qutb Shah
Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk (1512-1543), the founder of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, was a scion of the
royal family of Hamdan and a survivor and the Qara Quyulu tribe (Black Sheep) of Turkistan. His tribe
was subjugated by the rival group of Aq Quyunlu (White Sheep). Factional fights between the two led to
the occupation of the kingdom of Qara Quyunlu and the murder of almost all the male members of the
tribe. Under such perilous circumstances, Sultan Quli fled to India. He came to seek his fortune in the
Deccan towards the close of Muhammad Shah Bahmani‟ reign and settled down at Bidar, the capital of
the Kingdom. He was well received by Muhammad Shah, and in course of time was enlisted in the royal
body guard. One of his enterprising acts in hunting expedition resulted in the presentation of the district
of Warangal as a Jagir and 150 Arab horses in harness to Sultan Quli. He was awarded the title of Khawas
Khan in 1487, when he saved the life of the Sultan from the rebellious Deccanis in the fort. A rebellion in
Konkan, led by Bahadur Gilani, was suppressed by him. This won him the title Qutb-ul-Mulk (Pillar of
the State). On his return to Bidar he was granted the title Amir-ul-Umra and appointed as tarafdar
(governor) of Telangana, along with the fort of Golconda.
After the death of Muhammad Gawan, Bahamani Kingdom slowly declined and the provinces
such as Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Bidar declared their independence as early as 1489 AD. But Sultan
Quli Qutb Shah was declared independence in 1512 AD.
Sultan Quli waited till Vijayanagar was weakened by internal dissensions. He strengthened the
rampart of Golconda fort, reorganized his army and suppressed the revolts of local chiefs. He marched
against Sitapati, seized some of his strongholds, including Bellamkonda, and defeated him in the battle of
Khammamet. The Hindu chiefs headed by Sitapati, fought a sanguinary battle at Penganchiprolu. Sultan
Quli met them with small army. The immense numbers of the Hindus served only to increase the disorder,
resulting in their utter defeat. The joint forces of Vijayanagar and Devarakonda, numbering several
thousand, suffered a similar disaster at Pangal; a few thousand Muhammadan soldiers won a decisive
victory over the joint force.
3
Then followed the capitulation of Ghanpur, Koilkonda and other forts. One of the Bahamani
nobles, Qiwam-ul-Mulk, who began to lay waste large parts of Telangana, was defeated in a pitched
battle.
Kondavidu, Kondapalli and Bellamkonda were under the possession of Achyuta Raya. Sultan
Quli attack against these forts and seized them one after another. Achyuta Raya had sue for peace. He
agreed to pay an annual tribute of three lakhs of hons to the Sultan. Later Sultan suppressed the revolt of
Harichand, who held the fort of Nalgonda. The ruler of Bidar surrendered Medak to Sultan Quli.
Sultan Quli was a military leader of exceptional qualities a remarkable strategist and powerful
monarch. Starting his carrier as a bodyguard, he became the ruler of an extensive kingdom which
included large tract of Coastal Andhra, Rayalaseema and Telangana. He ruled 24 years as governor and
26 years as sovereign.
A civil war broke out between his sons in the last days of his life, as result of which he fell a prey
to the machinations of his third son, Jamsheed. The latter hatched a powerful conspiracy from inside the
prison, got his father killed while engaged in his afternoon prayer and crowned himself as king.
9.3.2 Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah (1543 – 1550 CE)
Jamsheed ruled for seven years. His reign was the ugliest chapter of Golconda history. Mahmud
Hamdani, whom Jamsheed employed to kill the sultan, was himself murdered, so as to draw the curtain
and conceal the crime. Jamsheed killed him his own hand. His younger brother Ibrahim, sensing danger to
his own life, fled to Bidar with a few hundred horsemen and appraised its king of the situation. Ali Barid
of Bidar, accompanied by Ibrahim laid siege to Golconda with a large army. Jamsheed, in his turn sought
the help of Burhan Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar. The latter invaded Ali Barid‟s territory, as a result of
which Ali Barid withdraw to Bidar. Ibrahim, finding that he was left in the lurch, fled to Vijayanagar,
where he stays till the death of his brother.
Burhan Nizam shah of Ahmadnagar appealed to Jamsheed to help him in recovering Sholapur
from Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur. Jamsheed had to accede to his ally‟s request. Finding that Ali Barid
joined hands with Ibrahim, Burhan made friends with Darya Imad Shah of Berar. The allied forces of
Bidar and Bijapur were defeated by the three confederate forces such as Ahmadnagar, Golconda and
Berar. To overwhelm Ali Barid of Bidar Jamsheed allied with Bijapur and Ahmadnagar, whereupon the
forces of Ahmadnagar captured Kandahar, an important fort of Bidar. Unaware of this alliance, Ali Barid
of Bidar sought the help of his old friend, Ibrahim Ali Adil Shah. The latter treacherously imprisoned him
and annexed a large part of the southern kingdom. Burhan Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar attacked
4
Sholapur, a bone of contention between Bijapur and Ahmadnagar for long time. Both being equal in
strength, each sought the help of Jamsheed. The latter offered to assist Ibrahim on condition that he
released the king of Bidar. Ibrahim conceded the request. But Jamsheed did not keep his word. Instead, he
marched against Bidar and replaced Ali Barid on the throne. The latter offered large presents to Jamsheed
as a mark of gratitude. Latter Ali Barid with the help of Ibrahim Adil Shah marched against Kaulas, but
was defeated by Jamsheed‟s forces at Narayanakhed.
Taking an advantage of these feuds, Ramaraj of Vijayanagar took the initiative and scored a
victory over the Bijapur forces on the river Bhima. Ibrahim Adil Shah, finding that he was backing the
wrong horse, broke up the coalition by making concessions to Ahmadnagar and Ramaraj. This resulted in
an attack on the Golconda kingdom by the Bijapur forces. But soon Jamsheed asserted his superiority
over all his rivals by his bravery, strategy and statesmanship.
Jamsheed died of cancer in 1550 AD. After his death began a struggle for power among the
nobles. Some of them, headed by minister, Jagadeva Rao, and supported by all the Naikwars, invited
Ibrahim, the youngest brother of Jamsheed, who was taking shelter at Vijayanagar for seven years when
Ramaraj was the ruler of that kingdom. Ibrahim returned to Golconda, accompanied by Ramaraj upto a
spot of 25 miles of Vijayanagar. At Koilakonda he received grand welcome.
9.3.3 Ibrahim-Quli-Qutb Shah (1550 – 1580 CE)
After the death of Jamsheed Quli, political confusion prevailed in the kingdom, Subhan Quli, a
seven years old son of late Sultan was declared as the new Sultan by his mother and some selfish nobles.
Under these conditions, Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah, the youngest son of Sultan Quli, the founder of
the kingdom, returned to Golconda with the help of Aliya Ramaraya, the de-facto ruler of Vijayanagar.
During the three decades rule of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah, the glory of Golconda enhanced in every field.
He was the contemporary of great Mughal emperor Akbar. Friendly, diplomatic relations existed between
Golconda and Mughal rulers.
In interstate relations he relied more on craft than on velour. In 1557 Ibrahim joined hands with
Ahmadnagar and laid siege to Gulbarga which belonged to Bijapur. But soon he raised the siege on the
request of Bijapur and the advice of Ramaraj, his old friend. Soon after, he joined Bijapur and
Vijayanagar in besieging Ahmadnagar. He commented his friendship with Ramaraj by sending on armed
forces against his two rebel brothers and seized the fort of Adoni from their hands. He supported Ramaraj,
in spite of the asylum he had given to Jagdeva Rao, his traitorous general, and on his advice helped
Bijapur in his effort to recover Sholapur and Kalyan from Ahmadnagar. It is reported that the Hindu and
5
Muhammadan forces laid waste the whole area from Parenda to Junnar and from Ahmadnagar to
Daulatabad; Vijayanagara forces insulted the honour of Mussalman women and destroyed the mosques in
a number of places.
The united forces of Golconda and Ahmadnagar now invested Kalyani, which belonged to
Bijapur. Finding no alternative, the sultan of Bijapur sought the help of Ramaraj. The two armies
proceeded against Kalyani and forced the invaders to raise the siege. It is related that the Vijayanagar
army again laid waste the countryside and perpetrated atrocities against Muhammadans and their religion.
When Ramaraj sent his son and two renegades of Golconda, Jagdebva Rao and Amin-ul-Mulk , to ravage
the country around Golconda, Ibrahim had sign a treaty under which the forts of Pangal and Ghanpur
were ceded to Vijayanagar. The treaty left Ramaraj supreme in the south. He subjugated Bijapur, subdued
Ahmadnagar and occupied a number of Qutb Shahi forts.
This state‟s of affairs foreboded ruin to the Deccan sultanates. They came to realize the disastrous
consequences of disunity and began to take steps to bring about unity among themselves. Four of the five
sultanates-Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bidar joined hands to come together and liquidate
Vijayanagar. The first three were in forefront. A brief account of the battle that was fought in December
1565 AD (Rakshasi-Thangidi) between Vijayanagar on one side and the allied forces the other, as well as
the reasons for the fall of Vijayanagar, has been given elsewhere.
After the fall of Vijayanagar, the capital was shifted to Penukonda and Sadasiva became the
emperor. The struggle between Sadasiva and his brother Tirumala ended in the murder of the former and
the accession of the latter. The provincial chiefs became virtually independent. In the far south an almost
continuous civil war raged between the Nayaks of Madura, Tanjore and Jinjee. The great coalition which
had liquidated the power of Vijayanagar disappeared within five years of the battle of Rakshasi-Thangdi.
At Penukonda Tirumala was succeeded by his son, Sriranga-I. Finding that his authority ceased to
exist in the territory around Rajahmundry, which was parceled out by a number of chieftains, Ibrahim
Qutb Shah sent an expedition against them, the chief of who were Sitapati and Vidyadhar. Both of them
were forced to surrender the fort of Rajahmundry. After that Ibrahim forces marched to the north
occupied Kasimkota and subjugated the whole of southern Orissa, which included Potnur, the farthest
limit of the Qutb Shahi kingdom in north.
In 1579 Ibrahim captured Udayagiri, the capital of a province of Vijayanagar. It was one of the
strongest forts in the region. Next Vinukonda, Kocharlakota and Cumbum were subjugated. Kondavidu
fell after a heavy bombardment in April 1579. He supported Ahmadnagar in investing Sholapur, which
6
had been presented to Bijapur as dowry of Princess Chand Bibi. The Allied forces marched against
Bijapur, the capital of the kingdom. The allied commanders requested Ibrahim Qutb Shah to direct the
campaign himself. But the sultan expired by that time in 1580.
9.3.4 Muhammad-Quli-Qutb Shah (1580 – 1612 CE)
During the reign of Muhammad Quli the conflict with Bijapur continued. The main army planned
the capture of Bijapur, whose citadel was defended by Chandi Bibi, the brave widow of Ali Adil Shah.
Local revolts of Kondavidu, Nandyal, Gandikota and other places were suppressed. Expedition sent by
Vijayanagar were defeated by the Golconda forces. Mohammad Quli‟s army crossed the Krishna and
attacked the fort of Muslimadugu, a place famous for diamond mines in its neighbourhood, and
subjugated it. Next Nandyal and Velgode were overpowered, and then Sirvel, Jammalamadugu and
Chennur. Hande Hanumappa of Anantapur, a fief –holder under the Qutb Shahis, attacked the famous
temple of Ahobilam and plundered it of the jewels belonging to the idol.
This was the period when the Mughal influence began to be felt in the Deccan. The sultan of
Ahmadnagar appealed to Bijapur and Golconda to join hands in a common struggle against the Mughals.
They both agreed to the proposal and sent large armies in support of Ahmadnagar. But, before they
reached Ahmadnagar, the Mughal occupied the city. This happened in December 1595. But the fort of
Ahmadnagar did not yield, thanks to the strong resistance of the defenders who fought under the
leadership of Chand Bibi. A treaty was concluded according to which Berar was ceded to the Mughals,
leaving the bulk of the Nizam Shahi territory intact. A decisive battle was fought at Sonapet in January
1597 between Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmadnagar on one side and the Mughals on the other. The conflict
resulted in the flight of the allies. Ahmadnagar fell in 1600 AD. Chand Bibi sought to enter into a treaty
with the Mughals. But they refused. The valourous heroine was murdered. The whole of the Nizam Shahi
territory was as good as gone.
During the closing years of his reign Muhammad Quli quelled the revolt of the commandant of
Kondavidu, carried on a long drawn guerilla war against Bijapur and besieged Penukonda, the
Vijayanagar capital. The siege was raised on false promises made by Venkata-II. As a result, Muhammad
Quli had to retrace his steps. He was forced to surrender the great fortress of Gandikota.
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah received the envoy of Akbar, Masood Baig with great respect. He
sent costly gifts to Mughal emperor. Friendship continued till Akbar‟s death in 1605 CE. Jahangir‟s
attacks on Golconda caused damage to their friendship. Muhammad-Quli-Qutb Shah died in the year
1612 CE.
7
9.3.5 Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612 – 1626 CE)
Sultan Muhammad-Qutb Shah, son of Mirza Muhammad Amin and nephew of Muhammad Quli
became the Sultan of Golconda in November, 1612 CE. He married Hayat-Baksh Begum, the daughter of
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah. He ruled for fourteen years. Muhammad Qutb Shah‟s mother was „Khanam
Agha‟. She belongs to the family of Imam Musakhajim, the head of the Shia Sect.
Malik Ambar continued his valiant fight against Jahangir‟s forces, the sultans of Bijapur and
Golconda signed a treaty with the Mughals, agreeing to pay peshkash. They loaded the Mughal envoy
with priceless presents. Thus, left alone, the slave general Ahmadnagar had no alternative but to withdraw
from Ahmadnagar after occupying it for 10 years. Ahmadnagar signed a treaty, according to which he had
pay a tribute of twelve lakhs; Bijapur had to pay eighteen and Golconda twenty lakhs.
The court intrigues at Delhi, followed by the revolt of Shah Jahan against his father, saved the
Deccan. Shah Jahan took refuge at Daulatabad, negotiating for Deccan sultan‟s help. The king of
Golconda, while pretending neutrality, helped Shah Jahan with cash and cereals.
Sultan Mohammad encouraged the Dutch and the English to establish their trade centres on the
east coast and strengthen them by fortifications. The Dutch had their factories, at Machilipatanam,
Nizampatanam, Pulicat and Nagapatnam. These centres were intended to organize the production,
purchase and sale of a large variety of textiles, spices and miscellaneous articles saleable abroad-
especially in South East Asia, Middle East and Europe.
Sultan Mohammad Quli died in January 1626 AD. Malik Amber died for months after, and
Jahangir one and half years later. With the death of these three a new chapter was opened in the history of
the Deccan. Condition because more favourable than ever for the Mughal rulers to subjugate the three
sultanates of the Deccan-Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda.
9.3.6 Abdullah Qutb Shah (1626 – 1672 CE)
Abdullah Qutb Shah the eldest son of Sultan Mohammad, ascended the throne after the death of
his father. At the age of fifteen years, Abdullah-Qutb Shah ascended the throne of Golconda. His mother
Hayat Baksh Begum managed the affairs of the State in his early years. She used all her experience to run
the administration. He continued his father‟s policy of maintaining friendly relations with the Shah of
Iran, striking gold and silver coins in his own name reciting the names of the twelve shiate imam as
against the four caliphs, etc.
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A farman, known as the deed of submission was sent to Abdullah Qutb Shah by Mughal emperor
Shah Jahan in the same year., demanding the omission of the Shah of Iran in Friday prayers, payment of a
stipulated peshkash, recitation of the names of the four caliphs of the sunni faith, introduction of coins in
the name of the emperor and declaration that his friends would be the same as the emperor‟s and his
enemies also the same. Abdulla Qutb Shah paying the first installment of peshkash amounting to eight
lakhs of hons, followed by rich presents, which included 100 elephants, 50 horses and jewels worth four
lakhs. Bijapur suffered the same fate as Golconda.
Muhmmad Syed Mir Jumla, the Prime Minister of Golconda rebelled against his master and
joined the camp of the Mughals. He conspired with Aurangzeb, the viceroy of the Deccan, to invade
Golconda. The Mughal armies entered the Deccan in 1655 AD and took possession of Hyderabad.
Aurangzeb reached Golconda in 1656 and laid siege to the fortress. Abdullah promised the marriage of
his eldest daughter to Prince Muhammad the son of Aurangzeb, ceded Ramgir as a part of the dowry and
offered ten lakhs of hons as indemnity to be paid in three installments. As a result of this submission the
Mughal army withdraws from Golconda.
Sivaji triumphs over Bijapur and Golconda became the master of the Maharashtra territory which
he had brought under control. Shivaji permitted in 1669 to collect levy Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in the
Kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda.
The Qutb Shahi sultans pursued a policy of granting concessions to the European traders. English
factory at Machilipatnam had to be shifted to Armagoan in 1628. Later it was brought back to
Machilipatnam. In 1639 the English established a factory at Madras by an arrangement with a local
Zamindar, Damerla Venkatadri Naidu. One Francis Day constructed a fortress and built a wall round the
island. A large native settlement arose outside the island, formed by weavers and others. This was called
the Black town. Both the white and black towns were included under the general name of Madraspatnam.
In 1643 a lease was granted by Rajah of Chandragiri, exempting the Company form the payment of
import and export duties. In 1645 a renewed grant was obtained from Golconda. But the lease became
invalid in 1646 when the Qutb Shah conquered the whole of Coromandel. Mir Jumla gave a new lease to
the Company. In 1658 all factories on Coromandel and Bengal were made subordinate to Madraspatnam,
known as St George. In 1662 Neknam Khan, the Governor of the Karnataka, recovered Santhome from
the Dutch, who had seized it form the Portuguese. Neknam Khan refused the Company a new lease. After
ten years he blockaded Madras, as a result of which the company surrendered. It paid 11,000 hons as
arrears, promised to pay 12,000 hons per year towards rent and 4200 hons per year towards customs.
Abdullah Qutb Shah died in 1672 AD.
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9.3.7 Abul-Hasan-Tanashah (1672 – 1687 CE)
Abul Hasan known as Tanesha, succeeded to the throne with a treasury containing fifty crores
and five lakhs of hons. He had in his service two brothers, Madanna and Akkanna, the former his Prime
Minister and the latter the Minister of armed forces. They slowly filled the high offices of the kingdom
with their own co-religionists. One of their nephews, Gopanna, is known in history as Ramadas. Being
the revenue officer of Palwancha pargana, he spent large sums of money belonging to the state on the
famous temple of Badrachalam.
In 1672 that is, at the time of Abul Hasan‟s accession, Sivaji was at the height of his power in
Maharashtra. Pretending to be a strong supporter of the independence of the Deccan, he collected twenty
lakhs of hons from the Qutb Shahi king. In 1677, when the Mughals invaded Golconda, Bijapur joined
the Mughal forces, thus helping the Mughals extract one crore of rupees and ten thousand horses from
Golconda. In the same year Sivaji entered into an agreement with ABul Hasan for dividing his father‟s
jagirs between himself and his half brother by resorting to a military campaign.
Aurangzeb‟s charges against Hasan were these; appointment of Madanna as the Prime Minister,
subjecting Muslims to Madanna‟s un-Islamic rule; implementation of Hindu rules on place of Islamic
ones; toleration of vices and immorality; sex indulgence; alliance with the Maharashtra. The terms of
surrender handed over to Hasan were one crore and twenty lakhs for settlement of arrears; annual
payment of two lakhs of hons as peshkash; removed of Akkanna and Madanna from state service. Hasan
refused to surrender. Remaining inside the fort, he organized resistance. Akkanna and Madanna,
according to one version were murdered by the nobles and members of the harem. The siege of Golconda
began in January 1687 and lasted for eight months.
Some of the generals of Golconda played a treacherous role in the besiegers in the dead of night,
resulting in the empire collapse of defence. Hasan was captured and detained in the Daultabad fort for the
rest of his life. He died in 1700 after a hunger strike for several days.
9.4 ADMINISTRATION OF QUTB SHAHIS
The administrative system was introduced by Qutb Shah Sultans is unique in its nature and
structure. They provided sound and popular administration in the Deccan.
Central Government
A) Sultan: Sultan was the head of State in the Qutb Shahi administration. He enjoyed extensive
powers. He claimed divine right, calling himself „Zillullah‟ (the image of God). As the Head of the State,
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he was the Chief of all organs of Power-legislature, judiciary and executive. He was the only law-giver,
the Supreme Commander of the armed forces. He lived in a grand style and very rarely came out of his
palace to receive very important guests.
According to an envoy of Shah Abbas of Persia, who visited the court of Abdullah-Qutb Shah in
the year 1636-37 CE, was very much surprised to see the Sultan‟s Palace, his dress, headwear which are
studded with costly diamonds and gems. Even the ministers, high officials of Sultan also lived in a grand
building. The events like the birthday or marriages or victory celebrations were held in a grand way in the
court. The Qutb Shahi Sultans received costly presents from foreign rulers on such occasions.
B) Council of Ministers (Majlis-i-Diwandari): In the Qutb Shahi Kingdom after Sultan, Council
and its members played key role in the administration. It consisted of powerful and high officials and
ministers. All its members respected the Council and its laws. During Ibrahim-Quli-Qutb Shah, the
Council became popularly known as „Majlis-i-Kingash‟. It used to meet only the emergency issues.
During the period of Abdullah-Qutb Shah Majlis-i-Diwandari attained complete perfection. It used to
meet every day. The Sultan also promoted some of the members of Majlis to the positions of
ambassadors. Abdullah-Qutb Shah promoted his minister (Ain-ul-mulk) „Yusuf Shah‟ as the Qutb Shahi
ambassador at the Court of Jahangir in 1630 CE
C) Peshwa or Vakil or Prime Minister: The head of the administration was the Peshwa, and
perhaps the most renowned of all the Peshwas of the reign was Shaikh Muhammad Surnamed Ibn-i-
Khatun. The Peshwa was paid an amount of twelve thousand Hons as salary. By the period of Abul
Hassan-Tanashah, the Peshwa post was converted into Diwan. Madanna was the last Diwan of the
Golconda Kingdom. Peshwa was assisted in his job by many high officials and employees. Peshwa used
to live in a grand building with many workers.
D) Meer-Jumla (Finance Minister): Next to the Peshwa came Jumlat-ul-Mulk or, as he was
popularly called, Mir Jumla. Mir Jumla was the head of Finance Department in Qutb Shahi
administration. His main duty is to collect the various types of taxes and customs. He enjoyed the power
to allocate the required amount to each department. He used to supervise the accounts of all the
departments. Mir-Momin, Mansur Khan Habashi (Abdullah reign), Muhammad Said Ardistani were some
famous men who held the post of Mir-Jumla under different Qutb Shahi Sultans.
E) Ain-ul-Mulk: He was the Minister in-charge of Military Affairs. Appointment of various army
officials, soldiers, training etc are his main duties. He also used to prepare the war strategies. Taraf level
military officers were also appointed by him. Sultan‟s position and safety of the kingdom depended upon
the efficiency of this department. Trusted and experienced persons like Saif-Khan, Mansoor-Khan held
this office.
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F) Nazir: The main duty of Nazir is to inculcate in people, respect towards ethics, laws, Sultan and
his policies. Sometimes he also maintained law and order. During Muhammad-Quli‟s period Abu-Talib
held the post of Nazir. Meer-Qasim worked as Nazir under Abdullah-Qutb Shah.
G) Majumdar: He was the Account General the entire kingdom. His staff used to check the
accounts of all the departments. Qutb Shahi Sultans preferred Hindus for this post. Narayan Rao was
Abdullah-Qutb Shah‟s Majumdar.
H) Dabir: The office of Dabir is known as Diwan-e-Insha. His main job is to translation of the
farmans issued by Sultan and sending them to Tarafdars and other heads of the departments. Stamping of
the farmans approved by Sultan and Council is also his duty. Qazi-Muzaffar Ali, Moulana-Owaisi held
this position and did good work.
I) Kotwal: One of the most important of Central Officers was the Kotwal or Commissioner of
Police. The accounts of Tavernier, Thevenot and Berniar appreciated the systematic functioning of police
department and its staff. The internal, external traders were provided full security by police. The police
used to check each person entering into the capital city. Along with his main function of keeping law and
order and he was also supreme judge of the city.
J) Sarkhel: Sarkhel was the Chief Revenue Officer at Capital and had a large jurisdiction over the
districts and provinces. . He also exercised his extensive powers over provincial officers. Sarkhel also
supervised the work and activities of foreign traders in the East-Coast. He provided security to them.
K) Hawaldar: He was the in-charge of Government go-downs, stables of horses and elephants. The
Golconda Sultans appointed trusted men as Hawaldars.
Provincial Administration: The Qutb Shahi Sultans like all the medieval rulers also divided their vast
kingdom into number of Tarafs or Smits. Each taraf was ruled by tarafdar (Governor). The officers in
charge of the sarkars and paraganas were called faudars; they were assisted by hawaldars. During the
period of Abdullah-Qutb Shah there were six Tarafs in the kingdom. Vinkonda, Kondapalli,
Masulipatnam, Eluru, Rajahmundry, Visakhapatnam, Bellamkonda etc., are important Smiths of the
kingdom. The sarkars were called simi.
During the period of last Golconda Sultan. Abul-Hasan-Tanashah, the entire Golconda kingdom
was divided into 37 Sarkars and 517 Parganas. The head of the port-town was known as Shah Bandhar.
The right to collect land revenue was granted by Sultan to highest bidders in auction method. Those who
got such revenue collection rights are known as „Mustagirs‟. Machilipatnam fletched yearly more than
one lakh eighty thousand pagodas.
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Local Government: The Qutb Shahi Sultans divided the provinces and Smits into small size units.
Villages stood as the foundation step of the entire administration. In the Farmans of Qutb Shahis the
names such as Deshpande, Deshmukh, Thandedar, Sthalakami etc., are mentioned. The head of the
village was called as „Muqaddam‟. Kullkarni was Village Accountant. Deshpande was Pargana level
Accounts Officer.
9.5 MILITARY SYSTEM OF QUTB SHAHIS
The Qutb Shahi Sultans organized their military system on the model of Bahmani Sultans with
minor changes. Strong and efficient army was maintained by Qutb Shahis. Standing army was under the
direct control of Sultan. It was stationed at capital city. The armies of Golconda Sultans faced the strong
challenge of contemporary Deccani Sultans, Vijayanagara and Mughal rulers. The military department
was headed by Ain-ul-Mulk. The Sultan granted Jagirs to Tarafdars to maintain fixed number of armed
forces. The Qutb Shahi army consisted of Hindu, Muslim and Iranis. The Qutb Shahis allocated huge
amount from their treasury or revenue to maintain their army. According to one version, during the period
of Abdul-Hassan-Tanashah an amount of eight lakhs, eighty four thousand four hundred and seventy
seven Hons were spent to pay the salaries of army every year. All the forts were well built and stationed
under the control of experienced Fort Commander. Srilaskhar used to lead the army during campaigns.
9.6 JUDICIAL SYSTEM
The Qutb shahi Sultans managed the legal system, honouring the Hindu (local) and Islamic laws.
They made arrangements from village level to deal the civil and criminal cases. Qazis, Moulvis and
Hindu Pandits played key role in solving the different cases. Special Courts were also established by Qutb
Shahi Sultans. Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah founded Dadmahal and Aman-Mahal was founded by
Abdullah Qutb Shah. The Sultan used to attend these special courts once in a week. He used to listen the
different cases and delivered the judgments with the help of Qazis and Pandits. French travellers
Tavernier and Bernier also appreciated the Qutb Shahi judicial system. According to them the judges and
Sultan also delivered judgments without any fear or favour.
9.7 LAND REVENUE SYSTEM
An inscription on a stone at Malkapuram in Guntur district records the extent of land in each of
the 19 villages included in the Ravipudi sthala as measured by the standard rope of 38 cubits, “the
measurement having been made by the villagers themselves, by mutual agreement, under the order of
Ibrahim Qutb Shah. Qutb Shahi rule the cultivators were used a standard rope for measure the land.
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Most of the villages were held under the mirasi tenure. The word mirasi is derived from miras,
which means hereditry right. The farmans of the Qutb Shahis contain references to twelve ayagars,
holding lands under hereditary tenure. They were called balutiyan. There were twelve of them- the patel
or headman, the kulkarni or accountant, the chaudari or head of the traders, the potadar or money changer,
the despandya or district accountant, the nahani or barbe, the parit or washerman, the gurav or temple
attendant, the sutar or carpenter, the kumbhar or potter, the vesanar or gatekeeper and the joshi or
astrologer.
The Qutb Shahis followed the footsteps of their predecessors in recognizing the right of owning
lands by private individuals. One Malik Mishk endowed “all the lands in the village Atapur, purchased
from him, Mir Malik from special sources, as also from trees in the cultivated and other land. Land
disputes and remeasurements of lands were natural under such circumstances. An inscription at
Devulachervu in Madanapalle taluk, Chittor district, records the measurement of certain land in that
village, about which there was a dispute.
During Qutb Shahi period agriculture was the primary occupation of the majority people. Land
Revenue was the chief source of income to the imperial treasury. The Qutb Shahi Sultans like the
Kakatiyas made sincere attempts to encourage agriculture by constructing number of tanks, canals etc.
Under Qutb Shahi‟s the peasants lived in peace. Tax burden was normal. A contemporary scholar
Girdharilal Asqar‟s in his work Tariq-e-Zafrah described the total revenue of the State 82, 95, 196 hons in
1685-86 from 22 Sarkars. Changed into rupees at the stated rate of Rs. 3 per hon, this comes to about Rs.
2,47,85,529. To this figure must added the revenue of the 16 sarkars (162 paraganas) of newly acquired
Karnataka region, amounting to about 26,75,498 hons.
From the above information we can conclude that Sikkol Sarkar with 115 Parganas was the
largest Sarkar in the entire Qutb Shahi Kingdom. The smallest Sarkar was Melangur with three
Paraganas. The highest revenue to the State treasury came from Kovilkonda i.e., 10,510,517,14 Annas.
The Golconda Sultan also received revenue from diamond-mines. The diamond-mines were given
on lease to contractors. According to eminent historian Siddiqui, the total revenue of Golconda Sultan
from all the Sources was 5 crores. After expenses, Sultan saved nearly 1 crore per year.
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1. Who was the founder of Qutb Shahi dynasty ?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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2. The battle of Rakshasa Tangidi was held in the year ?
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9.8 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS
The Qutb Shahi Sultans tried to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity through their liberal policies.
Tariq-e-Ferishta, Tariq-e-Qutb Shah, Burhan-e-Masir and Telugu works like Thapathi
Samvaranophakyanam, Yayathi Charita, Vaijayanthi Vilasam, Sukasapthati, Hamsavimsathi, etc., are
giving details about the social life of the people of those times.
According to eminent historian H.K. Sherwani, Palavekiri Kadiripathi, in his work Sukasapthati
described in detail, the Socio-religious life of Telangana people. He provided some useful and interesting
details about the Brahmins, Vaishyas and Sudras. He discussed in detail the dress, food habits, houses,
marriages, daily activities of all the sections of society. He said Brahmins were engaged in ritual work,
trade and agriculture. He also described the dress of Karnam, Reddy. The Hindus employed in various
positions at the Court Service of Sultan used to wear long size of Silk Pyzamas, Kurthas. Even some of
them used to wear the long cloth cap on their head.
In Sukasapthati, Kadiripathi described the dress, jewellery, sarees of women used to wear many
types of gold ornaments and costly sarees. The Vaishyas were engaged in trade.
In the society large number of sub-castes also emerged during this age. Kapu, Reddy, Velama,
Balija, Carpenters, Weavers, Blacksmiths, Boys, Potter, Tailor, Fishermen, Washermen, Barbers etc.,
played significant role in the society. Social-evils like child-miserable. They used to work in fields and in
the houses of rich people.
Women Position : In general the women position during Qutb Shahi period was not so good. The
contemporary Telugu writer Ponnaganti Telanganarya in his work Yayathi Charitha described the
condition of women. She was only respected in domestic life. But ouside women was not given any
freedom. She lived under the control of husband or mother-in-laws. The position of widows was very
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pathetic. Purdah system was followed by Hindu and Muslim women. Foreign travelers like Tavernier,
Methwold and Frair etc., in their accounts wrote that women were considered as a means of enjoyment by
Sultans and their officials. Child marriages, Sati, Prostitution, Devadasi system are common evils.
Women of Royal families like Hayat Bakshi Begum, Chand Bibi excelled in fine arts and politics.
Women were engaged in caste-based profession like weaving. There is no much information about
women education. In general girls were given training in dance, music and painting etc. Polygamy was a
common feature among the Hindus and Muslims. The Courtesans were patronized by the ruling class.
Regarding women, Frayer says that Hindu women moved about freely, whereas Muslims, out of
jealousy, guarded their wives from the view of others. When they went out, they were carried in closed
palanquins.” the meanest among them not permitting their women to stir their wives “great liberty”.
Polygamy was permitted, but not generally practiced. Monogamy was the rule, as per as the
masses were concerned. According to Methold, adultery was not common, but punishable in women.
Child-marriages were the rule. According to Methold, marriages were celebrated when the husband was
five years old and the wife not above three. He described the condition of widows “they were made the
drudge to the whole family, not permitted to wear their jewel, good or cleaned clothes, or upon occasion
to go abroad (at least upon pleasure); and this, with most of them, together with a reverend respect they
bear to the reputation of their house, mortifies them after a strange manner; yet some it cannot contain but
they flew out, and forsaking their fathers house, brand it with a lasting obloquy, by their looser lives,
keeping themselves at distance, for if convenient their kindred would poison them”.
The courtesans continued to enjoy the patronage of the ruling class. According to Tavernier, there
were 20,000 of them in the city and the fort of Golconda. Licenses were issued to those who practiced the
profession. But no tribute was collected by the king. They were obliged to attend the court every Friday
and entertain the king and his nobles. They not only kept their doors open for their customers but also ran
liquor shops near their houses. The king received considerable revenue by the sale of such liquor. “And
for that reason he permits so many common women, in regard it is for their sake that so much Tari is
consumed.
The devadasis enjoyed a privileged position in society, as they had been enjoying for centuries.
This, according to Bowrey, was due to the fact that they were permitted to enjoy earthly pleasures to the
utmost without any scandal to themselves or to their families. This was the reason, according to him,
which dissuaded them from leading a married life which involved loyalty to a jealous husband, obligation
to burn her on his death or lead a life of drudgery as a widow.
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Religious Conditions : Qutb Shahi sultans adopted a policy of toleration, and even of encouragement, to
Hinduism and the hindu subjects. Abul Hasan donated Bhadrachalam, Shankargiri and Palwancha to the
Ramadas temple at Bhadrachalam, founded in 1652 AD. Similarly, he gave three village- Bhogapuram,
Cherukuru and Veerannapatnam for the maintenance of Malleswaraswami temple situated on the river
Krishna. Abdullah granted a field as amaram in the village Chundi, situated in Kandukuru sima, to a
person belonging to the valmiki caste “in order that we may keep in good repair the temples in our sima”.
Qutb Shahi sultans participated in Hindu festivals. Hindus celebrated Vijayadasami, Deepawali,
Sankranti, Holi, Yekadasi, and Shivaratri etc. people visit Srisailam, Bhadrachalam, Tirupati, Bezwada
and Hanamkonda and performed pooja to respective deity.
Muslim festivals called Shab-i-barat celebrated a fortnight before the Ramzan, resembles Diwali
with men, women and children playing with fireworks. Nuroz and Basant celebrated in the dynasty.
Ramazan and Bakrid festivals by Muslims in the kingdom.
Muharram celebrated by both the Muslims and Hindus in different parts of the state. Qutb Shahi
sultans constructed alms-house in different parts of the Teugu country. Bibika Chesma, Bibika Alam, Bibi
Fathima, Imam Hasan and Imam Hussain etc alams were important alams. All section of people
performed Dua and submit different varieties of flowers, dup sticks, Jaggery and others etc.
The contemporary literature, gives us detailed information about the economy of Golconda
Kingdom. It was one of the richest Kingdoms in Medieval period in the Deccan. Two main factors
contributed to its richness. Firstly, the natural wealth of the kingdom, specially the diamond mines of the
Golconda State. Secondly the fertile coastal land, water source and brisk foreign trade carried through
Machilipatnam port with Central Asia and European countries.
Agriculture and Irrigational Facilities : The Qutb Shahi Sultans and their officials encouraged
agriculture. Agriculture was primary occupation of the people. The Qutb Shahi Sultans like the earlier
Kakatiya Rulers realized the importance of construction and maintenance of small and big irrigational
works. Many tanks of Kakatiya times were repaired by Qutb Shahis. During the period of Ibrahim Quli
Qutb Shah, Hissain-Sagar tank, Budwel tank and Ibrahimpatnam tank etc were constructed. Peasants and
people used water from the above tanks for agriculture and drinking purpose. A tank was built at „Durg‟
just five kilometers from the Golconda fort. Its water was supplied to royal family and officials through
hydrological engineering skill. Maa Sahab Tank was built by Khanam Agha (popularly known as
Masehaba) near Saifabad to supply the water for local public.
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Agriculture was the chief occupation of the majority population of the kingdom. The Sultans also
extended liberal support to peasants by construction, repairing tanks and canals. The agricultural land was
divided into two categories namely, Zamindari Lands. The agricultural work was carried by peasants
between June to October. Commercial crops like cotton, jute, pulses, fruits, flowers were grown on large
scale. In Telangana region fruits, flowers were grown on large scale. Thevenot in his account described
the different verities of grapes cultivated in Telangana region by the peasants. Eluru in Coastal Andhra
was famous for Indigo-cultivation.
Qutb Shahi Sultans also instructed their officials, employees at Village, Sarkar, Pargana and Taraf
level to protect and maintain local tanks and canals. The officials engaged in this task were given extra
salaries. An inscription dated 1551 CE, states that Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah repaired the „Pangal‟ tank and
„Udaya Samudram‟ tank during his reign. The Sultan also ordered that from the total product under these
two tanks, king was given 1% share, peasants 1 ½% share, 1% share to Brahmins, 1% share to Soldiers
was allocated. The officials of Qutb Shahi Sultans like Rahmatullah, Anthoji (Hawaldar) also encouraged
repairing works of tanks, canals in the Nellore region. As the result, area of agricultural land was
increased. This contributed to the increase in agricultural production. Thus Qutb Shahi Sultans became a
model to all their successive rulers by encouraging agriculture and by construction, repairing tanks, canals
etc.
Industries of Golconda Kingdom : Diamond mining. Diamond Cutting, Diamond Polishing, Textile
industry, Carpets industry, ship building industry, Salt petrel industry, Iron and Steel industry and
Kalamkari industry are important industries of Qutb Shahi period. Skilled and trained persons are only
engaged in these industries and production. After agriculture, few sections depended upon these industries
at rural and urban level to carry their livelihood.
Diamonds of Golconda and Diamond Industry : The Golconda Kingdom became very famous for its
best quality diamonds. The diamonds of Golconda enjoyed great demand in European market. „Kollur‟ in
Krishna, Ramallakota (Kurnool), Gollapalli, Mallavalli, Vajrakarur are famous for their best quality
diamonds. According to French traveler Tavernier even during Vijayanagar times also these diamond
mines were in-operation. In the year 1640 CE, when Tavernier visited the famous Kollur mine, nearly
sixty thousand workers are engaged in the digging, cleaning, drying of diamonds. Men, women and
children were also engaged in the mining work. World famous diamonds like Kohinoor, Hope, Pitt, Pigot,
Nizam etc., are found in the diamond mines of Golconda Kingdom.
Textile Industry : The textile of Golconda enjoyed great demand in the European market. The textiles of
various nature and excellent quality were produced by the weavers of Golconda. After fulfilling the local
18
needs, they were exported to outside the county. The textiles of Golconda were known for their colours
and quality. Red, Blue, White colour textiles were sold in long bundles. The plain cotton cloth, Muslin
Calico and Lungees are manufactured in different parts of Golconda kingdom. Muslins were fine or
superfine, made principally for internal consumption. Calicoes were a stout cloth in various qualities,
depending on the finess of the yarn and the number of threads per inch. Many types of flowers, leaves
were used in printing various pictures on textiles, sarees, etc. Chintz cloth was very popular in the
kingdom, Kalankari cloth was produced by expertise weavers at Masulipatnam, Palakollu and
Nizampatnam. At Narasampuram best quality calico cloth was produced by weavers. In contemporary
literature mentioned the variety of textiles like Maslin, Salempuri, Palampur, etc. Sultans and officials
purchased costly dress material.
Carpet Industry: Golconda kingdom was famous for best quality carpets. Warangal carpets earned a
special place in the market. Mettawada, Girmajipeta Hasanparthy, areas of Warangal, Machiliptanam and
Elloru were inhabited by many Muslim carpet weaving families. The raw material required for carpet
making was available in large quantity in Telangana.
Ship Building Industry: English and other merchants got their ships built every year at Narsapuram,
Bheemunipatnam and Machilipatnam. The foreign travel accounts of Methwold and Shorer are also
referred about the big and small size ships, prepared by experienced workers at Narsapur. Best quality
teak wood and iron was used in their making. The Dutch trading vessels built at Bhimilipatnam,
Narsapur, Machilipatnam and Pulicat.
Saltpeter Industry: Saltpeter industry also flourished under Qutb Shahis. It was preparation powder to
be used in guns of firing. Masulipatnam, Narsapuram, Pulicat are famous for Saltpeter products.
9.10 TRADE AND COMMERCE
During the Qutb Shahi period internal and external trade was in a flourishing condition. Vaishyas
or Komatis played active role in internal and external trade. Arab traders, Portuguese traders supplied best
breed horses to Qutb Shahis. Telugu works Sukasapthati and Hamsavimsati are providing details about
external trade of this age. After the advent of European trading companies into Qutb Shahi kingdom,
Masulipatnam, Kondapalli, Narasapuram, Madras, Golconda has emerged as famous Trading Centers.
Internal trade was carried on bullock-carts, oxen, donkeys, tangas. Masulipatnam, Motupalli,
Narasapuram etc., are chief ports of the kingdom From Masulipatnam Port best quality textiles were
exported to European countries. Vasumata and Visnudasa are two rich traders of this period. Pilgrimage
centers like Tirupati, Srisailam, Srikalahasti also became famous trading centers. Golconda, Hyderabad,
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Warangal, Masulipatnam, Kondapalli, Penugonda are main urban centers. Rural economy was in a good
condition. Weekly fairs or angadis used to hold every week in big and small villages. Trade links between
present Telangana. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra and Bengal flourished. „Perikas‟
carried goods, grain etc., from place to place in jute sacks on their heads or oxen. The traders of Golconda
maintained trade relations with the tradesmen of Gulbarga, Aurangabad, Bijapur and Madras. The rural
level products were sold out in the local markets or angadis. Artisans and traders also migrated from place
to place on trade pursuits. Ship-building industry flourished at Narsapur and Masulipatnam, Nirmal and
Indur were famous for Iron industry Best quality swords were produced here. Hyderabad via Nalgonda,
Kondapalli, Vijayawada traders used to reach Machilipatnam.
The Qutb Shahi Sultans encouraged trade by extending many tax concessions and facilities to
traders. They provided security to traders and their merchandise. They appointed special officers to check
the weights and measurements to protect public from any type of cheating by traders. The chief currency
of Qutb Shahi kingdom was Honnu, a gold coin. Foreigners described it as „Pagoda‟. Panam, Thaar, Kasu
are other units of Qutb Shahi currency. Kharkhanas are established by Sultans to produce clothes and
other needed articles for the royal family. Among the exports of this period dress, cloth, diamonds,
carpets, indigo, best quality swords etc., occupied important place. The chief imports from Arabia,
Central Asia and Europe include horses, spices, gold, lead, dates and crockery.
Qutb Shahis rulers well educators, administrators, and they loved language and literature. They
were good poets. During Qutb Shahi rule Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Telugu languages were developed. Many
books were written in different languages during the period. Qutb Shahis encouraged Persian language. It
was state official language.
The Golconda Sultans encouraged and served for the development of Urdu language. Culture of
Deccan is different from the Mughals. Deccan Sultans patronized several poets and writers. Makeemi,
Gawasi and Mulla Nasrani were patronized by Qutb Shahis. During Ibrahim Qutb Shah reign Firoz
Muhammad and Mulla Qiyali, were great poets. Firoz had written Tasif Nama. Muhammad Quli was
great poet in Urdu. He had written Khanide, Gazal and Marsi on the name of MAANI. Vajihi and Ahmad
were great Urdu poets. Vajihi composed a poem entitled Qutub-e-Mushtari and he also composed a prose
work called Subras, both of which have been panned in a light but masterly vein and reckon among the
most valuable additions to the history of literature. Ahmad composed “Laila Majnu”. On the name of
Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah written some poets. Abdullah Qutb Shah served for the development of
Urdu literature. His period Golden Age for Urdu. He was written poems on Abdullah name. During his
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rule Gawasi was eminent Urdu poet in the court. He composed Maina Satwanti. Gawasi another works
Saif-ul-Mulk, Badi-ul-Jamal. It was composed in the year 1625 A.D. Another poet Ibn-e-Nishati
composed poem entitled “Phool Bun”. Qutb Shahis supplied oxyzen to Deccani Urdu.
Qutb Shahi rulers patronage the Telugu language. They were also read Telugu poems. Telugu
people called Sultan Quli as Bade Malik. Sultan Quli and his son Jamshid issued inscriptions in Telugu.
Ibrahim was spent seven years in Vijayanagara and learned Telugu and Sanskrit languages. The Telugu
people called Ibrahim as Malikiba Rama. In Ibrahim court Addanki Gangadhar, Mariganti Singaracharya
and Kandukuri Rudra were occupied prominent place. Addanki Gangadhar written “Tapti
Samharnopakyanam” and dedicated to Ibrahim Qutb Shah. The Golconda karnam Sarang Tammaiah had
written Vaijayanthi Vilasam. He explained Golconda in a beautiful manner. He also wrote “Haribakti
Subodayam”. In this work he mentioned Golconda as a city of Bagirathi.
Mariganti Singaracharya belongs to Kanagallu village in Nalgonda district. He had written many
verses in Telugu. Kandukuri Rudra belongs to Janardhana Kandukuri village of Devarakonda Taluk in
Nalgonda district. He was a great scholar. During Ibrahim as a viceroy of Devarakonda, met Rudra and
introduced. Rudra had written Niramkushopakyanam . Ibrahim felicitated Rudra with the Chintalapalem
agraharam.
Ponnaganti Telaganarya work Yayati Charitra was dedicated to Amin Khan, who was a ruler of
Patancher. It is the first work written in original Telugu. Kshetrayya came to royal court of Abdullah Qutb
Shah and participated scholars discussion. Between court scholar Tulasi Murthy and Kshetrayya
discussion was held. Nebati Krishnaiah Amathya composed the work of “Rajaniti Ratnakara” in the court
of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.
Gopanna belongs to Nelakondapalli was appointed as Tahasildar to Badrachalam. He was devote

of Sri Rama. He composed many songs on Rama. Malla Reddy was writer of Shivadharmottara. He
dedicated the book to his brother Kami Reddy. Yella Reddy written Vashistam and Lingapuranam.
Pattamatta Somayaji work Brahottara Kandam dedicated to Yella Reddy.
Architecture : The Qutb Shahi Sultans rebuilt the Golconda Fort which was capital some time to the
Qutb Shahi Kingdom. It was situated about 9 kilometers west of the Hyderabad. The first ruler Sultan
Quli the boundary wall of the fort. He built “Safa Mosque” in the fort for prayer of Sultan, royal family
and ministers etc. An inscription curved on the gateway of the Mosque was explained Sultan Quli was the
builder of the Mosque. Abdul Karim was the calligrapher of the inscription. Sultan Quli constructed the
Royal Palace “Dawlatkhana” in fort. He renamed Golconda as Muhammadnagar.
21
Ibrahim Qutb Shah strengthened the fortification and extended the area within the fortified walls
by building a magnificent wall of more than 7000 running meters on advice of his Peshwa Mustafa Khan.
The construction of the wall was in 1559-60 with the erection of Mecca Darwaza on its south-western
section which actually faces Mecca. The entire fort was constructed over a period of 62 years from
1518A.D. the elevation of the fort is 400 ft. and the circumference of the fort wall is 4 miles containing 87
semi-circular bastions, 50 to 60 ft. high. After the siege of Mughal Prince Muhammad Azam, Sultan
Abdullah Qutb Shah strengthened the fort. Dharma Char a Hindu architect constructed the Musa Khan
Burj in fort with Qutb Shahi General Musa Khan.
Ibrahim Qutb Shah reign a bridge was constructed on the Musi river. It is called as Purana Pul. It
was constructed with the 22 Kamans, length is 600 yards and width is 35 feets. The total cost of the
bridge is 2,50,000.
The new capital city i.e. Hyderabad was built by Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah in 1591A.D. it was
built on the Gridiron system in the form of a giant double cross. The new city was beautified with several
gardens and monuments. The city was Capital for both Qutb Shahis and Nizams. The city was divided
into 12,000 precincts and its main through fares were lined with 14000 buildings including shops,
mosques, schools, rest-houses etc. Both the Hyderabad and Golconda were the marketing centers for
diamonds during Qutb Shahi and Asaf Jahi rule.
The first construction in the Hyderabad city was Charminar. It was built in 1592A.D. the
foundation of Charminar was laid in 1590A.D. The plan and design of Charminar was outstanding and
unique. The plan for Charminar and Daulat Khana-e-Ali (Royal Palace) was prepared by Mir Abu Talib
later he was awarded as Nazir-ul-Mulk. The monument had four beautiful arches with highly decorated
that is the reason why it is called Charminar. The minarets are each decorated with double arcaded
balcony; two additional balconies encircle each shaft above roof level, a unique characteristic feature of
the Qutb Shahi style. They are four stages for a total height of 160 feet. The upper most story of each
minaret is reached by 146 steps.
250 feet north of the Charminar Qutb Shahi Sultan constructed Charkaman or the Four Arches in
1592 A.D. Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah constructed Charkaman.each arch 60 feet high, 36 feet wide at the
base and 6 feet in thickness facing the four cardinal points, separated from the centre by nearly 375 feet in
each case, so that the space between any two arches facing each other is about 750 feet. The Northern
arch called as Machli Kaman (fish arch), the Southern arch is Char Minar arch, Eastern arch is the Kali
Kaman or Kaman of Shamboo Pershad (the Black arch) and the Western arch is Sher Dil or Sihr Batil.
The Western arch served as the gate of Royal Residence.
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Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah in 1617 A.D. foundation laid for Mecca Masjid. Its construction
was started under the supervision of Darogah Engineer Faizullah Baig and Choudari Rangaiah with the
assistance of eight thousand masons and labourers. Musa Khan was the in-charge of the construction of
the Mosque. In this construction as many as 2000 stone cutters 2000 masons and 4000 labourers worked.
The total expense of this Mosque is 3,000,000 lakhs of Huns. It was completed in 77 years and finally
completed during Aurangzeb rule. This is one of the most sublime and impressive Mosques of the Deccan
and it is so extensive that nearly 10,000 people can easily completed their prayer. The building is 225 feet
long, 180 feet wide and 75 feet high; the outer enclosure is oblong whose terrace is 360 each way. The
Mosque is composed of triple vestibules measuring 195×126‟× 8” with fifteen arches in each row, and
five Masonic arches in front, the Northern and southern extremities are surmounted by two large domes.
The two lofty minarets in front, of the main entrance gate and the Sundial of the courtyard, belong to the
reign of Aurangzeb. 700 pairs of bullocks carried stones for the construction of the Mosque.
Badshahi Ashur Khana was constructed by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah near Pathergatti. It was
completed in 1596 A.D with the cost of 66,000 rupees. It was the house of Alams or conventional copies
of standard carried by Imam Hussain. The building is 40 yards in length and 30 yards wide and 12 yards
in height. The main building is constructed on a raised platform the central hall measures 87 feet in length
and 17 feet in width. The entire hall has enameled with tiles of beautiful floral decorations.
The double storied building Daru‟sh Shifa was built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in 1595.A.D.
It was Hospital as well as a college of Unani Medicine. In this building the Qutb Shahi sultans provided
free Medicines, lodging and food facilities for the patients. Who joined in the college were received
scholar ships from the Government and were assured of employment after they received Medical Degree.
The Qutb Shahi Sultans tombs were situated near Golconda Fort it was called as seven tombs.
The Qutb Shahi Sultans i.e. Sultan Quli, Jamshid Quli, Ibrahim Quli, Muhammad Quli, Muhammad Qutb
shah, Abdullah Qutb Shah and Abul Hassan Tanisha are very important and prominent rulers in the
history of Golconda. They ruled very systematically and encouraged Deccani traditions and culture.
Qutb Shahi Sultans constructed several monuments in Hyderabad City. They were built finest
palaces. The palaces such as Dad Mahal, Khuda Mahal, Chandan Mahal, Sajan Mahal, Lal Mahal, Nadi
Mahal, Hydari Mahal, Hasani Mahal, Moosavi Mahal, Jafari Mahal, Hussaini Mahal, Mishk Mahal,
Naubat Pahad, Koh-I-Tur, Hussain Sagar, Purana Pul, Mahasaheba Tank, Ibrhimpatanam, Ibrahimpatnam
Tank, Budwel Tank, etc were very finest constructions of the Qutb Shahis.
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1. Who composed Maina Satwanti.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
2. Charminar was constructed by
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
9.12 SUMMARY
The Qutb Shahi sultans ruled the Golconda kingdom for nearly 175 years. They were encouraged
agriculture, trade, industry, literature and architecture. They were donated several villages to development
of the temples and mosques in different parts of the kingdom. The sultans also read and write Telugu.
They were patronized Telugu poets and writers. They encouraged Deccan Urdu. Sultans constructed
Charminar, Mecca Masjid, Charkaman, Daru-us-Shifa and Badu Shahi Ashurkhana etc.
9.13 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ANSWERS

1. Sultan Quli Qutb Shah
2. 1565
1. Gawasi
2. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
1. Explain the Economic Development in Golconda Qutb Shahi Kingdom.

2. Discuss the Cultural Conditions during Qutb Shahi Rule.
3. Analyse the Socio-Religious condtions during Qutb Shahi Rule.
24
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Explain the role of Mohammad Quli in the development of the Kingdom.

2. Analyse the development of Urdu literature in the Golconda Kingdom.
3. Discuss an important monuments constructed by Qutb Shahis.
1. Abdul Masjeed Siddiqui : History of Golconda, Hyderabad, 1956.

2. Bendri V.C. : Qutb Shahis of Golconda, Poona, 1956.
3. Moreland W.H. : Relations of Golconda in the early seventeenth century, London, 1931.
4. Sherwani, H.K. : History of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, New Delhi, 1974.
5. Satyanarayana, K. : A Study of the History and Culture of the Andhra, New Delhi, 1983.
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UNIT-10: ASAFJAHI’S : POLITY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Contents
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Political history
10.2.1 Nizam-ul-Mulk (1724–48)

10.2.2 Nizam Ali Khan (1762–1803)
10.2.3 SikandarJah (1803–29)
10.2.4 Nasir-ud-Daula (1829–57)
10.2.5 Afzal-ud-Daula (1857–69)
10.2.6 Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan Bahadur (1869–1911)
10.2.7 Mir Osman Ali Khan Bahadur (1911–48)
10.3 Polity
10.4 Salar Jung Reforms
10.4.1 Administrative Reforms
10.4.2 Financial Reforms
10.4.3 Judicial Reforms
10.4.4 Military Reforms
10.4.5 Police Reforms
10.4.6 Educational Reforms
10.4.7 Transport and communication
10.5 Nizam-British Relations
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10.8 Summary
10.9 Model Answers to check your progress
10.10 Model Examination questions
10.0 OBJECTIVES
By studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know briefly the political developments during the AsafJahi‟s rule.

2. Understand the administrative features under the Asaf Jahi‟s
3. Assess the social conditions of the Asaf Jahi Period.
4. Evaluate the cultural contribuition of the Asaf Jahis.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The establishment of the Asaf Jahi rule in the 1724is a great landmark in the history of modern
Deccan. The Mughal emperor Aurangazeb annexed the State of Golconda in the year 1687 CE. Since then,
this region remained as one of the Provinces of Mughal empire till the year 1724 C.E. Mir Qamruddin–
chin-killich khan, then viceroy of Deccan, declared independence and established the Hyderabad State in
1724. He is popularly known with his titles Nizam –Ul-Mulk and Asaf Jah that were bestowed by the
Mughal emperors Faruk siyar and Muhammd Shah. The State of Hyderabad included the areas of
Telangana region, Marathwada and Karnataka. Nizam-Ul-Mulk and his successors ruled the erstwhile
princely State of Hyderabad for 224 years.
After India gained independence in August 1947, the last Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan decided not
to join the Indian Union. Ultimately, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, then Minister of Home Affairs and Deputy
Prime Minister of India, initiated the Police Action on Hyderabad. The State was taken over and merged
into Indian Union on 17th September 1948. During the rule of Asaf Jahi‟s Hyderabad State underwent
considerable growth, both politically and culturally. It has also emerged as one of the important princely
State under colonial domination.
10.2 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS
Total seven Nizam's ruled the Hyderabad State between 1724 C.E. and 1948 C.E.
2
10.2.1 Nizam –Ul-Mulk (1724-1748)
Nizam –Ul-Mulk was the founder of the Asaf Jahi dynasty. His original name was Mir Qamruddin
Chin Qillich Khan. His ancestors came from Samarkhand and served in the court of Shah Jahan and
Aurangzeb. Nizam –Ul-Mulk was the eldest son of Shihabuddin, Mughal governor of Berar and Gujarat.
At the age of six, he was appointed as mansabdar by Aurangazeb, and gradually risen to various
administrative positions. After the demise of Aurangazeb, Mir Qamruddin became the viceroy of Awadh
under Farukh Siyar, who bestowed the title Nizam – Ul-Mulk on him. His allegiance to the Mughal
emperor Muhammad Shah, he was conferred with title Asaf Jah. Though he accepted the Mughal
authority, practically he ruled the Deccan independently. Thus, Hyderabad State virtually came into
existence since 1724 under the rule of Asaf Jahis.
During his tenure Nizam –Ul-Mulk came into conflict with the Marathas. Peshwa Baji Rao
defeated him in the battles of Phalkhed and Bhopal. Nizam compelled to grant permission to Marathas to
collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in Deccan Province. Nizam-ul-Mulk played a key role as a mediator
during Nadar Shah's invasion of India in 1738CE. With his military talents, Nizam extended the Deccan
territories from the river Tapti to Mysore and from Karnataka to Tiruchinapally. He died at the age of 76 in
1748. He was also a poet and fluent in Persian and Turkish. He gave patronage to scholars of Urdu to
enrich the language.
The death of Nizam –ul-Mulk was followed by a civil war. Between 1748 and 1762, three
contestents came to the throne. They are Nasir Jung(1748-50), Mujaffar Jung (1750-51) and Salabat
Jung(1751-62). Both the English and the French used this internal rivalry among the successors as an
opportunity for their colonial expansion. As a result of such rivalries three Carnatic wars took place
between 1748 and 1762. Though they ruled for some time, these three rulers are not considered as Nizams.
10.2.2 Nizam Ali Khan (1762-1803)
Nizam Ali Khan was the fourth son of Nizam-Ul-Mulk. He was the first ruler of Hyderabad State
to use the title “Nizam”. He saved the Asaf Jahi dynasty from both internal and external forces. Further, he
strengthened the administration of State. Recognizing the importance of strategic location, Nizam Ali
Khan shifted the State capital from Aurangabad to Hyderabad In 1763. It proved to be a turning point in
the rule of the Asaf Jahis. He also entered into alliances with the British and the French to deal the
Marathas and Mysore rulers. He was the first Indian ruler who signed the treaty of Subsidiary Alliance
with British. For that, in lieu of cash payment, he ceded the Kadapa, Kurnool, Bellary and Ananthapur
3
Districts to the British. During his tenure the English gained supremacy over Coastal Andhra and Rayala
seema region by forcing him to conclude treaties.
10.2.3 Sikandar Jah (1803-1829)
He was the second son of Nizam Ali Khan. His succession was ratified by the Mughal emperor
Shah Alam II and his father‟s titles were also conferred on him. During his tenure, Second Anglo-Maratha
war (1803-1805) took place. British forced him to participate in that war on their side to defeat the
Marathas. In 1806, on his name Secunderabad city was constructed. During his reign, the British resident
Henry Russel started a separate force called as „Russel Brigade‟. Later, it was evolved as Hyderabad
Contingent. This Brigade involved very unbearable expenditure. To meet this expenditure, he made an
agreement with Palmer and Palmer company to take loan. He appointed European officers to improve the
administration. They controlled the military and financial administration by making their favourable
persons as the diwans of the Nizam. However, the kingdom went through a severe financial crisis due to
corrupt officials. Sikandar Jah died on 21st May, 1829.
10.2.4 Nasir-Ud-Doula (1829-1857)
Nasir-Ud-Daula was the eldest son of Sikandar Jah. He ascended the throne in 1829 and inherited
a financially weak State. More over, several natural disasters such as cyclones, epidemics, floods and
drought had taken their toll on the State. The economic position of the Nizam gave the British a chance to
follow their imperialistic designs. In 1853, the Nizam was forced to sign the treaty of Berar. As per the
norms of the treaty, he has to cede the province of Berar and the districts of Osmanabad and Raichur to the
British Company. He made Hyderabad the first princely State to ban the practice of Sati in 1856.
During his tenure, Wahabi movement got spread into the Nizam dominion. Mubarizuddaula, the
third son of Sikandar Jah and the Nawab of Kurnool played vital role to spread the movement. But, British
arrested both of them and suppressed the movement. It is said that,Wahabi movement was a prelude to
1857 in India. The Nizam realized that earlier revenue systems and treaties had begun to weaken the
efficient functioning of his State. With the support and guidance of Prime Ministers Siraj-ul-Mulk and Mir
Turab Ail Khan Salar Jung I, he implemented a modern and just system of revenue administration. Salar
Jung took measures not only in financial consolidation of Hyderabad State but also in modernising it.
Soon after his death in 1857, the outbreak of 1857 took place.
4
10.2.5 Afzal – Ud-Dowla (1857-1869)
After Nasir-ud-Dowla, his son Afzal-ud-Dowla came to the throne on 18th May 1857 CE. He
was served by an efficient Diwan Salar Jung -I. During his tenure, 1857 started and spread to Hyderabad.
Nizam stood for the British and suppressed the Revolt with the help of Salar Jung-I. After the Mutiny,
Queen Victoria presented the title Grand Commander Star of India on 31st August 1861 to the Nizam.
The Nizam gave the land to the Bombay – Madras Railway line passing through the Hyderabad
State in the Raichur Doab. The Railway line later was extended up to Wadi. The introduction of Railway
line in Hyderabad contributed much to the economic development of the State. Salar Jung reforms led to
the modernisation of Hyderabad. He constructed Afzal gunz Mosque, Afzalgunj bridge. He died at, young
age of 42. He was succeeded by his son, Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan.
10.2.6 Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan (1869-1911)
Mahaboob Ali khan was just around three year old when he became the ruler of Hyderabd in 1869
C.E. He learnt many languages. Salar Jung –I became his regent till he took over the responsibilities of
administration. During his tenure Salar Jung-I introduced many administrative reforms for financial and
administrative consolidation of Hyderabad State. Asafia State Library in 1891 and Madrasa-I-Alia, Nizam
college, Mahaboobia girls school and many more educational institutions, along with Medical school were
established. In 1885 Queen Victoria gave him the title “Grand Commander Star of India”. He also died
like his father at an early age of 46 years.
10.2.7 Mir Osman Ali Khan (11911-1948)
Mir Osman Ali Khan was the son of Mahboob Ali Khan. Born on 6th April 1886, he ascended the
throne as seventh Nizam in 1911. He was a scholar in many languages. After assuming the charge, he
continued the process of modernisation of Hyderabad. It is said that, financial stability of Hyderabad State
was achieved during his tenure. There was a rapid industrialisation in Hyderabad state during his period.
Omanaia University, Osmania Medical college, High court, Assembly like marvel buildings and many
more were constructed during his tenure. His rule witnessed the growth of Hyderabad economically and
culturally. Electricity, railways, roads and airways were developed. Major Irrigation projects were also
taken up. During his reign Police Action on Hyderabad State has taken place and it was merged in Indian
Union. He was the last Nizam.

5
1. Write about Russell Brigade ?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Who suppressed the1857 Revolt in Hyderabad State ?
____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
10.3 POLITY
Princely State of Hyderabad comprised of eight Telangana districts, five Marati speaking districts
and three Kannada speaking districts. The type of rule of the Nizam over the territories varied from time to
time depending on the conditions that prevailed at different times. In Nizam-ul-Mulk's period, he was
engaged in continuous wars. That is the reason why he did not concentrate to bring any changes in the
administrative setup. During his period, the entire administration was military-oriented. Nizam was all
powerful and his firmans were the laws of the land unquestioned by his subjects. The revenue officials
such as zamindars, Jagirdars, Iqtadars, and Contractors played an important role in the collection of
revenue.
However, the situation changed, in course of time, considerably. Immediately after the rule of
Nizam-ul-Mulk there was instability and turmoil over a decade, because of the rivalries among his
descendants. During this period of turmoil, the importance of the monarch has come to be reduced.
Subsequent Nizams also faced political conflicts and severe financial crises. Taking full advantage of the
situations, British Residents interfered in the administration with the support of Diwans or Prime
Ministers.
The territorial jurisdiction of the Mughal Deccan was divided into six subas such as: 1.
Aurangabad 2. Bidar 3. Khandesh 4. Berar 5. Bijapur 6. Hyderabad. Each of these six subas were sub-
divided into a number of sarkars. Each sarkar was further sub-divided into paraganas, also called Mahals
from the fiscal point of view. Each paragana or Mahal consisted of several smaller territorial divisions
called deh or qasba or Mauza. The deh was the smallest administrative unit. In 1905, when Zillabandi
system was introduced and the Districts were reorganized. It is continued with minor changes till 1948.
It is observed that, initially Asaf Jahis followed the Mughal administrative system set up and they
were also made some changes time to time. After assuming the charge of Salarjung as Prime Minister, he
introduced so many reforms to strengthen the administration and financial stability of the State.
6
10.4 SALAR JUNG REFORMS
Sir Mir Turab Ali Khan, popularly known as Salar Jung I, assumed the Office of Diwan (Prime
Minister) under the Nizam IV in 1853. He has served as the Prime Minister to three Nizams for 30 years
(1853-83). With his reforms he developed the State
10.4.1 Administrative Reforms
When Salarjung took over the Diwan ship of Hyderabad State, he initiated many reforms. In the
year 1867 he reorganized the Hyderabad State into five divisions(subhas). Those were 1. North Western
division with Aurangabad headquarter 2. Western division with headquarter of Bidar, 3. Southern division
with headquarter of Gulbarga 4. North division with the head quarter of Patancheruvu 5. East division with
the Bhuvanagiri. Each division comprises three or four districts. Each division was headed by a Sadar
Talukdar. He is responsible for all revenue, civil and criminal powers in the assigned division. He was
assisted by two officers, one for revenue and another one for judicial matters. Further he is also
supervising power over the Talukdars(District officers).
After the division, the next administrative unit was district. Prior to Salarjug it was headed by tax
farmers or contractors. Salarjung abolished the tax farming system and appointed paid Talukdars to look
after the district administration. In 1865 Zilabandi was also introduced. Under this the entire State was
divided into 14 districts. Subsequently two districts were created. On the basis of revenue, districts were
categorized into three types and officials were appointed accordingly. TheFisrt Talukdar was the head of
the district, he was assisted by Deputy talukdars, Judicial, Revenue officials and clerks.
Salarjung divided the district into Taluks. By the beginning of Salarjung there were 74 taluks in
the Diwani region and later period these increased to 107. Taluks were headed by Tahasildars. Tahasil
administration was almost a miniature of the District administration. The last unit of administration was
village. Patwaris, Revenue Patel, Police Patel, Talaris are important village officials. Patwaris are
responsible for keeping of revenue records. Police patel and Talari looked after law and order in the
village. All these officials were paid salaries form “Grama Seva Funds.” City administration was headed
by Kotwals. He was the Chief officer of city dealt with Law and order. There were separate officials for
revenue, judicial and expenditure.
The whole administration of the State was carried under the control of Diwan(Prime Minister). He
was assisted by deputy prime Minister, British Resident, Finance Minister and all other heads of the
departments.The British resident is only advices on political and economic issues.
7
Salarjung re organized the departments into 14catagories. All these were brought under seven
departmental ministers, such as Judiciary, revenue, police, public works, education, health, Municipal
corporation. These ministers were assisted by the secretaries and its subordinate staff carrying
administration. The ministers were called “Sadar-Ul-Miham”. All were responsible to Prime Minister. In
turn Prime Minister and his deputies were responsible to king. Supreme authority rests in the hands of the
king in all matters related to the kingdom.
10.4.2 Financial Reforms
Salar Jung took steps for the stabilization of economy. He replaced the tax farming system with
paid Talukdars. This measure brought the peasants into the purview of direct State administration. Further,
this system enabled Salarjujng to make accurate assessment of taxes from land. This resulted the heavy
gain to both the State and farmers on other. By establishing the central mint at Hyderabad, he issued
Halisikka coins and made it as standard currency. This measure helped the State, to remove the large
counterfeit coins which were destabilizing the economy of the State. Further, he supported the British to
suppress the 1857 , by that move he gained to waiver of Fifty Lakh rupees of Nizams loan by the British.
Accordingly his financial reforms made States economy surplus and it further encouraged in undertaking
many developmental activities.
10.4.3 Judicial Reforms
After assuming the charge of Prime Minister, Salarjung made changes in judicial structure.
Judiciary was given full autonomy. Civil and Criminal courts were separated. He established Sadar-Ul-
Maham Adalat in1869 for the judicial matters in the diwani region. Divisional courts, District courts,
Taluk courts, city courts established. In 1872, Court of appellate court of Judicature was established with
the name of Mahakama-i-sadar(High Court). This court frame the rules and regulations for the smooth
functioning of the different types of courts. It is the final authority in all judicial matters after the Diwan.
Above the High court was a Court of Appeal called Majlis-i-Murafa(Supreme court). A number of Judicial
officers called Munsifs and Mir Adils were appointed and they exercised judicial powers in civil and
criminal cases respectively. Capital punishments were abolished.
10.4.4 Military
Salarjung re organized the Military of the Nizam kingdom. He built a separate office in 1864 and
appointed a secretary for the supervision of Nizam army. The Secretary is made a part of all military
meetings. In 1875, the Government established the Daftar-e-Najam Jamiyat(the Military office). Later, in
1876 Military Secretary post was created and he was given the functions of military appointments.
8
Mansabdar offices were kept under the control of Military secretary. The military personnel were made to
training on European lines.
10.4.5 Police Reforms
Nizam Governement had no organized police department prior to 1865. They simply followed
the Mughal Tradition. At village level, police patel and patwaris were incharge of law and order. In cities
Kotwals functioned as police officers. Salarjung took adequate measures to maintain perfect law and order.
He created a police department called Mahkama-i-Kotwali and a police force called Nizamat. These
salaried personnel were appointed by the State. He also established chaukis(police stations) and
Nakas(check Post) throughout the State. By 1880, the police force had 14055, of them 3250 personnel
were deployed in cities. Kotwal was continued to be the head of the police force in the city and responsible
for maintain law and order. By all the initiatives of Salar jung, crime rate decreased and peace prevailed.
10.4.6 Educational Reforms:
Salajung-I took keen interest in the development of modern education. His intention was to bring
drastic changes in the field of education that help to get efficient persons for better administration. In 1855
Dar-Ul-Uloom High School was established. Later, City High School in 1870 and Chaderghat School in
1872 were established. Separate schools like Madrasa-i-Aliya in 1873, Madrasa –i-Aiza in 1878 and
Nizam College in 1887 were established for the children of nobles and royal families. A School of
Engineering was established in 1870 to produce the required technical staff for Ppublic Work‟s
Department. It is to be observed that, most of the educational institutions were established in and around
Hyderabad city only.
Till the rule of Afzal-Ud-Dowla, there was no considerable progress made in women‟s education.
They were restricted to homes. Social conditions, lack of girls schools and dearth of trained lady lecturers
contributed to low rate of women‟s education in the State. The Sixth Nizam, Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan
initiated to spread education among women. During his tenure Christian missionaries opened first girls
school in Hyderabad. Saint George grammer school, Wesley mission school (1882) were early girls
schools that were established. To improve educational standards Salar Jung recruited talented people from
all over the country, mainly from North India. In 1881, Aghoranath Chattopadhyaya opened Chadarghat
school(Gloria High School) and took steps to teach English, Urdu, History, Geography and other
vocational subjects to girls.
10.4.7 Transport and Communication :
9
During the early period of Nizams the communication system was at its lowest ebb in Hyderbad
State. With the help of British, Salarjung took adequate measures in creating efficient communication
system. In 1868 railway line connecting Madras and Bombay was laid and it passed through Wadi and
Gulbarga. Later, separate line connecting wadi was laid. Many bridges and culverts were constructed for
better rail-road connectivity. In 1856-57 Telegraph line was laid connecting Hyderabad and Bombay that
passed through Kurnool. Postal department in Hyderbad began in 1862 and by 1871 its operation covered
in entire diwani areas of Hyderabad. He also established department of Stamps known as Munshi Khana in
1861. Further, In 1867 Forest and in 1869 Ware housing department were created.
Thus, Salarjung Reforms in various aspects of administration gave Hyderabad State a sound
financial strength and consolidated the entire administrative set up. That‟s why he is said to be the architect
of Modern Hyderabad State.
10.5 NIZAM-BRITISH RELATIONS
Nizam-ul-Mulk period was marked by a political consolidation. His death was followed by a war
of succession. By taking this advantage, British supported Nazar jung and Salabat Jung. Later Nizam Ali
Khan also got the help from British. He accepted the Subsidiary Alliance in 1789 by which company
provided troops to Nizam. Further, Triple alliance was formed between Nizam, the British, and Marathas
to defeat Tippu Sultan. After defeating Tippu the Nizam was benefitted. After fourth Mysore war Nizam
gave away ceded districts to the British. When Henry Russel became the resident, he noticed that law and
order was deplorable in the State. To control the situation Russel started a separate force called Russel
Brigade, later it became Hyderabad contingent. The State was over burdened and did not pay salaries to
soldiers. Chandulal was forced to enter into agreement with Palmer company. This firm earned lots of
profits. Metcalfe realised that Palmer was exploiting the Nizam State. He arranged loan from Resident's
treasury and Nizam paid 80,00,000 to Palmer and later it became bankrupt in a year. After the withdrawal
of Metcalfe reforms, the conditions of State deteriorated again.
By 1850, Nizam owed 64,00,000 to East India Company. By 1851, the Nizam discharged more
than half of his debt to British and promised to pay the remainder next year but could not keep up his
promise. So was forced to sign Treaty of Berar and lost Berar to the British. He also lost the control over
coastal area. His administration was paralyzed and Hyderabad Contingent was made an auxiliary of British
Indian Army. During the last two Nizams some systematic attempts to transform the socio-economic life in
the State were taken up.
10
The society was classified into different classes and the gulf between these classes was irreducible.
There were differences in caste structure. During the period, society is divided as brahmins, kshatriyas,
vaisyas and sudras. In the beginning there were only four casts. In due course these got multiplied and the
structure became complex. Brahmins enjyoed the highest status in the society. They were engaged in
administrative posts and religious practices. In the caste system kshatriyas occupied second position. They
have different lineages and mainly engaged in administration. Vaishyas held the third position in social
order. Their chief occupation was commerce and trade. Apart from this, they also practiced money-lending
business. Shudras belonged to fourth category. They formed majority of the population. Most of them got
engaged in agricultural and traditional occupations. It is observed that, over a period of a time, occupations
got turned into castes. Lambadi or Banjaras, Erkalas, Chenchus, Gonds, Koyas and Konda Reddis, formed
the important tribesmen that inhabited in the Nizam State.
Regarding the Muslims Iranians, Turanians, Turks and Arabs are distinct groups hailing from
foreign countries. Muslims from North India were Rohillas, and Pathans also settled at Hyderabad. Despite
the meager differences, Muslims were broadly divide into two sects, Shia and Sunni. Most of them were
non vegetarians and drunkards. Muslims foreign origin ere called as Afakies and the local muslims as
Deccanis.
In the official hierarchy the Nizam enjoyed great respectable position followed by Paigah Nobles.
Next rung were Jagirdars, Deshmukhs, Deshpandeys, Patels, Patwaris and other village servants. The
status of the higher class of the society used to have a luxurious life style, in contrast to the very simple life
of the lower classes.
During the Asaf Jahi period, there were number of social evils and inequality all over the State.
“Vettichakiri”, is the biggest social evil during this period. Washermen, barbers, Potters, tambali and other
backward classes persons had to work in the houses of Jagirdars, Vatandars and Deshmukhs. Another
important evil refers to bagela. When the farmers whom unable to clear their debts to the Landlords their
lands were seized and made them work in their own farms as bagela (bonded labourer). The farmer and his
family had to work for the Landlord till their debts are settled. It is practiced in villages. Similar practice
which is practiced in towns and cities is known as begari. Further, other social evils such as child
marriages, polygamy, dowry, prostitution, purdah, devadasi and aadapapa systems also remained very
much in vogue in the society.
11
Condition of women
In the Nizam period condition of women was not as bright as it. In this period
irrespective of rich and poor, women were confined to the four walls and should be role was to look after
the family members, particularly the children. Some women from the lowest classes of the society use to
work in agriculture related works or traditional occupations to help their husbands. Royal families and
wives of Nawabs had financial freedom to some extent, they never had individual liberty. After Salar Jung
reforms and establishment of educational institutions, women‟s position improved gradually. Educated
women actively participated in social and cultural movements during the tenure of Mir Osman Ali Khan.
Food and Dress Patterns
The Hyderabad composite culture is mirrored in varied dressing patterns, food habits, customs and
traditions. Regarding food styles and dress-patterns, jawar, bajra, rice, wheat, maize, pulses and vegetables
formed the common food. Hyderabadi biryani has its own remarkable identity. Dhoti and sherwani became
common dress among Hindus and Muslims respectively. While Christians had short coats and trousers,
Parsis had long caps and turbans. The custom of wearing pagdi, dastar, Turkish caps and saleem Shahi
shoes prevailed without any distinction of caste or creed. In rural areas most of the public carried kambal
or blanket. Hindu ladies got accustomed to wear saris and cholis (blouses). However Muslim ladies
usually wore a lehanga or underskirt, with a choli (blouses) and dupatta (long scarfs or stoles that are
basically a part of South Asian ladies attire). Among Telugu community, langaohni (half sari) was really
outstanding apparel of young ladies and women. Parda was strictly observed among the Muslims. Hindu
aristocracy followed Muslim nobility in dress patterns. Public of high profile used gold and silver
ornaments. Lavish hospitality was another special feature of social culture of Hyderabad people under the
Nizams.
Compared to other princely States, Hyderabad had a unique culture known as Ganga, Jamuna
Tehjeeb from a wide variety of religions, different languages and different cultures. Here many religions
and caste intermingled and flourished jointly together. Rulers were Muslims and the subjects were Hindus.
Important festivals are celebrated by one and all, without any communal tinge or preference. Religious
synthesis of Hindu and Iranian Islamic cultures can also been seen in art and architectural aspects like
depiction of cultural themes in paintings and construction of blend of Indo-Islamic architectural styles
making Hyderabad tradition rich and unique.
12
Asaf Jahis rule is very well noted for its composite and cosmopolitan culture. Persian, Urdu,
Telugu, Marathi and Kannada are the primary languages that prevailed in Nizam‟s dominion. Domestically
spoken Hyderabadi Urdu or Deccaniboli includes part of humour, as its speciality. Besides these, Hindi
and English were also spoken. Because of the cosmopolitan nature of Hyderabad city, people from all parts
of India and foreign lands flocked to it and lived harmoniously. The literacy rate in Hyderabad State was
very low at 4.8%, while the literacy rate among the Telugu people was 3.3%. Urdu used to be the language
of instruction in Primary, Middle and High schools because of which Telugu people were educationally
backward. After Salarjung reforms, literacy rate slightly improved.
Among performing arts, music, qawwali, Kuchipudi, dramas, painting, calligraphy became
popular. Shadow puppetry is another famous art performed with leather puppets and bamboo sticks. All
these indicate that Hyderabad remained as a city in which many cultural strains were intermingled. The
paintings of Hyderabad are noted for their brilliant colours, exquisite gold decorated in the background,
fine arabesque flowering trees, gorgeous costumes, sweeping postures, etc. The production of large-size
painting on cotton cloth is the most remarkable feature of Deccan.
Architecture
The buildings constructed during the rule of the Nizams portray rich and imposing architecture,
synthesizing medieval and modern styles. Legislative Assembly in Saracenic-Rajasthani style, the
aristocratic High Court in Indo-Saracenic style, and the regal Osmania General Hospital in Mughal style,
and other buildings like Purani Haveli, Chowmahalla, Arts College, Jubilee Hall and the Falaknuma Palace
are also classic representations of Asaf Jahi architectures. Most of these building were constructed during
the tenure of Mir Osman Ali Khan. Thus, he is the creator of new Hyderabad in many ways. In the
construction of houses, western culture mainly due to the impact of Europeans was introduced. As a result,
there was a blend of western motifs with Deccani culture and ethos.

1. What were the important social evils prevalent in Asaf Jahi period?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
13
2. What are the important buildings constructed by the Asaf Jahi rulers?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10.8 SUMMARY
Asafjahi dynasty ruled the princely state of Hyderabad for 224 years. Nizam-Ul-Mulk was the
founder of this dynasty. Total seven Nizam's ruled the Hyderabad State between 1724 C.E. and 1948 C.E.
The death of Nizam–ul-Mulk was followed by a civil war and Britishers took the advantage. Nizam Ali
Khan, was the first Indian ruler who signed the treaty of Subsidiary Alliance with British. Sikendar Jah
was the 3rd ruler, on his name Secunderabad city was constructed. During Nasir-ud-Dowla tenure, Wahabi
movement got spread into the Nizam dominion.
After Nasir-ud-Dowla, his son Afzal-ud-Dowla came to the throne. During his tenure, 1857
Revolt started and spread to Hyderabad. Nizam stood for the British and suppressed the Revolt with the
help of Salar Jung-I. As a Prime Minister, Salarjung introduced so many reforms to strengthen the
administration and financial stability of the State. Modernisation of Hyderabad began under the
stewardship of Diwan Salar Jung-I. Sixth Nizam Mir Mahaboob Alikhan established many more
educational institutions, along with Medical school. After India gained independence in August 1947, the
last Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan decided not to join the Indian Union. Ultimately, Sardar Vallabhai Patel,
then Minister of Home Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister of India, initiated the Police Action on
Hyderabad. The State was taken over and merged into Indian Union on 17th September 1948.

1. British resident Henry Russel started a separate force called as „Russel Brigade‟. Later, it was
evolved as Hyderabad Contingent.
2. Nasir-ud-Dowla suppressed the 1857 Revolt in Hyderabad State with the help of Salar Jung-I
1. Vettichakiri, bagela, begari, child marriages, polygamy, dowry, prostitution, purdah, devadasi and
aadapapa
2. Legislative Assembly, High Court, Osmania General Hospital, Arts College, Purani Haveli,
Chowmahalla palace, Jubilee Hall and the Falaknuma Palace.
14
I . Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.

1. Enumerate the importance of Salar Jung reforms?
2. Discuss the social conditions during the Asaf Jahi period.
3. Write about the cultural conditions during the Asaf Jahi period.
II . Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Write a brief sketch of Nizam-Ul-Mulk.

2. Explain the rule of Nizam Ali Khan
3. Discuss the contribution of Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan
1. Raza Alikhan : Hyderabad 400 years

2. Sarojini Regani : Nizam- British relations
3. Sherwani, H.K & Joshi. P.M.(e.d.) : The History of the Medieval DeccanVol,I, II
Khusrou, A.M. : Economic and Social effect of jagirdari
Abolition and Land reforms in Hyderabad 1958
4. Ramesan.N : The freedom struggle in Hyderabad
5. Munshi.K.M. : The end of An Era – Hyderabad Memories
15
Unit-12: MODERNISATION DURING ASAFJAHIS PERIOD
Contents
12.0: Objectives
12.1: Introduction
12.2: Modernisation of Telangana under Salar Jung
12.2.1: Financial Reforms
12.2.2: Reforms in trade and commerce
12.2.3: Establishment of public works and forest department
12.2.4: Legal Reforms
12.2.5: Administrative Reforms
12.2.6: Salar Jung Reforms on Education
12.3: Development of Irrigation Facilities
12.4: Development of Transport and communication
12.5: Industrialisation
12.5.1: First phase (1870-1919)
12.5.2: Second phase (1919-39)
12.5.3: Third phase (1939-48)
12.6: Educational Changes, 1884-1948
12.7: Administrative Changes during the period, 1884-1948
12.7.1: Rural local Boards
12.8: Historical Monuments
12.9: Summary
1
12.0: OBJECTIVES
1. Know the Salar Jung-I reforms in Hyderabad state.

2. Explain the irrigational facilities under the last two Nizams.
3. Discuss the development of transport and communications in the State.
4. Analyse the growth of Industrialisation in the last Nizam period.
5. Describe the Educational reforms from 1884 – 1948.
12.1: INTRODUCTION
Prior to the appointment of Sir Salar Jung-I in 1853 as prime minister of Hyderabad state, the
financial and economic conditions in the state were worse. The state was under severe financial crisis.
Salaries of officials of every branch were in arrears for a long period. The government was unable to
carry on its day to day administration. Even the Nizam was unable to meet his own personal expenses.
Hence, he mortgaged his own jewelelry at high rate of interest. There was neither central public treasury
nor control over minting and no regular record of accounts. The income of the state was 1/5 of the its
expenditure. Every office was purchased in building and corruption prevailed everywhere.
Under such circumstance, a western educated 24 years old young man, Mir Turab Ali Khan,
populary known as Salar Jung-I, was appointed as prime minister of the state on 31st may 1853, and
continued in service till his death on 8th Februry 1883. He had an opportunity of serving under three
Nizams viz., Nasir-ud-Daula (1829-1857), Afzal-ud-Daula (1857-1869) and Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan
(1869-1911). He enjoyed the confidence of the British due to his policies like supporting the British
during the critical years of 1857 Sepoy Revolt. Further, his modernization measures were much suited to
colonial interest. Hence, they supported all his reforms. From 1869 onwards, he acted as a regent of 3
years old minor ruler, Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan and took control over the administration and took up
several steps for the process of modernization.
12.2: MODERNISATION OF TEANGANA UNDER SAARHUNG-I
2
He has taken several steps for the purpose of the modernization.
12.2.1: Financial Reforms
Initially, he focused his attention to improve the financial condition of the state. To start with, he
introduced first set of reforms in 1855 by appointing paid collectors in the place of revenue farmers at
districts, and thus liberated the districts from the rule of the corrupt contract Talukdars. Second, credit
facility was extended and introduce a reasonable rate of interest to reduce the outstanding debts of the
state on the one head and on the other hand mortgaged government lands were liberated and brought back
under the government control, which increased its revenue tremendously. Third, he introduced the official
‘Halisicca’ rupee and government mint was established at Hyderabad and private miniting was abolished.
Fourth, an Accountant general office was created to maintain the accounts of the income and expenditure
of the state. Fifth, the different types of lands that were under the control of tax farmers till then were
taken possession by the government, which increased the revenue of the government. Sixth, the earlier
system of village as a unit for revenue collection was abolished. The tax was collected directly from the
Ryots and government. This was the Bombay model of Ryotwri land revenue system and it was
introduced in the Nizam kingdom. It led to an increase in the government income or revenue. Further, the
survey and settlement of land were undertaken and rights were granted to Ryots individually resulting in
the stabilization of revenue administration.
12.2.2: Reforms in Trade and Commerce
Salar Jung aimed to promote trade to commerce and increased the government revenue. He
appointed government customs officers for the collections of duty or highway tax. These officials were to
collect the duty at two places, one at borders where the goods were entering the state and another at where
the goods were sold. These reforms were useful to release the trade from the control of the middle men
and thereby there was improvement of the trade and increase of revenue.
12.2.3: Establishement of Public Works and Forest Departmentrs
Salar Jung brought about the establishment of public works department under the government
control to take up the construction and repairs of roads and irrigation facilities of the state, which paved
the way for agricultural development in the state. Further, a separate forest department was established
and brought the entire forest wealth under the government control.
12.2.4: Legal Reforms
3
To improve the law and order in the state, a police department called Mahkam-i-Kotwali was
established at Hyderabad and police stations at Districts called the Choukies. The superintendents of
police and inspectors incharge of Choukies were appointed to control the law and order in the state.
Further he strengthened the judiciary by establishing the High Court at Hyderabad and appointed
Munsiffs and Hiradils at districts to decide cases and render justice.
12.2.5: Administrative Reforms
In 1865, he introduced “Zilbandi” system. The entire state was divided into uniform districts and
appointed paid collectors, sub-collectors and Tahasildars at districts, Taluqs and Patwaris respectively and
Patels at villages for revenue collection and maintenance of law and order. This led to further stabilization
in administration. Further, in 1868 the entire government machinery brought under the control of four
ministers. They are:
i. Revenue
ii. Judicial
iii. Police
iv. Education, health, local establishments, rural development and public welfare. These ministers were
called sadar-ul-mahams were responsible to the diwan.
12.2.6: Salar Jung Reforms on Education
Sir Salar Jung-I also tried to introduce western and modern English education in Hyderabad state,
so that he could get trained personal to run his administration. Hence he established a number of schools
in the state. In 1855 Darul-ul-Uloo m high school was established with English as one of the compulsory
subjects. The City High school was established in 1870, Engineering school was established in 1870 to
produce the required technical force to man the public works department. As a result of these schools,
small but very articulate and intellectual elite group was created in the city of Hyderabad.
In order to improve the administrative standards of the state, he recruited talented personal from
all over the country. Thus, he laid a strong foundation for modernisation of administrative system in the
state.
12.3: DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION FACILITIES
The rulers of Hyderabad State realized the importance of water resources development from the
second decade of 20th century, particularly during period of Mir Mahaboob Ali khan or Nizam-VII. The
seventh nizam appointed an able engineer, Nawab Ali Nawaz Jung Bahadur as chief engineer of Nizams
4
kingdom. He prepared a comprehensive water resources development plan for the exploitation of vast
water potential available in the major river basins of Godavari and Krishna and their tributaries. Further
he undertook construction of some new projects and tanks and repaired old lakes, canals and tanks, these
included drinking water sources such as Mir Alani Tank, Osman sagar and Himayat Sagar, and irrigation
projects such as the Nizam Sagar Project, Palair, Wyra, Manair, Ramappa, Pakhal, Dindee, Ghanpur and
Singabhupalam projects. These provide water for producing Rice, Maize, Sugarcane, Turmeric, Chillies
and Groundnut crops.
1. Zilbandi System was introduced by ?
………...............................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. City High School was established in the year ?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
12.4: DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
The development of modern means of transport such as rail, roads, airways, postal and
telecommunication facilities form the basis for the Hyderabad state agricultural, industrial and
commercial growth. As well as facilitating administration and maintaining of relations with the
neighboring states and British India. The British government for promoting its military, economic and
political interests encouraged the construction of railways in the Nizam’s state. With a private British
company coming forward to invest in the states railway construction, important lines such as Bomaby to
Medan via wadi, wadi to secunderbad, the latter’s extension to Warangal to Ghanda, its extension to
Singareni coal fields and Hyderabad Godavari valley railway line, running from Manmad via Auranghat
to Secunderbad etc. have been laid between 1874-1899. Nampally and Kachiguda railway stations have
been built for the convenience of rail passengers of the capital city. By the end of the first world war, thus
5
broad gauge line (352 miles) and three meters gauge lines (620 miles) to connect Hyderabad city with
different parts of the state.
Road ways followed the railways. Prior to 1868, there were trunk roads leading from Hyderabad
to Sholapur, Gulbarga, Kurnool, Masulipatnam, Hanamkonda and Nagam. Some of these roads were
originally built by the British for facilitating the movement of their troops. These were later on takeover
by state government in 1867. Later on, the Nizam government undertook and constructed many trunks
roads connecting the capital city of Hyderabad with the districts and other Indian provinces. Till the year
1932 road transport was operated by private individuals and companies. As the latter caused lot of
inconvenience to the public by being non-punctual and with higher charges extracted arbitrarily. Hence
the nizam’s government took it over and entrusted it to the railways and roads department in 1932. It
began to known as Nizam’s State Railways Road Transport Department (NSR-RTD). It was able to open
bus depots in all the district headquarters and operate buses from the capital city to the districts by 1936.
Hyderabad State has the distinction of begining the airways for the first time with headquarters at
Begumpet. it started in 1938 and air traffic was brought under the control and operation of Nizam
guaranteed state railway boards.
Prior to 1869, Postal service was under private management through a contract system. When it
was brought under government control this department was modernized and organized on the model that
was prevailing in British India. All district and taluq headquarters and important towns and business
centries have been provided with post offices and personal to maintain. The telegraph department was
administered by the postal department.
Last but not the least, telegraphs service was introduced in Hyderabad city in 1885. To start with,
there was only one telephone exchange with lines at Baradari in the city. Though initially it was put for
government use, it was thrown open to the public afterwards. To cope up with the growing demand,
exchanges were opened at Narayanguda and Securnderabad. Trunk lines were installed in 1926 and 1927
connecting Hyderabad capital city with the district headquarters and important towns of the state between
1922 – 1945 there were 10 telephone exchanges with 2004 telephone connections.
12.5: INDUSTRILISATION
Before the Hyderabad state was intergrated into Indian Union, a wide range of industrial goods
were being produced in Hyderabad. By that time, the population of the State was about 4% of the total
population of the country, an 3% of the country’s factory labour,7 % of factories and about 6% of the
paid-up value of its capital in the corporate sector. The share of the state was four percent or more in
6
cotton, matches, sugar, liquor, coal, cement and other products. Considerable development in industry
was made possible by the distinctive role played by the state in making available infrastructural facilities
for its growth.
The industrialisation of Hyderabad can be traced in three distinct phases. The first phase began
during the Diwan or prime ministership of Sir Salar Jung-I from the 1870s and ended with the end of
World War-I in 1919. The second phase, which lasted during the years between the two World Wars 1919
– 1939. The Third phase which began with World War-II in 1939 and continued up to the end of Nizam’s
rule in 1948. The industrial development was partial patronage through ITF (Industrial Trust Fund) of the
State, whereas it was purely private enterprise in rest of British India.
12.5.1: First phase (1870-1919)
During the first phase, wide – range of measures were initiated by the state for restricting the
economy and polity during the Diwanship of Mir Turab Ali Khan, by the Prime Minister Salar Jung-I
(1853-83). This marked the beginning of industrialisation in Hyderabad state. After the implementation of
reforms in the economic, social, education and administrative fields in the kingdom of Nizam and also the
reforms in the transport and other communications, way was paved for the cultivation of cotton crop in
Maratwada and oil seeds in Telangana. The restructuring of the agrarian economy was undertaken
simultaneously with the modernisation of the state apparatus. Efforts were made by the public works
department in providing water and irrigation facilities also helped this process.
Further, the opening of Hyderabad – Godavari Valley to Manmad railway line in 1889 helped to
established cotton and its related ginning and pressing mills in those areas. During this period silk, carpets
and other small scale industries were encourage. As a result, the Hyderabad Deccan Spinning and
Weaving Mills ltd,(1877), the Mahaboob Shahi Gulbarga Mills (1884) and Aurangabad Mills (1888) were
established. Further the opening of railway line from Dornakal jn. To Singareni collieries helped to
transport coal from Singareni. By 1901, there were 68 large industrial establishments of all kinds
employing an average daily labour of ten thousand or more. From 1911 to 1921 the number of
establishments increased from 121 to 200 and employed 24,317 and 32,857 persons, respectively.
12.5.2: Second phase (1919-39)
During the second phase, the Nizam state took the initiative to provide institutional support to
industry. Financial and technological aid to industries helped in the development of local industry, both in
small scale and large scale sectors. The industrial laboratory was established in 1981. The year 1929
marked an important landmark in the history of industrialsation corpus fund of rupees one crore initially
7
and later it was raised to three crore rupees was established. This was invested in a number of large
industrial establishments in the form of shares and debentures and as loans for small scale industries,
initiated research, provided training to students and encouraged businessmen to produce goods on
improved methods and sponsored researched centers and markets centers. The Industrial Trust Fund (ITF)
also acted as a managing agent for a number of companies in the state.
Along with technological and financial assistance the government also attempted to provide
market facilities to artisan based industries. The first attempt was to conduct or participate in industrial
exhibition to promote the sale of these products. In Hyderabad, this tradition dates back to the mid-
nineteenth century during the early years of Salar Jung’s prime ministership. Therafter the government
participated in a number of such exhibitions held in India and abroad. From 1930, a permanent industrial
exhibitions was setup in Hyderabad city. The Osmania University Graduates, involved in organizing these
exhibitions with the assistance of the state. Also published a journal, Mulki industries for encouragement
of small scale industries. In later years, the Cottage Industries Institute (CII) was also organized with its
own sales depot for the encouragement of the industries. The depot acted as an intermediary between
village artisans and consumers.
During this phase, the railways became a completely state-owned undertaking and came to be
known as the Nizam State Railway. It had the Mechanical Road Transport Service and Civil Aviation
under its wings. Hydro-electric power generation from Nizam Sagar Canal began in the late thirties.
Power generation reached a peak of 20 millions KW in 1938-39. Coal production increased from an
annual average of 0.65 millions tons during the period 1961-19 to over one million tons during the period
1936-38. Large industrial establishment increased from about 200 in 1921 to 387 in 1931. Oil, rice and
flour mills, small – scale motor and engineering workshop, button factories, matches and tanneries
increased substantially. In the corporate sector (joint stock companies), three more textile mills, two
cigarette factories (Chaminar, VST), two glass factories and a sugar factory were established. Sugar
factory established at Bodhan under Nizam Sagar project was biggest in Asia at that point of time.
12.5.2.1: D.B.R Mill (1920)
Diwan Bahadur Ramagopal Mill is called as D.B.R Mill. It was established on 14 th February,
1920 at Lower Tank Bunk in Hyderabad by the Diwan Bahadur Ramgopal with the encouragement of the
Nizam Government. It was a cotton industry producing the cloth from the raw material brought from
outside. Now it is closed.
12.5.3: Third phase (1936-48)
8
During the last phase between 1939-1948, the Nizam Osam Ali Khan made all possible attempts
to bring changes in the industrial policy resulting in establishment of many industries. Singareni coleries
mining company at singareni village in Khammam District in 1921, Nizam Sugar Factory at Bodhan in
Nizamabad District in 1937, Allwyn Metal works at Hyderabad in 1942, Karkhana Zinda Tilismath at
Hyderabad in 1920, Chaeminar cigarette factory (1925) Vazir Sultan Tobacco Company (1930) at
Hyderabad, Azamjahi Mills, Warangal(1934), Hyderabad Asbestos at Hyderabad (1946), Praga Tools
company at Kavadiguda, Secunderabad(1943) Sirpur Khagaznagar Paper Mill was at Adilabad in 1942.
Thus, the last Nizam encouraged industrialisation in the state.
12.5.3.1: Azam Jahi Mills, Warangal (1934)
It was an important Textile Mill located at Warangal in Hyderabad state.
12.5.3.2: Hyderabad State Bank (1941)
In 1941 Mir Osam Ali Khan established his own bank, the Hyderabad State Bank (State Bank of
Hyderabad) as the state’s Central Bank, which managed the Osmania sicca, the currency of the
Hyderabad State. It was the only State which had its own currency, the Hyderabad rupee, which was
different from the rets of India. Hyderabad was the only state in British India where the ruler was allowed
to issue his own currency notes. A 100 rupees note was introduced in 1981.
12.6: EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 1884-1948
Christian missionaries happened to be the pioneers in imparting Western education in the princely
state of Hyderabad as they had done in other parts of the country. St. George’s grammar school was
opened in Hyderabad city in 1834 by a clergyman of the church of England. As a welcome measure, a
separate Education Department was created and kept under the Director of public Instruction. Nizam
College of 1887 had its origins in the Chadergaht English High School of 1872 and school of Engineering
of 1870, and stood affiliated to Madras University. Between 1870-1880, two important schools were
opened in the Hyderabad city for education of students for higher classes in the society. These happened
to the Madarsa-i-Aliya as an English school for the education of the children of the nobility, and the one
begin Madarsa-e-Aliya for the sons of the royal family. Further, by the year 1882, there were there aided
English high school St. Georg’s Grammar School, All Saints School, Mahboob High School and a few
English medium school for girls, such as the Dharmvant High School near Charminar and Keyes High
School in Secunderabad etc, came into existence for the usage of the people.
9
It is significant to note that throughout the Nizam period, the medium of instruction in Hyderabad
state was mainly Urdu and English at all levels of education. Throught it was agreed that primary
education should be in the mother – toungue of the pupil, no arrangements were made for its practice.
In accordance with the general desine of the educationists and educating parents, Mir Osman Ali
Khan, the VII the Nizam has issued a farman on 28th August, 1981 for the establishment of Osmania
university in an area of 1400 acres. The medium of instruction was Urdu, but English was a compulsory
subject in both Arts and Sciences. A official feature of the university was the establishment of translation
and compilation Bhavan in 1918 which successfully translated European Science books into Urdu
language to cater to the needs of the university. This has the distinction of the first university with Urdu
as the medium of instruction. The starting of this university was followed by the opening of new colleges
in the city: City college in 1921, Zenana International college, Engineering college, Teacher training
colleges one for the boys and the other for girls and the Warangal intermediate college came into
existence during 1923-1930. As Urdu was made compulsory for government job, there was a great
demand for the university and its affiliated colleges.
It has be noted that primary schools, Secondary Schools and even intermediate colleges, were
allowed to open in districts. Degree colleges and beyond are allowed only in the capital city. The main
reason begin non-permitting of opening of private Schools with regional language as medium of
instruction.
12.7: ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS DURING THE PERIOD, 1884-1948
An important decision was taken in the year 1921 which was the separation of Judiciary from the
Executive or form Revenue officials. The Judiciary was strengthened by appointing Judges at all levels
with full powers. In this respect Hyderabad pioneer in the entire country.
The system of local bodies was first introduced in the Hyderabad state for administration in 1869,
when Salar Jung-I was the Diwan. He removed the city Municipal Administration from the city police
commissioner’s supervision and consequently a new branch which came to know as the Municipality and
Road Maintenance Branch, was placed under a Municipal committee. The Municipal committee had
Government representatives, non-government representatives elected from different groups and their term
was three years. In 1881 in order to improve the efficiency of the Municipalities, it was bifurcated into
two units viz., the City Municipality and the Chadarghat Municipality for the suburbs, each placed under a
separate Municipal Secretary. By 1930, the City and Chadarghat Municipalities were again amalgamated
and placed under one Secretary and a Municipal Committee.
10
12.7.1: Rural Local Boards
Local bodies were created during lord Rippon’’s period in 1884. The Nizam of Hyderabad too
had issued a promulgation of the Dastar-ul-Amal or local Fund Rules Act in 1888 and the Act came in to
effect from 1889. The Act provided for the establishment of three kinds of local boards (i) Central Boards
(ii) District Boards at district level (iii) Taluq Boards at the Taluq level.
Each of these boards were required to hold at least one ordinary meeting every month and as
many extraordinary meetings as were necessary. The members of the District and Taluq boards held
office for a period of three years. These boards were constituted with all related officials of all branches
and nominated non-officials. Central Boards headed by the president of Executive Council or Revenue
Minister, District board was headed by Taluqdar or collector, Tauq board was headed by Tahasildars and
they were responsible to inspect the expenditure and works which were allotted under local fund rules to
find out whether the local fund rules were carried properly or not and supervise at sub-ordinate level.
The Ayyanagar committee recommended the establishment of village panchanyats for covering
population of 1000 to 5000 and a new legislative Act of 1942 was introduced by the Nizam’s Government
to establish village Panchayats for the first time in his Dominion. Provision was made for the nomination
of panchayatdars ranging from 5 to 11 for each panchayat by the first Taluqdar (collector) out of the list
of persons furnished by the Tahasildar. The collectors or first Taluqdar was also empowered to nominated
the sarpanch from among the members of the panchayat. The term of panchayat was three years.
12.8: HISTORICAL MONUMENTS
Mir Osman Ali Khan took keen interest in architecture. The architecture of his period depicts the
ideas and thoughts of the people and culture and civilization of the time. Osmania university, Osmania
general hospital were built in Mughal and Indo-Saracenic style. The High Court was built in Indo-
Saracenic style. The Legislative Assembly building is Saracenic Rajastani style and other buildings like
the City college, Pubic gardens, Unani Hospital, Asafia library, Hyderabad and Secunderabad railway
station, Town Hall, Eden Bagh, Jubilee Hall built in Hindu-Islamic and western style. The city
improvement boards was setup at this time laid out gardens, built markets, widened streets and provided
for under ground sewerage.
Mir Osman Ali Khan Nizam-VII was a versatile personality and progressive ruler. He was
visionary and a knowledgably diplomat and a great administrator. He was great linguist and had
command over six languages. Besides Urdu. The great and far-reaching changes brought forth by him in
the field of education, public health, city improvement, rural upliftment, agriculture, industries, trade and
11
commerce, transport and communications not only changed the fate of the state but also laid foundation
for its onwards march. Modernisation of Hyderabad and Telangana began under the stewardship of prime
Minister Salar Jung-I during 1853-1883. He reorganized the whole administration of state by brining very
talented personnel, on the British model. Further introduction survey and settlement, modernisation of
education and transport communication system were undertaken. His reforms contributed to the
beginning of modernisation. During the last two Nizams Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan and Osman Ali Khan
vigorous steps have been taken in all the fields which furthered the process modernisation and
industrilsation in Hyderabad state.
1. When the Telegraph services introduced in Hyderabad City.?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. The Mahaboob Shahi Gulbarga Mill setup in the year. ?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
12.9: SUMMARY
In Nizams Hyderabad State served reforms introduced by Sir Salar Jung. He was established
several educational institutions in Hyderabad City. Nizam rulers established textile power looms in
different parts of Hyderabad State. They were encouraged industries and developed transport and
communications in the state.
Check Your Progress Answers I
1. 1865.
2. 1870.
Check Your Progress Answers II
12
1. 1885.
2. 1884.
I Answer the following question in about 30 lines each.
1. How the Salar Jung I reforms helped for the process of modernisation of Hyderabad.
2. Write about the development of irrigation facilities under the last two Nizams.
3. Write a note on three phases of industrialisation in the Hyderabad sate.
II Answer the following question in about 15 lines each.
1. Discuss the financial reforms of Salar Jung-I.

2. Describe the growth of railways in the Nizam State.
3. Write about the progress of education from1884-1948 in Hyderabad state.
12.12: BOOKS FOR FURTHER READINGS
1. Ramesan : Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad.

2. Sheela Raj : Medivalism to modernism, socio economic and culture history of
Hyderabad (1969-1911).
3. Bawa V.K. : The Nizam between Mughals and British, Hyderabad under Salar Jung-
I. S.Chand & Co., New Delhi 1986.
4. Subba Roa C.V. : Hyderabad, the social context of industrialization (1875-1948).
5. Rama Krishna Reddy. : V Economic history of Hyderabad State (Warangal suba).
*****
13
UNIT-13: FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN TELANGANA
Contents
13.0: Objectives
13.1: Introduction
13.2: Origin of the Freedom Movement in the Hyderabad State
13.2.1: Socio-Economic Background
13.2.2: Growth of public opinion-Chanda Railway Scheme
13.2.3: Cultural Revival
13.2.4: Establishment of Libraries-Role of Press
13.3: Swadeshi Movement in Hyderabad state
13.4: Khilafat movement in Hyderabad State
13.5: The formation of the Andhra Jana Sangham
13.6: The Role of Andhra Maha Sabha
13.6.1: Political Conferences and split in Andhra Mahasabha
13.7: Formation of Hyderabad State Congress and 1938 Satyagraha
13.7.1: Aims and Objectives of State Congress
13.8: Osmania University-Vandemataram Incident
13.9: Aryasamaj Movement in Hyderabad state
13.10: Majlis- e -Etihad-ul Muslimeen
13.11: Communist Party
13.12: Developments during 1940s
13.12.1: Join Indian Movement
13.12.2: Stand Still Agreement
13.13 Summary
13.14: Model Answer's to Check Your Progress
1
13.0. OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able:
1. To know the Freedom Movement in Telangana.

2. To understand the Socio-Economic background and other factors responsible for the Movement.
3. To explain the formation of Andhra Jana Sangham and Andhra Mahasabha.
4. To analyse the formation and activities of Hyderabad State Congress.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The Nizams were initially provincial Governors of the Mughal emperors. Hyderabad
gradually became the first princely state to come under British paramountcy signing a subsidiary
alliance agreement. They ruled with the help of hereditary Jagirdars and subordinate kings. Jagirdars
were given control of dozens and even hundreds of villages. The rest of the kingdom was ruled
directly by the Nizam. The Nizam rulers of Hyderabad state were Muslims who spoke Decani Urdu.
Majority of people of the state were Hindus who spoke Telugu, Kannada and Marathi. Urdu was the
official language and more than 90% of all high officials were Muslims. The Nizams wanted to retain
the old system in which the king and his nobles controlled all resources and ruled as they wish. They
did not allow any democratic system like local bodies or legislatures. The Nizams opposed the
Congress-led nationalist movement and passed several Farman’s or Royal orders curtailing political
activity in the state. The princely state of Hyderabad was also affected by the great National Freedom
Movement. The people of the states were impressed by the ideals of the leaders of the Indian National
Congress which was established in 1885. Andhra Jana Sangham, Andhra Mahasabha and Hyderabad
State Congress had played very crucial role to get freedom from feudal rule of Nizam.
13.2: ORIGIN OF THE FREEDOM MOVEMENTS IN THE HYDERABAD STATE
The Chanda railway moment which took place in 1883 in the Nizam state could be regarded
as the first movement in this regard. Aghoranath Chatopadhyaya and Mulla Abdul Khayyum were
Prominent Among the leaders who sought for the promotion of swadeshi ideas in the Nizam state in
1883. In 1892 the Arya Samaj commenced its activities by establishing branches in the state to
highlight The Hindu heritage and culture and opposed all those activities which brought insult to
them. Thus, the Arya Samaj in due course became a prominent organization to protect the rights of
Hindus.
Stalwarts like Keshavrao Karotkar,DamodarSatwaliker And Dr.AgoranathChattopadhyaya of

Hyderabad city supported the activities of Arya samaj. They made efforts to spread Nationalistic
feelings among the people by organising Ganesh festivals at large scale in 1895. As Bala Gangadhar
2
Tilak did so in Bombay. Libraries established in Telangana brought renaissance to Telugu language
with the efforts of the prominent personalities like Komarraju Laxman Rao,RavichettuRanga Rao,
GadicharlaHarisarvotham Rao,Munagala Raja Venkata Narasinga Rao and so on. Their efforts, made
the Telugu speaking people to develop love and attachment towards their own language and all this
paved the way for Library Movement in Telangana.
13.2.1 Socio-Economic Background: Hyderabad was the biggest Princely State in India both by
virtue of its size and its population. The Nizam’s dominions included three distinct linguistic areas:
Maratha-speaking, Kannada-speaking and Telugu speaking people. Hyderabad state was divided into
four broad divisions as Warangal, Medak, Aurangabad and Gulbarga Subhas. Osman Ali Khan, who
became Nizam in 1911 and continued till 1948 ruled the state as personalised autocracy. The
Sarfikhas, the Nizam’s own estate, which accounted for ten percent of the total area of the State.
Another thirty percent of the state area was held as Jagirs by various categories of the rural population
and was heavily burdened by a whole gamut of illegal levies and exactions. The condition of
agriculture and the agricultural tenants were pathetic to the extreme. The big landlords known as
Maktdars, Pattedars and Jagirdars subjected their tenants to serfdom and slavery known as ‘baghela or
vetti’.
Education was at the lowest ebb. The percentage of literacy in the entire state was only 4.8%.
Out of this the percentage among the non-Urdu speaking people was 3.3% though they constituted
89% of the total population.Urdu was the medium of instruction from primary school to the
University. Even technical textbooks were translated and made available in Urdu. The Nizams were
slow in setting up schools in their kingdom. Many Jagirdars did not even allow setting up of schools
in their areas. The Nizams were also suspicious of private schools that they would become centres for
the propagation of anti-Nizam ideas. They actually discouraged the setting up of private Telugu
medium schools. The Nizam’s administration increasingly tried to project Hyderabad as a Muslim
State, and the process was accelerated after 1927 with the emergence of the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, an
organization that based itself on the notion of the Nizam as the ‘Royal Embodiment of Muslim
Sovereignty in the Deccan’.
13.2.2 Growth of Public Opinion - Chanda Railway Scheme: In the third quarter of the 19th
century Salarjung made a beginning to impart western education in the state. He established several
educational institutions and even invited talented persons from all over the country to manage them.
By 1880 a small but very articulate intellectual elite had grown up in Hyderabad which used to take
interest in public affairs.
The growth of public opinion in the Hyderabad State could have started in 1883 with the
agitation over ‘the Chand Railway Scheme’. The agitation was started by some intellectual elite like
Dr.AghoranathChattopadhyaya, the father of Sarojini Naidu, Mulla Abdul Qayum and others. These
intellectuals felt that ‘the Chand Railway Scheme’ was not in the interests of the Hyderabad state and
3
they insisted that a committee should be set up to make an enquiry about the scheme. The agitators
were arrested and later released by the autocratic Government of Nizam. This incident reveals that a
certain section of the hitherto docile population of Hyderabad state found the courage to question an
act of the autocracy of the Nizam. Thus, this incident may be considered as the beginning of the
growth of public awakening in the Hyderabad state.
The Indian National Congress which was founded in year 1885 attracted the attention of few
citizens who were the intellectual elite drawn from the upper middle class strata of the society.They
welcomed the formation of the Indian National Congress. Among these, Mulla Abdul Qayum,
Ramachandra Pillai, Dr.Aghoranath Chattopadhyaya played a prominent part in building up public
opinion among the educated few in the state of Hyderabad. In October 1888, a small committee of
influential persons held a meeting to popularise Indian National Congress. Mulla Abdul Qayyum of
Hyderabad became a great champion of the Congress. He attacked the nobility, and opposed the
special favours granted to them in the Nizam state. He was also responsible for organising Anjumen-
e-maref which aimed at developing social, intellectual and economic life of the people. Papers like
Hyderabad Record, Deccan Standard, Musllism-ISafiq etc. propagated Nationalism.
13.2.3 Cultural Revival: The establishment of Arya Samaj in 1892 in the Hyderabad city marked
the beginnings of cultural revival. The Arya Samaj leaders were prosecuted by the Government for
their alleged anti-Muslim activities. Yet the activities of the Arya Samaj continued. Falling in line
with the all-India pattern set by BalaGangadhra Tilak in Maharashtra, the Ganesh festival celebrations
were also started in Hyderabad in 1895. The other evidence of a cultural and social renaissance during
this period were the foundation of Osmania University on 28th August, 1919, the publication of
Telugu Journals and Hyderabad Social Service League. Slowly political consciousness also flowed
into the Hyderabad state. The Maharashtra leaders in Hyderabad like Pandit Keshev Rao Koratkar,
Vaman Ramachandra Naik and GanpatRao Hardikar founded VivekavardhaniPatasala in 1906, which
later on developed into a leading educational society in the state known as the Vivekvardhini
Educational Society. In 1907,Vithal Rao Deulgaonkar, Keshav Rao Koratkar and Garuda Rao started
the Nutan Vidyalaya High School in Gulbarga. The Nutan Vidyalaya played a prominent role in
spreading education in the Karnataka region of the Hyderabad state. The founding of the above
institutions marked the beginning of the cultural revival in Hyderabad.
13.2.4 Establishment of Libraries – Role of the Press: During this period several cultural and
literary associations came into existence. Leaders like Komarraju Laxman Rao, Gadicherla
Harsarvotham Rao and A. Kaleshwer Rao inspired by the renaissance movement in Andhra during the
Vandemataram movement, wanted to forge strong cultural links with the people of Telangana. Due to
the efforts of Komarraju Laxman Rao, the first Telugu Library namely Sri Krishna Devaraya Andhra
Bhasha Nilayam was started in 1901. In 1906 they established a literary association called the
4
Vignana Chandrika Mandali to promote the publication of popular books in Telugu on science,
literature and history. Apart from this, two more Telugu libraries namely Sri Raja Raja Narendra
Bhasha Nilayam and Andhra Samvardhini Library were established in 1904 and 1905 at Hanmakonda
and Secunderabad respectively. Komarraju Laxman Rao laid the foundation for the cultural revival of
Telangana and also received the cultural contacts between Andhra and Telangana regions. The News
Papers like the ‘Hyderabad Record’ which came in to existence in the last quarter of the 19 th Century
also played a creditable part in awakening the people of Hyderabad. ‘NilagirPatrika’ and ‘Telugu
Pathrika’ also played important role.
13.3 SWADESHI MOVEMENT IN HYDERABAD STATE
Swadeshi Movement was started by Bala Gangadhara Tilak in the Maharashtra region. This
movement had its effect on Hyderabad. The Maratha people living in Hyderabad were influenced
more. Keshava Rao Koratkar was having intimate relations with the leaders of Maharashtra. During
the period of 1906-1907, many meetings were conducted at different places in Hyderabad about
Swadeshi Movement and its relevance. It was pleaded in these meetings to boycott the foreign goods.
Arya Samaj, Ganesh Uthsava Committees and other cultural organizations promoted the Swadeshi
Movement. When Balagangadhar Tilak was arrested and sent to jail in 1908, people strongly reacted.
The News Papers in Hyderabad also condemned the British action. Starting from 1901 to 1909 Arya
Samaj organized many programmes in Hyderabad. A Sanskrit Pandit, Sripada Damodar Satyalekar
visited the entire Telangana and gave lectures. In there lectures, he used to explain about swadeshi
movement. Gym Clubs also started in Telangana and helped to inspire the young people to sensitise
about Swadeshi Movement.
13.4 KHILAFAT MOVEMENT IN TELANGANA
After the first world war ‘Seven Treaty’ was important one. According to this treaty, the
Turkey will loose part of its territory to British and its allies. After this development, the Muslims all
over the world started the movements favouring Calipha and opposing the Britishers monarchical
policy. This Khilafat Movement had impact on Hyderabad. A series of meetings conducted at various
places. Some meetings were also held in the regions of Jangaon, Medak and Karimnagar. The leaders
of this movement were Barrister Azgarh, HaskariHasna, Kari Vijjamaan, Md.Murthuza, Humayun
Murthuza, Pandita Keshav Rao, Raghavendra Sharma and so on.
The Khilafat agitation brought the Hindus and the Muslims together. The meetings were
addressed by both Hindus and Muslims. The Nizam’ Government perturbed by these developments
issued a Farman forbidding the holding of political meetings in the state and the entry of British
Indian Political Leaders.
5
13.5 THE FORMATION OF THE ANDHRA JANA SANGHAM
The Nizam’s state’s Social Reforms Conference was held in Hyderabad on 11th and 12th
November, 1921. The conference was presided by Maharshi Karve. The proceedings of the
conference for the most part was conducted in English, Urdu and Maratha. But one of the delegates at
the conference, Allampalli Venkatarama Rao wanted to move a resolution in Telugu. His attempts to
move the resolution in Telugu were hooted down by the audience and more vociferously so, by the
Maharashtrian section. To see that, a resolution in Telugu was hooted down in the very capital of the
Telugu people was taken as a great affront by those Telugu members who happened to be present at
the conference. That very night they formed an association called the ‘Andhra Jana Sangham’, with an
initial membership of only twelve members. Very soon the membership of the Andhra Jana Sangam
rose to hundred and its first meeting was held at Hyderabad under the chairmanship of Konda
Venkata Ranga Reddy on 14th February 1922. At this meeting the name of the Andhra Jana Sangham
was changed to that of the Nizam’s State Andhra Jana Sangham and MadapatiHanumantha Rao
proved to be the guiding spirit of the movement for the social and cultural upliftment of the Telangana
people.
The Andhra Jana Sangham aimed at the social, economic and cultural revival of the people of
Telangana by establishing Telugu Libraries, Reading Rooms and Private Schools. It encouraged
scholars and historians to write books that would throw light on the ancient history of Andhra people.
To encourage the efforts of the Andhra Jana Sangham, newspapers like Nilagiri Pathrika, the Telugu
Pathrika, and the Golconda Pathrika also came into the field. The library movement started by the
Andhra Jana Sangham spread rapidly and its first conference was held at Madhira in 1925. The
Andhra Jana Sangham from 1928 onwards took up the cause of women’s education. Due to its efforts,
Andhra Balika high school was founded in 1928. and the first batch of girls studying in the Telugu
medium were made to appear at the Matriculation examination in 1934. In the beginning, the Osmania
University refused to recognise the Andhra Balika High School stating that the policy of the Osmania
University was no doubt to encourage the pursuit of education in the mother tongue, but according to
their statute, mother tongue meant Urdu. However, Maharshi Karve came to the rescue of the Andhra
Jana Sangham and the first batch of girl students in the Telugu medium appeared for their
examination in the Karve Institute. By 1930 the movement started by the Andhra Jana Sangam spread
rapidly gaining in strength day by day. In 1930 at Jogipet conference in Medak the Andhra Jana
Sangham converted itself into the Andhra Mahasabha and the use of the word Andhra was quite
objectionable to the Nizam Government but Telangana leaders stuck to it and refused to substitute it
by the word Telugu or Telangana.
6
13.6 THE ROLE OF ANDHRA MAHA SABHA
The leaders of various sections decided to unite into one large organisation and thus the
Andhra Maha Sabha (AMS) was formed in 1930. Its initial objectives were more educational
facilities. They submitted prayers and requests to the Government seeking the establishment of
schools and redressing grievances of the people.Andhra Mahasabha stuck to its goals to create
awareness for education and to propagate a proper understanding of the time through the
establishment of village libraries in this direction.They conducted periodic conferences. In an
atmosphere of illiteracy, ignorance and feudal rule, there were only s few enlightened social workers
in the city worked hard to spread awareness among people. Some of them were
UnnavaVenkataramaiah , MadapatiHanmantha Rao, Suravaram Pratap Reddy, Ravi Narayana Reddy
and T.Anantha Venkat Rao. The aim of the Maha Sabha during the period was also to eradicate the
Purdha system that was prevailing in Hyderabad and other areas of the Telangana, which had no
basis in the Dharma Shastras. They felt that, emphasis on the need for female education and banning
of child marriages were also equally important.
13.6.1 Political Conferences: In all thirteen conferences were held in different parts of the state
under the patronage of local landlords, merchants and other elite. In the initial stages, it faced great
difficulties even to secure permission for conducting routine meetings. It is also significant to note
that along with the Andhra Mahasabha conferences Andhra Mahila Conferences were also held in
1930. This feature of holding the two conferences simultaneously continued up to 1942. During the 9th
conference at Dharmavaram, the women members felt strong and confident enough to have their own
and separate conference.
The second conference was held at Devarakonda in 1931 under the presidentship of
B.Ramakrishna Rao. The interesting feature of this conference was that most of the delegates spoke in
Telugu.After the second conference the Hyderabad Government adopted hostile attitude towards the
activities of the Andhra Mahasabha. It levied several restrictions to curb its activities. Therefore, it
took three years for the Sabha to get permission to hold its third conference at Khammam in 1934.
Apart from the Government many reactionary elements tried to disrupt the conference, but due to the
tact and tenacity of Madapati Hanmantha Rao everything went according to plan. Pulijala Venkata
Ranga Rao presided over the conference. The fourth conference of the Sabha was held at Sircilla in
1935 under the presidentship of Madapati Hanmantha Rao. His wife Manikyamba presided over the
Andhra Mahila Sabha Conference. This fifth conference was held at Shadnagar under the
presidentship of Konda Venkata Ranga Reddy. This was held in 1936. Sixth Andhra Mahasabha were
held in 1937 at Nizamabad under the chairmanship of MandumulaNarsinga Rao. Resolutions were
made demanding the reduction of agricultural loans along with social reforms.
7
Severnth Andhra Mahasabha was held in April 1940 at Malkapuram in Warangal
district.Mandumula Ramachandra Rao was elected as a president for this meeting. Eighth Mahasabha
which was held on 3,4,5th of June, 1941 at Chilkur for which Ravi Narayana Reddy became president.
With this, Andhra Maha Sabha had gone under the control of Communists. This meeting passed the
resolution rejecting the constitutional reforms. Till now, Andhra Maha Sabha played the role of
common platform for all groups but president being the communist and priority was given their
programme which made the members of other groups to criticize the functioning of Mahasabha. Even
though, the moderate leader MadirajuRamakoteshwer Rao was elected as president for the ninth
Mahasabha held on May 22nd to 24th of 1942 at Dharmavaram, the communists did not cooperate.
Tenth Mahasabha was held on May 23rd to 25th 1943 in Hyderabad. Here, first time,
BaddamYella Reddy as a candidate from the Communist Party and Konda Venkat Ranga Reddy from
the moderate group contested for the president post.K.V.Ranga Reddy was elected as president. This
Mahasabha passed the resolution to form a national Government in Hyderabad as soon as possible.
Eleventh Mahasabha was held on May 27th to 29th 1944 at Bhongir was completely dominated by
Communists. In the elections, National group taken the stand of neutrality and helped the Communists
to win. Twelfth Mahasabha was held on April 26th and 27th of 1945 at Madikonda Village of
Warangal district under the leadership of moderates and nationalists like MudirajaRamakoteshwer
Rao. Communist group under the name of Nizam Rahstra Andhra Mahasabha conducted their
meetings on April 26th and 27th of 1945 at Khammam under the presidentship of Ravi Narayana
Reddy. With this Andhra Maha Sabha lost its prominence as a united forum. Telangana was heated up
with Rajakars atrocities on one side and peasant armed struggle on other side.
The last 13th Andhra Mahasabha was held on May 10th ,1946 under the presidentship of
Jamalapuram Keshava Rao at Kandi village in Medak district. Communists also celebrated the last
13th Andhra Mahasabha meetings under the presidentship of BaddamYella Reddy in Karimnagar
district. After these final meetings, Congress group merged in Hyderabad State Congress. In the same
way, Andhra Mahasabha belonging to Communist group continued in the name of Communist Party.
On 3rd December 1946 the Communist Party was banned and naturally the activities of Andhra
Mahasabha also came to a halt. However, these Mahasabhas took up the cause of a number of
disgruntled elements in the society.

1. Who spoke in Telugu in Social Reforms Conference?

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8
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2. What are the aims of Andhra Jana Sangham?

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13.7 FORMATION OF HYDERABAD STATE CONGRESS AND 1938

SATYAGRAHA
The period between 1935 to 1938 witnessed intense political activity, though moderate in
nature. The efforts of Nizamath Jung Bahadur, ex-political member who established the Nizam’s
Subjects League to secure Responsible Government in the state along with other reforms, was not
allowed to function since 1935.The appointment of Aravamuddu Ayyangar Committee to suggest
constitutional reforms in 1937 by the Nizam was significant move in the direction of introducing
Representative Government. The leaders of Hyderabad state formed the Nizam’s state people’s
convention in January 1938 to help and advise the Ayyangar Committee under the leadership of
K.S.Vaidya. H.R.Dhoot and Burgula Ramakrishna Rao , subsequently the convention was renamed as
Hyderabad State Congress on January 29,1938 with an objective of attaining Responsible
Government.
In the political history of Hyderabad, the establishment of Hyderabad state congress assumed
a great significance. This gave impetus to the people’s movements which was fighting for civil rights
and responsible Government even earlier through the Hyderabad State Reforms Commission and
Nizam Civil Society. The formation of Hyderabad state Congress was influenced by many factors
directly and indirectly. After establishment of Andhra Jana Sangham in Telangana, in 1937
Maharashtra Parishad and Karnataka Parishad were formed. In the Round Table Conferences in 1931-
32, held in London, there were certain proposals for granting fundamental rights to the people of the
princely states. In order to achieve this goal, the Swadeshi Movement was started in Hyderabad. At
this time, some youth, who attended the All India Congress Conference in Haripura in 1938, returned
to Hyderabad. Having been very enthusiastic, they wished to establish a non-communal political
association with nationalistic outlook. They came to know that, there was such an organization,
namely State Congress in Mysore. In Cochin, a small princely state also, a responsible Government
was formed. The ruler of Oudh also had promised to establish a responsible Government in his state.
In spite of many developments in many princely states, the Nizam Government resorted to the anti-
people activities which hurt the people of Hyderabad princely state who loved democracy and civil
rights. So, the youth who attended Haripura Conference, held a number of discussions which
ultimately led them to take decision unanimously to establish a political association with the name of
Hyderabad State Congress. Finally, on January 29th, 1938, the Hyderabad State Congress was formed
9
unanimously.Swamy Ramananda Tirtha took very active interest in organising the formation of the
Hyderabad State Congress.
But Hyderabad state congress was banned even before its birth. The Nizam Government
declared the establishment of Hyderabad State Congress communal. It was apprehensive of it, as it
was the part of the Indian National Congress which was outside the Princely State. The reason of
declaring the State Congress communal by it was based on its view that the members who had joined
the State Congress were mostly Hindus and those who demanded the political rights were also
Hindus, who were a majority community in the state. So, the Government which, itself, had
communal feelings, viewed the proposed organization communal. One more reason of declaring the
organization as the outside one was that the Nizam Government was reluctant of inviting the waves of
struggle for independence of the country to enter the Hyderabad princely state. On the basis of these
pretexts, the Nizam Government declared ‘ban’ on the establishment of Hyderabad State Congress on
the evening hours of September 7, 1938. This implies that it had killed the baby of the organization in
the womb only. Even then, the workers started the movement in the name of Congress, prohibitory
orders were disobeyed and Satyagrahas was started.
13.7.1 Aims and Objectives of State Congress: Hyderabad state congress formed an adhoc
committee and declared its objectives. This committee was headed by Burgula Ramakrishna Rao.
This adhoc committee was demanding issues like protection of fundamental rights, freedom of
speech, freedom for press, removing the obstacles for the formation of associations with freedom of
religion, making of constitutional reforms in the direction of formation of responsible Government in
Hyderabad, creating of public service commission for recruitment to Government jobs, introduction
of reservation for minorities in the legislative assembly for the period of ten years. The action
committee was headed by Govind Rao Nanal, Ramakrishna Dhoot as General Secretary, Ravi
Narayana Reddy, Srinivas Rao Bajikar and Janarthan Rao Desai were appointed as members. This
committee appointed Swami Ramananda Tirtha as dictator for the first batch of Satyagraha to be
commenced on 27th October, 1938. Congress workers spread in eighteen batches and started the
protests from 24th October to 24th December, 1938 and got arrested. Afterwards on the advice of
Mahatma Gandhi, these Satyagrahas were suspended.
13.8 OSMANIA UNIVERSITY-VANDEMATARAM INCIDENT
The Hindu students of the ‘B’ Hostel of Osmania University were found singing the
Vandemataram song in their prayer hall on the eve of the Dasara celebrations in 1938. This was not
liked by the hostel authorities and restricted singing of Vandemataram song in the Hostel and outside
in the campus premises. Due to this, the Osmania University students started strike against authority
restrictions which continued from November 29 to December 10, 1938. This strike rapidly spread to
other parts of the state. As a result, many students of the Osmania University and other colleges of the
10
state were expelled from the rolls of the colleges. As many as three thousand students had boycotted
their respective schools and colleges in the city as well as the districts, out of whom six hundred
students had been rusticated. The expelled students left the state and continued their studies in Nagpur
University in the Congress ruled Central Provinces. This movement was extremely significant
because it created a young and militant cadre that provided the activists as well as the leadership of
the movement in later years.
13.9 Aryasamaj Movement in Hyderabad state: Swamy Dayananda Saraswathi founded the
Arya Samaj organization in 1875. Its main objective is to revive the vedic religion and unite the
Hindus and also reconvert those people into Aryas (Vedic Religion) who were forcibly converted into
Islam religion due to circumstances. This Arya Samaj influence was there in Hyderabad state also. In
the year 1892 Arya Samaj was established in Hyderabad. Arya Samaj served as a training ground for
workers in constructive activities and helped to rouse public opinion and build socio-religious
awareness. It has credited many leaders to the nationalist movement in Hyderabad. Pandit Keshava
Rao Koratkar, Hyderaabad high court advocate continued as president of Hyderabad Arya Samaj up
to 1932. In 1921, the Hindu religious treatise ‘Satyartha Prakash’ was translated into Telugu. Arya
Samaj spread in Hyderabad state through schools and libraries.
In 1934, the Central council of Arya Samaj in Delhi requested Hyderabad Government to
allow Aryasamaj programmes in Hyderabad, but, Government imposed strict conditions and rules on
the programmes of Arya Samaj. In 1935, Government of Nizam banned the Urdu weekly ‘Vedic
Adarsh’, which was started by Arya Samaj in 1934. According to 53 number circular, Arya Samaj’s
Programmes and literature were banned.
After 1940 onwards, Arya Samaj undertook the constructive programmes in Hyderabad. On
th
20 July 1940 Pandit Keshava Rao Memorial School was inaugurated. Many Arya Samaj meetings
were held in different places in Hyderabad state to protect their rights. Till the integration of
Hyderabad with India on 17th September 1948, almost all for a period of one year, the Razakars
indulged in destroying the properties of Hindus and also committed murders, molestations and created
a terror among Hindus. Many Hindus from Telangana region migrated to neighbouring places as
refugees in order to protect their lives. To help these refugees, Arya Samaj constructed camps around
the border cities in Telangana like Sholapur,Pandarpur, Barsi, Bijapur, Umarkhand, Buldhana,
Amaravathi and Vijayawada.Arya Samaj tried its best to protect the Hindus in this state.
13.10 MAJLIS- E -ETIHAD -UL MUSLIMEEN
Originally formed in 1927, and was aimed at the cultural and religious promotion of the
Muslims. The Majlis-e-Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen remained comparatively quiet till 1938-40. It was
during the presidentship of Bahadur Yar Jung, corps of volunteers were opened throughout the
11
dominions of the Hyderabad state. With Kasim Razvi, who hailed from Uttar Pradesh and had a small
law practice in Latur in Osmanabad district, taking over the presidentship of Majlis-e-Ittehad-ul
Muslimeen in 1946 this organization began to take on more and more of the feature of a private
military body. As a result of the Nizam’s tactic support, the strength of the Razakars increased
voluminously, who then began to terrorise the people all over the state by plundering, looting, and
raiding the Hindu population, and thus disturbing law and order in the state.
13.11 COMMUNIST PARTY
The Communist Party had its origins in the latter half of 1939 and the beginning of 1940 with
the founding of ‘Comrades Association’, which also began to spread its tentacles amongst the rural
population of Telangana. The Andhra Mahasabha and the Communist Party began their work in close
alliance. The Communist Party of Hyderabad confined itself to infiltrating the State Congress, the
trade unions, the student associations. When the villagers were harassed by the Razakars, they needed
the strength to resist. Therefore, the Communists took control of the violent resistance organized by
the villagers against the activities of the Razakars. As the depredations of the Razakars increased in
intensity, the villagers invited the communists to take the lead and supply them with arms.
13.12 DEVELOPMENTS DURING 1940S
In this period, the Andhra Mahasabha was the main forum of activity in Telangana. A
significant development that occurred around the year 1940 was that, Ravi Narayana Reddy, who
emerged as a major leader of the radicals in the Andhra Mahasabha and had participated in the state
congress Satyagraha along with B.Yella Reddy , was drawn towards the Communist Party.
Nationalist Andhra Mahasabha was led by moderate leaders like Jamalapuram Keshav Rao,
B.Ramakrishna Rao etc.
The Quit India Movement received considerable response from Hyderabad, especially from
the youth.Though arrests of the main leaders, including Swamiji, prevented an organised movement
from emerging, many people all over the State offered Satyagraha and many others were arrested. On
October2, 1942, a batch of women offered Satyagraha in Hyderabad city, and Sarojini Naidu was
arrested earlier in the day. Slogans such as ‘Gandhi Ka Charkha Chalana Padega, Goronko London
Jana Padega’ (Gandhiji’s wheel will have to be spun, while the whites will have to return to London)
became popular. But, the Quit India movement also sealed the rift that had developed between the
Communist and Non-Communist radical nationalists. After the Communist Party had adopted the
slogan of Peopls’s War in December 1941, The Communists were also facilitated by the removal of
the ban on the CPI by the Nizam, in keeping with the policy of the British Government that had
removed the ban because of the CPI’s pro-war stance. Therefore, while most of the nationalists were
clamped in jail because of their support to the Quit India Movement.
12
As a result of prolonged negotiation with the Government the ban on the State Congress was
lifted in April 1946. By July 1946, the regional organizations had developed a mindset that they were
parts of the Hyderabad State Congress. It was not difficult for them to get merged with the State
Congress. As soon as these merged, the State Congress instantly developed its well-organised
branches in every taluq and district headquarters as working units under the leadership of the
moderate middle classes. Thus, by early 1947, the State Congress under the presidentship of Swami
Ramananda Tirtha emerged as a powerful political organization fully prepared to face the final
battle.As Editor of the Golconda Patrika, Suravaram Pratapareddy inspired nationalistic fervour
amongst the people. Kaloji Narayana Rao, Dasarathi Krishnamacharya, Dasarathi Rangacharya are
some of the literary luminaries who fought for the freedom of Hyderabad State.
13.12.1 Join India Movement: The Executive of the State Congress met at Sholapur in 1947
under the presidentship of Swami Ramananda Tirtha. It formed an Action Committee with Madapati
Ramachandra Rao as its convener and Jamalapuram Keshava Rao, Digamber Rao Bindu, Govinddas
Shroff and Dr.G.S.Melkote as members. Its Head offices were set up at Bombay and Madras and
regional offices at Vijayawada for Telangana region and Gadak for Karnataka region. From the
beginning the State Congress had realized that the struggle had to be carried on both from the inside
and outside the state. The Action Committee set up several border camps to carry on the propaganda
and to organise the struggle. Swami Ramananda Tirtha and other State Congress leaders toured the
neighbouring provinces and states to mobilise public opinion in favour of the Hyderabad State
Congress and for procuring necessary funds and amenities for carrying out the struggle.
After satisfying with all the arrangements made Swami Ramananda Tirtha returned to
Hyderabad and launched ‘Join Indian Union’ Satyagraha on August 7, 1947. Several batches of
Congressmen offered satyagraha in the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad, district and taluk
towns and even in villages. On August 15, the Hyderabad State Congress hoisted the Indian Union tri-
colour flag that was given by Jawaharlal Nehru personally to Swamy Ramananda Tirtha. Dr.
G.S.Melkote, Krishnamachari Joshi, Jamalapuram Keshav Rao and Swmi Ramananda Tirtha were
arrested. Even before the Satyagraha was actually launched the Government had rounded up
thousands of youth and state congress workers. A reign of terror was let loose by the Government
with help of Razakars. Molestation of women, looting of Congressmen’s houses, subjecting them to
third degree torture, shooting down persons found with Congress or Indian Union flags became a
daily feature. The whole State had become a large prison. Thousands of people took shelter in the
border villages outside the state. A number of relief camps were opened by the state congress leaders
on the border districts of Andhra, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Hayagriva Chary, a young nationalist
took up the challenging task of rehabilitating victims from Hyderabad in the relief camps. Along with
the relief camps volunteer camps were organised to mobilise people to resist the police and the
Rajakars.
13
13.12.2 Standstill Agreement: On June 26, 1947, the Nizam issued a Firman that the
Hyderabad State would neither participate in the constituent assembly and do not join the Indian
Union and also announced that the removal of British Paramountcyentitled him to declare his
independence. The Nizam sent a delegation to Delhi to reach an agreement with the Indian
Government which ultimately resulted in the conclusion of the ‘Stand Still Agreement’. The Nizam
Government began to violate the stand still agreement from the beginning. The Indian Government
ultimately decided to despatch Indian troops into the Hyderabad territory in order to save Hyderabad
and its neighbouring provinces from the Chaos. This ‘Operation Polo’ against Hyderabad State by
Indian Government became famous in history as then ‘Police Action’. By the 17th September 1948 all
resistance to the Indian forces was completely broken down and the Nizam surrendered to the Indian
Government.

1. Give the names of members in Hyderabad State Congress Action Committee?
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2. Who was the Editor of Golconda Pathrika?

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13.13 SUMMARY
The Hyderabad State had its own peculiarities in the freedom struggle because of the then
prevailing political conditions. Political activity was not allowed in the state and people were not
permitted to undertake any activity in any form to mobilise the masses to launch a struggle against the
autocratic rule of the Nizam. In fact, keeping in view the rigours of the Nizam’s rule, political
mobilisation in the Hyderabad State was initiated through cultural revival. These cultural
organisations were nothing but political organisations wearing a cultural garb. These cultural
organisations slowly emerged as political organisation with clear-cut ideologies and strategies after
14
1930’s. Even though this process of political mobilisation was very slow on account of restrictions
imposed by the Government, political activity picked up considerably in 1946. In British India the
political scenario had changed. Independence was in the offing. This situation had electrified the
political climate in the Hyderabad State. That was the beginning of the launch of the final struggle
against the Nizam’s rule in the State. The freedom struggle had developed two separate streams under
the Congress and the Communists. Political awakening in Telangana was very slow when compared
to Andhra region. Under the leadership of Andhra Maha Sabha and Hyderabad State Congress many
activities and different types of struggles had been taken by the leaders and finally succeeded.
13.14 MODEL ANSWER'S TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress Answers – I
1. Allampalli Venkata Rama Rao.
2. Social, Economic and cultural revival of the people of Telangana by establishing libraries,
Reading Rooms and Private Schools.
Check Your Progress Answers - II

1. Hyderabad state action committee was headed by Govinda Rao Nanal, Ramakrishna Dhooth as
General Secretary, Ravi Narayana Reddy, Srinivas Rao Baijikar and Janarthan Rao Desai were
appointed as members.
2. Suravaram Pratap Reddy.
I. Answer the following questions in 30 lines each.
1. Discuss about the Andhra Maha Sabah Conferences.

2. Examine the role of Nationalist leaders in Hyderabad State Congress.
3. Explain the process in formation of Hyderabad State Congress.
II. Answer the following questions in 15 lines each.
1. Discuss briefly about the Andhra Jana Sangham activities.

2. What were the main issues dealt by Join Indian Movement?
3. Describe the factors responsible for the movements in Hyderabad State.
15
1. B.Kesavanarayana : Modern Andhra and Telangana AD 1858-1956)
(Comprehensive History and Culture of
Andhrapradesh), Volume VII
2. Andhrapradesh State Archives & Research Institute : The Freedom Struggle in

Hyderabad Volume III & IV
3. Department of History : Studies in Indian History and Culture
(Commemorative Volume in Memory of
Prof. Sarojini Regani)
4. Vaikuntam. Y. : People’s Movements in the Princely States.
5. CV Subba Rao : Hyderabad (1875-1948)
16
1
UNIT-14: TRIBAL, PEASANT, DALIT AND WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS

Contents
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Tribal Movements
14.2.1 Causes for the Tribal Movements
14.2.1.1 Forest Acts
14.2.2 Tribal Revolts
14.2.2.1 The Revolt of Ramji Gond 1857-60
14.2.2.2 Kumram Bheem Resistance Movement
14.2.2.2.1 Jal Jangle, Jameen
14.3 Peasants Movements
14.3.1 Causes for the Peasants Movements
14.3.1.1 Commercialization of Agriculture
14.3.1.2 Feudal Oppression
14.3.1.3 Vetti and Begari
14.3.1.4 Role of Andhra Maha Sabha and Communist Party
14.3.2 Peasants Movements prior to Telangana Movement
14.3.3 Telangana Peasants Armed Struggle
14.3.3.1. Landmarks of the Movement
14.3.3.1.1 First Phase – Mass Resistance
14.3.3.1.2 Second Phase – Liberation Struggle
14.3.3.1.3 Third Phase – Armed Struggle
14.3.3.1.4 Impact of Peasants Movements
14.4. Dalit Movements
14.4.1 Factors responsible for the Movements
14.4.2 Adi Hindu Movements – Bhagya Reddi Varma
14.4.3 Other Dalit Organisations and Leaders
14.4.4 Impact of Telangana Struggle on Dalit Movements
14.5. Women‟s Movement
14.5.1 Reform Movement
14.5.2 Women‟s Organisation
12.5.2.1 Andhra Mahila Sabha
14.5.3 Women in National Movement
14.5.3.1 Women in Satyagraha Movement under Hyderabad State Congress.
14.5.3.2 Quit India Movement
14.5.4 Women in Telangana Armed Struggle
14.5.5 Women in Join India Movement
14.6 Summary
2

14.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the conditions of Tribals, Peasants, Dalits and Women's Movement in
Hyderabad State.
2. Explain the rise and impact of Tribal Revolts.
3. Discuss the conditions leading to Peasant Revolts and its impact.
4. Analyse the Dalit Movements and its significance.
5. Describe the Women's Movements in Hyderabad State.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
From 1724, onwards the first Nizam, Nizam-UL-Mulk ruled Hyderabad State. The
population. In 1901 the Muslim population of Hyderabad state is only 10% of the total. That
is in due to the Muslims who came from other states into Hyderabad, the Dalits (lower caste)
converted later into Islam locally and it increased to 14% by 1948. It is possible to understand
with the understanding of the relation between the construction of the caste system, the power
and dominating policy of the feudal system. The middle class intellectuals and the Aryasamaj
followers have fought against the Muslims as the ruling class.
Many tribal communities lived in the forests of Hyderabad state. They took up
hunting, gathering or preventive agriculture for survival. The Gonds are the major Adivasi
community in Hyderabad State. The concentrations of land, exploitation of peasants in the
name of vetti and grain-levy in view of World War II were the main causes for the Telangana
armed struggle. Which took place between 1946 and 1950.
The Telangana region, historically witnessed different caste relations. The lower
castes of Telangana were subjected to vetti, bhagela/jeetham and Jogini (temple girl)
practices. It was through these practices that the sudra upper castes exploited the lower castes.
A new consciousness emerged among the lower castes, challenging these practices. The dalit
community was the first in Telangana to mobilize and organize itself to challenge traditional
caste practices. Modern education, modern bureaucracy and the census were fundamental in
forming a new consciousness among the dalits of Hyderabad State. The women of Hyderabad
state was low in the beginning of 20th century, however, the reform movement paved the way
for women‟s consciousness. Women got organized and actively participated in national
movements and peoples movement. The present unit describes the Tribals, Peasents Dalits
and Women movements in Hyderabad state till 1948.
14.2 TRIBALS MOVEMENTS
Tribal people always relate them with their forests. Due to the historic reasons their
entire existence is depended on forests. It was believed that the economic system of forest is
equal to the tribal economic system. But. in fact, it is different. Not only the economic system
but also the cultural aspects and beliefs systems were also co-related with the forests.
3
In the mid 19th century the government decided to extend its powers every to part of
state which was neglected. Due to this extension, landlords were under stress and were
uncomfortable Government enacted some legislations to assert its control over forest and
forest dwellers to protect the forests. There acts were similar to the Acts introduced in India
by British government.
The First Forest Act 1865 was the first attempts in the direction of regulation of
collection of forest produce by the forest dwellers. The Forest Act of 1878 was the second
step in the direction of further extension of State‟s authority over forests. The control over
forests was further tightened by prohibiting certain activities such as tresspass or pasturing of
cattle and declaring certain activities as forest offences by 1878 Act.
The First Forest Policy 1894 envisaged for the first time, the regulation of rights arid
restriction of privileges of the users in the forests. The Land Transfer Act 1917 The British
government has brought the Land Transfer Act in 1917, it was the reaction of the government
to the rebellions which occurred mainly in the agency areas of Andhra region of the Madras
State. This act has banned the land transfer between the tribals and non-tribals, But the Nizam
government did not take any care for the land rights of the tribals. By using this as an
advantage the non-locals migrating from the other areas occupied the lands of the tribals and
also they were able to register the lands on their names.
14.2.1 Causes for the Tribal Movements

In continuation of the measures. already taken. this act was an attempt to regulate
further people‟s rights over forest land and forest produce.
The forest department was established for the first time in Hyderabad State in 1857 in
the period of Salarjung-I. Then, the forest policy was declared in 1890 and 1900. The
authority of government on the forest increased thus revenue of the government through these
policies. But traditional rights of the tribal people, who are living in the forest for the past
thousands of years were cancelled. The government divided the forest areas into two parts.
They were reserved and unreserved. It banned to cultivate the lands and collect the forest
produce in the reserved forest areas. Consequently, large changes occurred in the lives of the
tribal people.
Mainly, the Gonds of Adilabad District in the Nizam‟s State suffered more and more by
the unnecessary interference of the non-tribals and the forest officers. They strongly opposed
the tyrannical rule of the Nizam, at the same time they wanted to protect their autonomous
power on the forest areas. They started and continued their struggles under the leadership of
their leaders Ramji Gond and Kumram Bheem.
14.2.2 Tribal Revolts
Particularly the awareness of the Gonds was amazing and very strong. Most of the
tribal revolts were agriculture based and also they were related to the forest. Most of the
revolts were against the atrocities and unlawful activities of the local Zamindars,
moneylenders and the non-local, lower level government officers. When the tribal people
were unable to pay debts which they have taken, the moneylenders and landlords used to
occupy their lands. And sometimes they would have to become the rented tenants, bonded
labourers or coolies in their own lands. The police officers or revenue officers would help the
poor tribals in those circumstances. Instead they committed many atrocities, exactly opposite
4
to their duty. They used the tribal people to their personal works and public works without
giving any remuneration. It was called as „Vetti‟ or bonded labour. On the other side the
forest contractors, their agents, businessmen and the people of the plain areas forcibly
occupied the forest lands and took away the forest products and the property of tribal people.
These are all the immediate causes for the tribal revolts in the Hyderabad State. .
Even the courts also did not have any idea on the critical conditions and problems of
the tribal people. The negligent attitude on the traditions and customs of the tribal people,
especially on their shifting (podu) cultivation method is the primary cause for their revolt
The Munda, Santhal, Kol, Bhil, Warli, Gond etc., tribals in various areas of the country have
started the tribal revolts and emerged strongly in their local areas.
14.2.2.1 The Revolt of Ramji Gond 1857-60
The present Adilabad District was in Berar State, in those days. Taking advantages of
political changes, the Gonds captured the fort of Manikhgarh. This was the first victory of the
Gonds against the state. Consequently, Sirpur the ancient seat of the Gond Rajas. In 1853 a
treaty was concluded between the Nizam and East India Company. According to that treaty
the Beerar Suba came into the ruling of the British. The treaty was not liked by the people.
From 1853 to 1860 the Gonds and the muslims people called Rohillas revolted against the
British government under the leadership of Ramji Gond and Haji Rohilla in the region of
Nirmal and surrounding places of Adilabad District. And they were able to get the
suggestions and cooperation of the National leaders like, Thantia Thope. Ramji Gond, Haji
Rohilla have prepared the Gond armies and have given military training to them, and led the
armies against the British rule. They made free the whole area in and around Adilabad and
made Nirmal as the capital. Ramji Gond has ruled the area independently for a few days. He
arranged himself a strong army of 300 Gonds. 200 Rohilla Muslims and 500 Telugu and
Maratha soldiers.
But. the British government sent its army with the Nizam army in large number under
the leadership of army officer Col. Robert to Nirmal. The British army defeated the Ramji
Gond‟s army. The Gonds fought bravely and finally were defeated. Ramji Gond and over
1000 of his guerillas were killed in the massive execution by the British army. They were
hanged to the branches of a massive banyan tree, which was came to known as „Veyyi Urula
Marri‟ people worship the tree with honour, where Ramji Gond, Haji Rohilla were hanged.
A memorial stands for Ramji Gond in Nimial fort.
14.2.2.2 Kumram Bheem Resistance Movement 1938-40
Another brave tribal person Gond Kumram Bheem was born in a village called
Sankepally in the forest area of Jodenghat in Asifabad (Jangama) division of the Old
Adilabad District on 22nd October, 1901. His parents were Kumram Chinnu and Sombai. The
whole Asifabad area was under the rule of the Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan.
Tribals lived in the Jodenghat area by practicing the shifting agriculture or Podu in
the forest. But. they were not under the direct control of the State. Under the 1917 Act
brought by the Nizam government for the protection of the Adivasi Lands made much
disturbance and confusion in the lives of the tribals. That act brought many limitations and
taxes into the tribal lives. For example when the tribals feed their cattle in the forest, they
have to pay „Bancherai Pannu and pay Dumpa Patti‟ for bringing the firewood. The Ghar
Patti„ Nagar Patti, Fasal Patti, Choubina etc. As they don‟t know how to use the money, the
5
tribal people suffered a lot to pay the taxes. Along with these, the government established the
forest revenue or Tahasil office at Utnoor in 1918 to collect the taxes. A paper mill was
established at Sirpurkagaz Nagar area and the government had occupied a wide forest area to
obtain the raw material for the paper mill. A number of Gonds became the factory workers in
the helpless condition.
In addition to this the non-locals like, Marathas, Telugu and Muslim people used to
occupy the lands of the Gonds and Kolams with the cooperation of the officers and
moneylenders. Many false cases were filed against them and they were subject to a variety of
troubles. By observing all these bad conditions Kumram Bheem began to search for
solutions. After the sudden demise of his father the family migrated to Surdapur village. In
the mean time, Kumram Bheem came to know the bravery of the Gond kings, the revolt of
Birsa Munda, the courage of Ramji Gond and the martyrdom of Alluri Sita Rama Raju from
his friends Madaavi Mahadu and Mothiram. He was higly inspired by the history of Gonds
and the tribal. When he was about to harvest the crop, Patwari Laxman Rao brought Pattedar
Siddiq Ali and claimed that the land cultivated by Kumram Bheem belonged to Siddiq. In
that quarrel Kumram Bheem killed Siddiq. This incident brought many changes in the life of
Bheem. This also paved the path for unity in between the Gond and Kolam tribes dependent
in the shifting cultivation as the only source of their livelihoods. After the death of Siddiq,
Kumaram went to Bollarum and from there to Chandrapur to work in printing press of
Vithoba.
But the British officers arrested Vithoba accusing him that he was printing the anti-
government issues. Kumram Bheem escaped from the press and ran away to .He worked in
the coffee and tea plantations for five years. Bheem observed that there also the British
officers were exploitating the leaders. Bheem led people against the acrocities of the British
officers. Bhem became their leader.,Then Kumran Bheem escaped from that place also and
went back to his native place and decided to work for his people of Jodenguat in Adilabad.
He married Sombai of Devadom village.
14.2.2.2.1 Jal-Jungle-Jameen
Bheem united his uncles, brothers, relative at first, who were living in Surdapur area
Gradually, he extended the concept of Jal Jungle-Jameen to the surrounding areas of
Jodenghat. He explained to them that from many generations the Jal-Jungle-Jameen (Water-
Forest-Land) belonged to them; so, they should unite and fight against the government
officers continue their shifting (podu) cultivation. Kumram Bheem was successful in his
efforts. He has convinced the people and united them. He established 12 Gond Villages. They
were:
1.Babezari
2Jodenghat
3.Chalbardi
4.Goginmovadam
5.1hoyikhan Movadam
6Bhimangondi
7.Kallegam
8.Murikilanka
9.Ankusa1pur
10.Narsapur
11.Demdiguda 12.Patnapur
6
The revenue and the forest officers declared that there was 3000 acres of land in the
limitation of the 12 tribal villages where cultivation was taking place against the regulations
of the government under the leadership of Kumrmn Bheem. The officers filed cases on the
tribal people. Then, with the support of Kumram Bheem, some of them quarrelled with
officers and were injured. Kumram Bheem was also injured severely by a bullet. He
demanded autonomous powers on their 12 tribal villages.
Kumram Bheem made correspondence with the government on the advise of

Janakapuram Panthulu and Ramachandra Rao, the Advocate of Asifabad. He sent many
letters to the Nizam, requesting that the tribal people were asking for land rights on their
lands and they wanted the autonomous power and freedom in their area. But, the Nizam did
not give any answer.
Bheem returned with disappointment from Hyderabad when he saw horror attacks on
the Jodeghat by the Police felt that there was no way except war . He declared that all their 12
villages were liberated. He choose the Jodenhat as the center for his struggle. Immediately,
Bheem prepared the guerilla army with Gond, Kolam, Paradhan, Thoti, Nayak Podu tribals.
When the conditions were out of hands of the government at Jodenghat, the officers
befriended Kurdu Patel associate of Kumram Bheem covertly. With the help of Kurdu Patel,
the government force climbed the Jodeghat hills, under the leadership of Captain Ali Raza
Branden to attack Kumram Bheem, who organized a meeting with the people of 12 tribal
villages, on 1st September, 1940 at Goddess Temple of Galgad. It was the night time and the
day was of Ashwayuja Pournami. On the same night police attacked Bheem and his followers
without any warning. The police killed the tribal people who are sleeping. The police cruelly
killed a number of people at the Neykappi Waterfall and the Kariyar Gundam of Jodeghat
valley. In the police firing, Kumram Bheem died and he has fought bravely until the last
second. Approximately 140 tribal people were martyrs of these police firing.
According to the paper statement released by the Nizam government on 17th

September 1940, Kumram Bheem and nine followers had died in the incident and afterwards
six members died out of 13 injured persons. But, Baddam Yellareddy has estimated that 138
tribal people died.
After this incident, Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan appointed the Austrian Professor Christ von
Furer Heimondorf to study the conditions of the Gonds. Based on the suggestions of the Professor,
Nizam government brought the „Dastur-ul-Amal‟ Act in 1940. Consequently, the 1/70 Act was also
declared in India. However, Kumram Bheem stood as the hero, worshipped, and as remains the
eternal leader of Gond people. The heirs of the Bheem and the residents of Adilabad District used to
celebrate the Bheem‟s death anniversary on the Pournami (Aswayuja Pournami) after Dassehara
festival in October. The government of Telangana is also conducting the death anniversary day of
Kumram Bheem as the "State Festival‟ from 2014 onwards.
Analyse the Women's Movements.
14.3 PEASANT MOVEMENTS

Hyderabad state was predominantly an agrarian Society. The agrarian structure and the land
territorial system was feudal in nature. There were three types of land tenure such as Diwani, 60% of
total agricultural land was directly under the land revenue tax system, 30% of the land out of the total
agriculture land was under Jagir in the state. The Jagirs also called as Paigas, Sanstanams, Jagirdars,
7
Banjardars Muktedars, Inamdars or Agraharanas have their own revenue, police, civil and criminal
offices to impose and collect taxes. Local landlords called Deshmukhs owned majority of lands and
used to oppress peasants. Under Surfekhas 10 percent of agriculture land which was kept under the
control of Nizam for his own expenses. The peasants were subjected to great sufferings and misery
due to land tenure systems.
14.3.1 The Causes for the Peasant Revolts
Several factors contributed to the revolts of peasant in Hyderabad State.
14.3.1.1 Commercialisation of Agriculture
The main crops of Hyderabad State were Jowar, Bajra, Rice and Cereals. From the beginning
th
of 20 century, commercial crops like cotton, oil seeds, groundnut and castor oil were promoted by
the rich peasants. The penetration of market economy on a wider scale caused change in agrarian
economy. Reform undertaken by Salar Jung, such as establishing state control over agriculture cash
payment of revenue, increase in demand for food grain were some of the factors that led the peasants
unrest. The demand for cash crops grew and the agriculture economy underwent fundamental
changes. Cotton which was largely grown in Marathwada, grown in new areas in Telangana region
also. By 1930‟s over 60 percent of cotton was being exported. Oil seed cultivation was prevalent in
Telangana in the nineteenth century grew predominantly by 1930‟s. The penetration of high profile
cash crops resulted in the incorporation of the Hyderabad economy into the world market. The state
supported this by providing more irrigation facilities and introducing improved varieties.
The commercialization of agriculture adversely affected the cropping pattern. The area under
food grain cultivation declined from 75 percent in 1920-22 to 68 percent in 1949-50. More over the
process of commercialization, completely defeated the spirit of some measures introduced by Salar
Jung With these measure state revenue increased but affected the peasants. The intensification of
profit motive of landlords forced peasants to work more to feed landlords demands. With
commercialization coupled by deteriorating tenancy conditions, peasants rural indebtedness
increased. The commercialisation of agriculture resulted in the intensification of feudal exploitation of
peasantry.
14.3.1.2 Feudal Oppression
In Hyderabad state, particularly in Telangana region majority cultivable land was

concentrated in the hands of few landlords, especially in Jagirdari areas. The Jagirdars imposed
illegal exactions on the peasants. Nearly 82 varieties of such exactions were recorded. The burden of
exactions could be judged from the fact that 110 Jagirdars collected about Rs. 10 crores . The
Deshmukhs wieded lot of political and economic power being rent collectors and owners of vast
lands. The Patels and Patwaris supported the Deshmukhs. The jagirs acted like state within the state,
having their own rules in their areas. It was the emergence of this type of powerful landlords who are
responsible for the degeneration of the system.
14.4.1.3 Vetti and Begari
The peasants of Hyderabad also fought against Vetti. It was confined mainly to Dalit
communities but affected all backward castes in 19th century. Vetti involved forced labour and
exaction. Under this system Dalits used to clean village, collect forest wood, carry post and supply
leather items for cultivation and shoes for the doras families. Rest of the communities in the village
8
were forced to render service to the doras for free. Boyalu and bestalu carried the dora family
members in Pallakis and Menas to distant places. Goudas supplied toddy, Salolu supplied cloth,
Kummaris supplied pots, dobhis washed cloths and did household work. Mangalis who were barbars
also performed foot massage and gollas and gollakurmas supplied goats and sheep for all functions.
Komatis supplied goods and groceries. This was the kind of Vetti was in practia in Hyderabad
particularly Talengana. The landlords treated the Dalits as bonded labours and treated them as slaves.
Illegal exploitation of labour, severe punishments against them became common. The village officials
– Patels, Patwaris and Mali Patel used Vetti labourer for both official and personal works. Another
inhuman custom was Bhagela. Bhagelas were contract labourers most commonly called as Jeetagadu.
They worked freely in the Doras Gadi through debt bondage. The contract was annual, but they
became hereditary labourers. They worked for the doras round the clock and were paid.
14.4.3 Role of Andhra Maha Sabha, Congress and Communist Party
Organisations which raised consciousness of people were Andhra Jana Kendra Sangam
formed in 1924. Andhra Maha Sabha(AMS) formed in the year 1930.Initially the Andhra Maha Sabha
was under the control of congress but in later phase controlled by communists. The main purpose of
Andhra Maha Sabha was to educated people against forced labour, Untouchability and other social
evils and to impress the government to abolition such practices. The meetings of the Sabha also
focussed on Purdah, child marriage and widow remarriage. They propagated temple entry of Dalits.
The Mahila sabhas were held parallel to Andhra Maha Sabha.
Nizam government responded positively towards Andhra Maha Sabha and issued firmans
prohibiting forced labour. Though started with reform motive Andhra Maha Sabha became political
organisation by 1937. From 1928 onwards communists party gained leadership Andhra Maha Sabha.
In 1940 Andhra Maha Sabha took resolution against land reforms of Nizam. By 1944 communists
completely took over Andhra Maha Sabha and intensified their fight against oppression of peasant
and agricultural labourers.
In the year 1938, Hyderabad state congress was established in Hyderabad. Nizams
government objected to the name and banned it. Govindrao Nawar, Ramanand Tirtha and others
emerged as congress leaders. The congress along with members of Andhra Maha Sabha took part in
Satyagraha movements. Workers from Arya Samaj and Hindu Mahasabha also participated in the
Satyagraha. The Vandemataram movement was launched by students of Osmania.
In 1939, Ravi Narayan Reddy under the influence of Communist Party of India took active
role in Andhra Maha Sabha. In the seventh annual meeting of Andhra Maha Sabha held in 1940, Ravi
Narayan Reddy presided and gave call to boycott Nizam reforms. Andhra Maha Sabha was divided
into two groups by 1942. Split took place in Bhongir session in 1944. 1945, two rival meetings took
place at Warangal and Khammam. While liberals joined communist Party. Communists took the
movement to rural areas, step by step, it took the form of a peasant struggle by 1946.
14.3.4 Peasants’ Movements prior Telangana Armed Struggle
The first signs of peasants‟ resistance can be seen on June 3, 1933, when peasants numbering
almost thousand, belonging to Bhuvanagiri in Nalgonda District came down in a rally demanding
reduction in levies, ban on illegal taxation, ownership rights on the land to the cultivator and irrigation
facilities across the state.
9
In Mondrayi (between Jangaon and Nalgonda), Lambada farmers numbering 3000, agitated
against Kandaru Narsimha Rao, Deshmukh, under the leadership of the Communist Party and Andhra
Mahasabha. They reclaimed seventy acres of land, thus securing the land they had been cultivating.
In Suryapet area, Jannareddy Pratap Reddy Illegally retained lakhs of acres under his control
. almost 3,000 farmers belonging to Edapally, Nutankal and two other villages, led by Gajula
Ramachandraiah and Andhra Mahasabha, revolted against the landlord to reclaim the land. Similarly,
the Andhra Mahasabha led thousand farmers to launch a large scale revolt against Kunduru
Lakshmikantha Rao who had occupied the lands belonging to poor in Old Suryapet. The revolt was
successful in reclaiming 1,000 acres of the land.
At Huzurnagar Land measuring 500 acres under the illegal occupation of Bhogla Veera
Reddy, a landlord in Bakkavntulagudem in Huzurnagar Taluq, was reclaimed by 1500 armed peasants
and people under the leadership of Teegela Linga Reddy of AMS and Balapanoor Bapaiah. The
villege Patel and Patwari of Mallareddygudem had occupied 600 acres of land under cultivation. The
local leaders of AMS guided 4,000 people and reclaimed the land.
In Bethavolu village under Huzurnagar Taluq, the local landlord, Tadakamalla

Sitaramachander Rao occupied 600 acres of land against which Venapally Rangaiah, a leader of
Andhra Jana Sangham, led 5,000 farmers in an agitation. The people rose in revolt against such
oppressions during 1925-1932 for the first time and again in 1934-35.
In Munagala samsthanam (estate) the British rulers gave the rulers of this estate the status of
zamindars. The Munagala Zamindari being surrounded by the Nizam‟s dominion had inherited the
feudal system and atrocities of the Nizams. The zamindar, Venkatramaiah, Venkata Ranga Rao
adopted on collected levies from the farmers even when there was no yield at all. They forcibly
annexed the lands belonging to the people. The feud between the Zamindar and the farmers reached
its peak in Kalkova village, where the farmers, under Nanduri Prasada Rao‟s leadership, launched
Satyagraha demanding just wages for reaping the harvest. The struggle which was carried on in three
phases during 1930-35, 1937-38, and 1938-39, achieved the abolition of bonded labour (vetti) and
reclaimed the farmers‟ lands. The zamindar‟s atrocities increased all the more after the resignation of
Congress ministers in October 1939. The peasants‟ struggle continued until 1947. In telangana region,
even before 1920, there were instances of tenant farmers revolting against the injustice meted out to
them, which was settled through an agreement. In 1951, when the region did not witness any
agitations.
Bandagi‟s Murder
Ramachandra Reddy, the Deshmukh of Visunuu village in Jangaon Taluk in the then
Nalgonda District gained notoriety for forcible land grabbing. Sheikh Bandagi was a Muslim youth
and a resident of the neighboring Kamareddygudem village. The family distributed its land amongst
the brothers in 1939. Bandagi‟s eldest brother, Abbas Ali, sold his share of the land and started
demanding a share from his brothers. The Deshmukh supported Abbas Ali and tried to intimidate the
younger brothers. The dispute landed in court which gave a ruling in favour of Bandagi after three
years. Deshmukh took this ruling as a personal loss and plotted to kill Bandagi. The clashes between
the Deshmukh and Bandagi continued for twelve years. He was murdered on the night he brought
home the papers pertaining to the court ruling. Though Bandagi‟s fight against the Deshmukh was a
personal one, the people recognized it as a fight against extortion, atrocities and hegemony. His fight
inspired the people of the twenty surrounding villages.
10
All the above struggles and revolts waged by the farmers culminated into the historic Armed
Struggle of the Peasants of Telangana, and armed rebellion against the feudal lords of the region.
14.3.3.1 Landmarks of Telangana Peasant Movements
We have noted that the Communists took control of the Andhra Maha Sabha around 1940.
The Mahasabha slowly gained strength and popularity in the rural areas. Step by step the movement
took the form of a peasant upsurge culminating in a major uprising between 1947 and 1950. This
period of upsurge could be conveniently analysed in three phases by MSA Rao.
14.3.3.1.1 The First Phase- Mass Resistance
We have earlier described the socio-economic structure of the state during Second World War a
system of levy on food grains was introduced. Under this system, each cultivator was required to give
a certain quantity of foodgrains per acre to the government. While every cultivator was expected to
perform this duty, the landlords managed to escape somehow or the other and the burden pushed on to
the ordinary peasants.
The government also forcibly collected money towards the war-fund . All these measures
seriously affected the peasants. At the same time, the big landlords and deshmukhs continued their
exploitation of the tenants, agricultural labourer. In many villages of Nalgonda district, struggle
between the peasants and the propertied classes began to take place with the impact of Andhra Maha
Sabha.
Andhra Mahasabha and the Communist party trained many volunteers to fight the police with lathis
and slings. Women volunteers used to throw chilli powder, stones and boiling water at the
police.Nonetheless the masses could not continue their fight against the army which established
camps in many villages. The Nizam‟s government also banned the Communist party in November
1946. Thus the mass upsurge against the big landlords and the government came to a halt.
14.3.3.1.2 The Second Phase-Liberation Struggle
Ban on Congress was lifted in Apr 1946, the State Congress began to mobilise people in
favour of a struggle for the freedom of Hyderabad State (N. Ramesan, 1966). It began to pressurise
the Nizam of Hyderabad to join the Indian Union in the event of the British granting independence to
India. On 11 June 1947 the Nizam announced his desire not to join either the Indian Union or Pakistan
and to remain independent
On 7th August 1947 national flag was hoisted all over the state of Hyderabad .Thousands of
satyagrahis were arrested. While all the political parties supported the accession of the state of
Hyderabad to the Indian Union, the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen was opposed to this move,
Political parties of all shades united under the leadership of the Congress led by Ramananda.
Tirth and planned state wide non-cooperation and civil disobedience campaigns. Except for a small
number of Hindu feudal-lords all the Hindus and some Muslims supported these activities. The Nizam
police and Razakkars came down violently on the agitators.
The Congress set up its camps on 'the borders and made counter-raids on the police and the
Razakkars. The Communist leadership made a study of the whole situation and arrived at the
conclusion that the field was fertile for armed insurrection procured arms from various parts of the
country and established regular armed squads all over Telangana. Communist Party raised the slogan
„land to the tiller‟ and began to work against the landlords.
11
14.3.3.1.3 The Third Phase-Armed Struggle
By the end of 1947, it was estimated that the Communists had succeeded in distributing the
land of the rich land. lords to the poor and establish local rule in about 3,000 villages. The Congress
was in favour of agrarian reform but was certainly not in favour of a class-conflict in any form.
the Communists increased the number and the strength of their squads is note-worthy. Village squads
„with about 10,000 members and regular guerilla squads with more than 2,000 members were formed.
By about June 1948, civic life in Hyderabad state virtually came to a standstill between April
1947 and March 1948 approximately 250 villages in the state had been looted or burnt. Four thousand
houses set on fire. 500 persons killed or wounded and 450 women molested by the Razakars. A
government report said that „From the 15thAugust 1946, to 13th September 1948, they (the
Communists brutally murdered nearly 2,000 persons, attacked 22 police out-posts. attempt large-scale
disruption of communications and lines of supply and transport and steadily and systematically
adapted the technique of guerilla war fighting with the resources at their disposal. The Hyderabad
government lifted its ban on the Communists and put many Congress leaders behind bars. This further
led to the growth of Communist power in the countryside. . It was under these conditions that the
Union government took police action in September 1948 against the Nizam , and made the state of
Hyderabad a part of the Indian Union.

1.Which types of Gonds live in Adilabad?

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2. What was the period of Telangana Peasant Armed Struggle?
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14.4 DALIT MOVEMENTS

14.4.1 Adi Hindu Movement – Role of Bhagya Reddy Varma :
Adi Hindu Movement started in Hyderabad state against untouchability and caste
discrimination. The pioneer of this movement is Madari Bhagya Reddy Varma. Bhagya Reddy Varma
was born on 22nd May 1888 in Hyderabad. He was the second child of Madari Venkaiah and
Rangamamba. Due to some small issue he left home during his childhood. Joined a Roman Catholic
brothers tennis court as a Picler boy. He worked in their family and managed home. In the year 1912
he joined as Electrical Engineer in Electrical Department. In 1906 itself he founded Jagan Mitra
Mandali. The important aim of mandali is to impart education to Dalits. He is known for establishing
several organisations for the emancipation of Dalits.
In the year 1910 he started Vaidika Dharma Pracharam Sabha to create awareness among
Dalits in religion and morality. In the year 1913 Arya Samajist Baji Krishna Rao conferred him with
Varma title for his loudable social services. In order to bring consensus among different sub castes he
12
used to organise Preeti Bhojanam programs. He started swastika volunteer corps in the year 1912 to
serve the Dalits.
In the year 1911 Varma, formed Manya Sangham. Later in 1913 redesigned it as the Adi
Hindu Social Service League which did yeoman service to enlighten people through public lectures,
Harikatha kalakshepams on themes of Pre- Aryan Culture and publication of literature. The spirit of
social service league attracted several caste Hindus and they actively associated with the league,
prominent among them were justice C.Bal Mukund, Pandit Keshav rao Koratter, Seth Lalji Meguji,
Professor wellington, R.E. Repouku. Inspired by Bharhma Samaj, Reddy joined several Dalits into
Brahmasamaj. In the year 1913 he organised Buddha Jayanthi for the first time. Padmaja Naidu,
Adipudi Samanatha Rao, Chandravark etc participated in these celebrations. He conducted this
activity every year till his death. The last Budha jayanthi he celebrated was on 25 th May 1913 under
the chairmanship of Raja Bahadur Rai Biwesomnath.
Bhagya Redyy varma became pioneer of Dalit self -respect movement in Andhra also. In
1917 he presided over the first, Andhra Desa Panchama conference at Bezawada. On the first day
itself he condemned the word Panchama and stated that this word was not there in Vedas and Puranas
and it is a creation of dominant castes to exercise their selfish motto of dominance. Also made it clear
that Dalits were original inhabitants and hence replacd Panchama with Adi Andhra. Bhagya Reddy
Strongly believed that Dalits were not part of Hinduism. Due to the consistent efforts of Bhagya
Reddy. The Madras Government issued a Government Order (GO) 817 on January 24 th 1922. The
Madras Legislative Council adopted a resolution stating that the council recommends to the
Government that the term Panchama or Paraya used to designate the ancient Dravidian community in
the Southern India should be deleted from the Government records and the term Adi Dravida in the
Tamil and Adi Andhra in the Telugu districts to be substituted instead”. In Hyderabad state also due
to his efforts the term Adi Hindu was accepted by the Nizam Government and referred all the Dalits
(Mala, Madiga, Dakkali, Dhed, Chamar etc) as Adi Hindu in 1931 census report.
Bhagya Reddy Varma made an attempt to bring solidarity amongDalits and Bahujans. He
founded Yadava Sangam under Srugam Sitaram, Sabari Sangham under Durgaiah, Pardhi Sangam
under Hanuman Singh. In 1925 he organised Adi Hindu Sabha under the leadership of Arundhaitiys
leader Subedor Sayanna. In 1925 itself he organised Matanga Janasabha under the leadership of
Guntimalla Ramappa. Bhagya Reddy founded the Matangi Sabha in 1927 at Mallepalli. They passed
resolutions against liquor & toddy consumption.
He made Secunderabad as centre and toured extensively Karimnagar, Warangal, Khamam
and Nizamabad demanding rights to Madigas, Mudigonda Laxmaiah an industrialist extensively
supported this movement and gave monetary to poor Madiga Students. In the year 1937, Jambavarna
Seva Samithi made efforts to create awareness among Arundhatiyas. Matanga Mahasabha leader
Guntimalla Ramappa strived hard to bring unity among Dalits in 1932.
13
On July 10th 1931 in the Adi Hindu Dharmika Sabha Bhagya Reddy Gave a call to bring
amity among different sub castes among Dalits. He presided over Adi Hindu conference held at
Nagpur in May 1933.
Bhagya Reddy participated in the meetings of Andhra Maha Sabha and made to adopt several
resolutions to bring reforms in the society. In its first meeting held at Jogipet on 3rd,4th and 5th March
1930, Suravaram Pratap Reddy presided over and proposed resolutions on Educational facilities to
Adi-Hindus, whereas Bhagya Reddy gave a call to remove untouchability. Varma also spoke in the
second meeting at Hyderabad. In 1934 Khammam conference. Bhagya Reddy also conducted Adi
Hindu gymnastic competitions under the presidentship of Kodi Ramamurthy .In 1925, to encourage
youth, he conducted painting, drawing and craft exhibitions at Prem theatre, Hyderabad.
Bhagya Reddy attended several meetings and conferences in other parts of India too. One
such meeting he participated was in the Divyajnana Samajam meeting held on 15 thDecember 1917 at
Calcutta and spoke how Brahmanism caused the degradation of Dalits. Mahatma Gandhi was present
in the conference and praised him for his interest in the upliftment of downtrodden. Later Gandhi
visited Adi Hindu Social Service League and Adi Hindu School in the year 1929.
In 1920 several identity movements took place in Northern India. All India Adi Hindu (Depressed
Classes) conferences were organised in places like Delhi, Alahabad, Lucknow and Nagpur. Varma
attended all these conferences as a delegate from Hyderabad state and Andhra. He attended the Adi
Hindu special conference also held at Delhi on 24th February 1928. In the year 1930, on 16th
November varma participated in the 8th session of All India Adi Hindu (Depressed Class) conference
held in Mayo Hall at Allahabad. The conference demanded for a representative from Adi Hindu
background in the Central as well as State provincial legislations. Reddy also participated in Adi
Hindu conference and several other meetings in 1936 at Vijayanagaram. In 1938 February at
Kakinada. On 22nd September 1937 Nizam government constituted a committee for reforms.In the
same year, Bhagya Reddy conducted a meeting and requested the government to allocate two seats to
Adi Hindus.
Bhagya Reddy‟s relentless activities and frequent travels affected his health. Krishna Swamy
Mudiraj mentioned in his book Bhagya Reddy, gave as many as 3348 public speeches. Bhagya
Reddy‟s life is synonymus with Adi Hindu movement. He strived hard to create awareness among
Railway employees, Military soldiers, cloth merchants, contractors, workers and labourers. He
breathed his last breath on 18th February, 1939. His death was a major setback to the Adi Hindu
Movement and also Dalits of Hyderabad.
14.4.2 Other Dalit Organisations and Leaders
Arige Ramaswamy:
He is the contemporary of Bhagya Reddy Varma. He worked for Dalits and fought against
caste discrimination. . He founded Suneeta Bala Samajam at Secunderabad and Matangi Mahasabha
at Nampalli. He struggled for abolition of Jogini system. He fought against superstitions, animal
14
sacrifices and child marriages. He propounded Achala Philosophy, believed in Brahma Samaj
Principles. Still he feel that Dalits are separate and not part of Hindu fold.
In the year 1922 he started Adi Hindu Jateeya Sabha, along with J.Papayya as vice president
and Konda Venkataswamy as president. This organisation worked to bring reforms among Adi
Hindus. It also worked for Devadasi Abolition. Arige Ramaswamy rescued a mala girl from
dedication as Jogini and married her with a Madiga boy. This marriage was to bring cordial relations
among these two sub castes in later years. He founded Arundhatiya Maha Sabha and created
awareness among Madiga castes. Arige Ramaswamy is not only a reformer but also a poet.
B.S.Venkat Rao:
B.S.Venkat Rao is another Dalit Leader who led the Dalit Movement in the Nizam State. He
is greatly inspired by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar‟s movement. He too founded several Dalit organisations. In
the year 1922, he along with his friends Madari Govindarajulu, Madari Venkatswamy founded Adi
Dravida Sangham. In the year 1922 started Adi Hindu Mahasabha along with C.S. Yatiraj,
K.Ramaswamy and Arige Ramaswamy. He also worked for removal of social evils and bring unity
among Dalits.Through these organisations he started a library and night school as an affiliation to Adi
Hindu Maha Sabha which he founded in 1926 at Secunderabad.
In the year 1936, he started Ambedkar Youth League for the development of Dalit Youth. He
elected as Secunderabad Cantonment Board member in 1938, Municipal elections.In 1939 as MLA on
behalf of local bodies in Assembly and finally became Education Minister in the year 1947. He
presided over the Mahar Conference in May 1936 at Puna. He started city depressed classes
Association at Hyderabad in 1938. He met the Prime Minister of Nizam State,Sri Akbar Hydar in the
year 1934 and demanded for adequate representation of Dalits in legislature and separate electorates
based on population.
When he was the education minister, he changed the Burton High School as Adaiah Memorial
school and upgraded it to High School. He provided an opportunity to Dalit Students who passed HSC
to join in colleges. He prepared the list of eligible Dalit children and sent it to Nizam government and
British India officers and provided opportunities for perusing their studies in foreign countries. For the
first time in history he convinced Nizam government to allocate one crore to scheduled caste trust
fund for the welfare of Dalits. He led Hyderabad Depressed classes Association by merging all small
Dalit organisations. After Hyderabad accession into Indian Union, he was kept under house arrest and
died in the year 1953.
Battula Shyamsunder:
B.Shyamsunder emerged as a student leader and later trade union leader. He presided over
depressed classes Maha Sabha (Anjuman – e-Fastukhaum) on 30th May, 1942. P.R.Venkataswamy in
his book “Our Struggle for Emancipation” wrote B.Syamsunder‟s entry into Dalit Movement is a
“Red Letter Day”.
15
He worked as secretary to Scheduled Castes Federation along with B.S.Venkatrao. He

attended all India Scheduled Castes Federation meeting held at Nagpur in the year 1944. He worked
as president of Osmania University Graduates Association. He was a member of reconstruction
committee of Osmania University in 1944, standing committee member and Senate Member. He
played a crucial role in taking Dalit issues to Nizam government. He demanded for proportionate
representationof Dalits in Nizam‟s Executive Council.He profoundly believed in Dalit Muslim Unity.
He opined that Dalits are separate entity in Hinduism. He believed that Dalits should be together to
get political and social freedom.
B.Shyamsunder was instrumental in influencing Nizam to grant 5 Lakhs Rupees to Peoples
Education Trust started by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar. This institution helped for the advancement of Dalits
and deprived sections. He spoke on the status of Dalits in International forums when sent along with
Moin Nawaj Jung and Jaheer Ahmad by Nizam government as representatives demanding separate
statehood to Hyderabad. On 18th July 1942, when the All India Depressed Classes political Maha
Sabha was convened representatives from Hyderabad such as J.H.Subhaiah, B.S.Venkar Rao, B
Shyam Sunder, P.R. Venkataswamy Ethirajan, P.V.Manohar, Arige Ramaswamy decided to form
Scheduled Castes Federation. Ambedkars visit in the year 1944 to Hyderabad inspired the Scheduled
Caste Federation.
14.5.4 Impact of Armed Struggle on Dalit Movement:
When the Dalit movement is spreading in towns under the leadership of Bhagya Reddy and
others Vetti & Bhagela and violence on Dalit women were also increasing in rural areas. Ravi
Narayan Reddy, Puchalapalli Sunderaiah, Devulapalli Venkateshwar Rao, Chandra Rajeshwar Rao
and others spread communist ideology among people. Dalits and oppressed in large numbers joined
the “Dalams” formed at village level, to counter their exploitation.
Dalits participated in the liberation struggles against Jamindar system at various places of
Telangana. Under the leadership of John, Dalits participated in large number fighting against vetti and
huge taxes in several villages namely Kolanupaka, China Kadkur, Rajampet, Puligalli and Inkurti
villages of Bhuvanagiri taluk of Nalgonda. In the year 1944, Dalits of Pammi Village of Warangal
under the leadership of Andhra Maha Sabha struggled and re-occupied their lands from landlords and
liberated themselves from vetti. Dalits of Tellerupalli village of Khammam fought against Jagirdar
Amjad Ali who was corrupt and got liberated from vetti. Dalits in Keshavapuram village of
Huzurabad Taluk of Karimnagar fought unitedly against Deshmuk‟s oppression. In the year 1944 in
Mahabubnagar too, Dalits successfully fought against Gadwal Jamindar‟s vetti system. As result of
Telangana Armed Struggle, vetti was abolished but caste system continued. The communist party
which fought with class consciousness could not find solution to caste problem.
14.5 WOMEN’S MOVEMENT

16
The status of women in the 20th century was not remarkable. In 1935 the President of Andhra
Mahila Sabha, Joginepalli Radhabayamma in her presidential address said – “there are a number of
social evils in the Telangana society. These evils are the main obstacles for women‟s growth both
economically and psychologically. They were kept away from education for the fear that they may
enjoy independent status.‟ Child marriage is another important social evil spread in all areas of
Telangana.
Along with child marriages, another evil practice in the Telangana society is Polygamy.
Because of this also the women of those days faced many problems. Apart from Muslim Community,
purdah system could be seen in Deshmukh, Deshpande, Reddy, Kamma, Kapu, Velama and other
high caste womens.
14.5.1 Reforms Movement
Some intellectuals in Telangana started efforts to eradicate the social evils. M. Hanumantha
Rao from the beginning showed much interest towards social reforms. The establishment of Sri
Krishna Andhra Balika Patasala by M. Hanumantha Rao. Followed by this the Arya Samaj
established Viveka Vardhani Girls School, Bala Saraswathi School and Kanya Pathasala. Adi Hindu
Girls school was founded by Bhagyareddy Varma worked hard for girls education. Nizam
government provided scholarships for meritorious girl students.
14.5.2 Women’s Organisation
In order to mitigate the impact of various social evils on women reformers in Telangana
started several organisations and led reforms movement. In 1878 Aghoranath Chattopadhyaya started
young Men‟s Improvement Association with a reading room and library .The association used to
conduct various meetings and conferences to discuss social and political issues. Another reformer
Mulla Abdul Khayyam worked for Women‟s Education. Several organisations were started for
women welfare. In 1907 Sitha Bai started Bharatha Mahila Samajam, Yamini Purnatilakam started
Yuvatisaranalayam in the year 1922, Nadimpalli Sundaramma started Andhra Sodari Samajam in
1925. Organisations for establishing libraries also acted as propagation centres for adult education.
Their role in women‟s development was immense.
14.5.2.1 Andhra Mahila Sabha
Andhra Maha Sabha and Andhra Mahila Sabha were started in 1930. Andhra Maha Sabha
conducted 13 Maha Sabhas and 10 Mahila Sabhas. These Mahila Sabhas simultaniously had the
privilege of having the leadership of prominent women such as Nadimpalli Sundaramma, Tanguturi
Varalakshmamma , Yellapragada Sithakumari , Madapati Manikyamba, Burgula Ananta Laxmidevi,
Nandagiri Indira Devi, Yogyasheela Devi and Rangamma Obul Reddy etc. Several resolutions about
women welfare and women‟s education were taken in these Mahila Sabhas and sent to Nizam.
Nizam government issued a farman allowing widow remarriage. This might be the first
farman of the social reforms in Nizam state. Later in 1940, the 18th Andhra Mahila Sabha convened at
Chilkur. In this the president Rangamma Obul Reddy gave a call to women to come out of purdah and
17
stop child marriage. Pulijala Kamala Bai, the secretary emphasised that women‟s movement should be
led by women only.
Most of the members of Andhra Mahila Sabha were from middle and upper class families
with nationalist spirit. They took up issues pertaining to women‟s education, abolition of prostitution.
Purdah and women‟s remarriages etc. Often these issues aroused resentment from conservative
sections within the organisation and people outside. During the 3rd conference of Andhra Mahila
Sabha held at Khammam, conflict took place between the reformists and the opponents who branded
themselves as the protectors of Hindu Dharma. In the year 1937, Maharastra, Karnataka Parishads
started their own platforms.
All India Women‟s Conference was started in 1945 under the leadership of Prameela Tai.
Members of the Conference were Mankumari Chowrasia, Jaduav Behen, Gita Devi, Leela Devi
Dangoria, Yashodha Devi etc. They were drawn from various linguistic groups. Another organisation
Andhra Yuvati Mandali was started in 1935 at Hyderabad by Yellapragada Seetha Kumari and
Illendula Sraswathi to discuss about women‟s problems. They also started schools and Sisu Vihars.
This organisation also worked for promotion of Women‟s education.
The consciousness of muslim women in Hyderabad was reflected in the number of such
organisations. Suegra Humayun Mirza started Anjuman-e-Khavateen-e-Deccan in 1895. Primary
objectives of this organisation were to help poor women, widows to earn their livelihood, and remove
social evils. Lady Hyderi started Hyderabad Ladies Club this also worked for solving women‟s
problems. In Nizam State education opportunities for women were less. However, Nizam VI and VII
provided many opportunities to women in the city.
In the year 1934 all Hyderabad Students Union was started, by organising people from
various organisations. During those days women students used to attend the classes in Osmania sitting
behind chilman (Purdah). Three women students joined the executive, Shakuntala as secretary,
Susheela as treasurer, Padma as member in executive committee.
14.5.3 Women in National Movement
The Nationalist Movement spread in Andhra soon extended to Telangana region also. When
Gandhi visited Hyderabad in 1921 women participated in large numbers in the public meeting at
Vivekavardini school. After seeing the immense response of people, Nizam issued Gasti Nisan;53
which imposed several restrictions on the freedom of association of the people in the state. Women
participated enthusiastically in the Swadesi Movement. Lectures on Swadesi Movement were
organised at the residence of Dr.Aghoranath Chattopadyaya, where Aryasamaj leaders like Keshev
Rao, Koratkar, Pandit Damodar Satwalker, Vaman Naik and Appaji Tuljapukar used to discuss about
the movement and its dynamics.
A special meeting with Gandhi and Kasturbai was arranged at Prem theatre, for the women of
Hyderabad. Gandhi‟s speech on the boycott of foreign goods and use of swadeshi had a deep impact
on them. An association under chairmanship of Padmaja Naidu was started immediately after the
18
visit of Gandhi to propagate the use of Khadi and Swadeshi goods, started charkhas in each and every
households. Hyderabad women contributed generously towards Tilak‟s Swaraj fund.
14.5.3.1 Women in Satyagraha Movement under Hyderabad State Congress
The Nizam administration did not pay any heed to the peoples demand for the establishment
of responsible government. Therefore, people in Hyderabad called for Satyagraha. Prominent leaders
like Sangam Lakshmi Bai, Baddam Ella Reddy, Nanduri Krishnamachari led this movement. Sangam
Lakshmi Bai along with Durgabai Deshmukh participated in national movement in Andhra and faced
imprisonment. She completed her education and joined as teacher in 1938 at Hyderabad. During the
same year some of the national leaders decided to form Hyderabad State Congress. Nizam
government banned the Congress before its birth through an extraordinary gazette issued in
September 1938. However, under the aegis of Hyderabad State Congress, Satyagraha Movement was
launched on 24th October 1938 .Yellapragada Sita kumari offered satyagraha and suffered
imprisonment. All together 450 activists participated in eighteen batches along with local leaders.
Women like Gyan Kumari and others actively participated in Satyagraha Movement .They tried to
awaken the women through Charkha Sangams.
14.5.3.2 Quit India Movement
Irrespective of ideologies, all organisations such as Hyderabad State Congress, Communists
and Arya Samaj came together to take part in the Quit India Movement call given by Gandhi. Women
also participated in large number. Educated women such as Padmaja Naidu, Mrs. Padma Swamy,
Vimalabai and other took lead. Padmaja Naidu faced imprisonment. Many women Yellapragada
Sitakumari and Sumithra Devi suffered detention.
14.5.4 Women in Telangana Armed Struggle (1946-51)
Telangana Armed Struggle was a struggle for land, livelihood and liberation. Poor and the
oppressed participated in this struggle in large numbers. Puchalapalli Sundhariah in his book
“Telangana people’s struggle and its lessons” stated that the struggle is for protecting land, wage
and their liberation.
Women participated in large numbers in the movement who were the victims of poverty,
oppression and sexual exploitation. They participated with their husbands and also suffered cruelty of
Razakars and Nizam police. They faced their enemies with chilli powder, acted as secret messengers
also and they took part in political agitations. As organisers of people‟s movements and mass
organisations, women‟s participation can be seen in different ways in Telangana Armed Struggle.
Most of the women participated in the propaganda and mobilizing people against the Nizam‟s
oppressions. Many women worked inside the dens. They were trained in writing reports, documents
against landlords. Some of them used to participate in the making of explosives. Telangana armed
struggle was closely associated with the struggle of Chityala Ailamma. She was born in a poor
washerman in community Jangaon Village of Nalgonda district. She revolted against landlords for
grabbing her land. Ailamma‟s struggle inspired the people of neighbouring villages. She died in 1995.
19
Ravi Narayan Reddy, P. Sundharayya praised that the struggle of “Ailamma symbolized and signalled
the beginning of the mighty struggle of the Telangana peasants for land”
There are several incidents where women who were not even aware of defence mechanisms
revolted against violence. They got inspired by the Telangana movement led by peasants against
oppression of Nizam‟s landlords. Women collectively stood against the Razakars and police.
People revolted against the police atrocities in Akunuru village. Enraged by this, police raped
32 women. Such atrocities were committed in Machireddypalli village also. All these incidents took
place before 1946. After reading about these incidents in newspapers Gandhiji wrote a letter to
Padmaja Naidu to take action. Ramulamma belongs to Cherukupalli village of Huzurnagar. She
participated in the peoples struggle against Tadakamalla Seeta Rammachandra Rao, the maktedar of
Betavolu along with her husband in 1946. She went to forest along with the members of Dalam. She
was trained in military action. Another women Savitramma of Penubadu village of Huzurnagar of
Nalgonda district participated in the struggle against landlord Seeta Rama Rao.
Banala Lingamma of Shilpakuntla village of Suryapet of Nalagonda was in forefront in the
struggle against landlord Jannareddy Pratap Reddy. Mallu Swarjyam, sister of former Member of
Parliament Bheem Reddy Narasimha Reddy played an active role in the People‟s mobilisation.
Atchamamba belongs to Gollacherla village of Manukota, Warangal. She learnt the basics of first aid
and popularly came to be known as doctor Atchamamba actively participated in the struggle.
Kamalamma of Rampuram of Manukota taluk of Warangal Briji Rani Goud, inspired by Sarojini
Naidu participated in the movement. She mobilised women against Razakars and worked a guard. She
suffered attacks of Razakars and faced torture in jail. Arutla Kamaladevi wife of Arutla Ramachandra
Reddy participated actively in the movement. During student days only, she started night school
„Vantasala‟ at Kolanupaka. She joined communist party in 1943. The Chollurugutta struggle led by
her is highly inspiring. After independence she elected as MLA from communist party.
Women belonging to the lower castes such as washerman, barbers, scheduled castes and
tribals participated actively in the struggle. Lambadi women of Kondrapullula fought against
landlords and got back their lands. Women of Mudulagunta waged a historic struggle. It is interesting
to note that even purdah women of Mallareddygudam fought against levi grain. In Pudhutur, when
military tried to abduct women they fought against them. Women of Thirumalagiri, Koyagudem,
Nerigela, Manikota, Chetlamupparam Pammi villages fought against Nizam police. Some Koya
women at Godavari forest area such as Nagamma Venkatamma, Pappakka, Rammakka, Pullakka,
Budhakka, Adhamma and Narayanamma worked as couriers and member of squads. Koya Lachakka
killed four Nizam police Bhudhamma of Bendalapudu supplied necessary things to the gorilla squads.
Padigepelli Nagamma of Nellacheruvu Nandigam and Venkamma of Choppaguntalla village
supplied food to gorilla squades. Like this many dalit and tribals women actively participated in the
armed struggle.
14.5.5 Women in Join India Movement
20
After the end of British rule, Nizam decided to declare independence and not to join in Indian
union. Responding to this Ramananda Teertha decided to launch a struggle on 7th July 1947 against
the decision of Nizam by calling it as join India day. He appealed to the people of Hyderabad to
observe the occasion peacefully and advocated that factories should stop work, students should
boycott schools and colleges. Big demonstrations were held on 15th august 1947. People hoisted
national flag defying Nizam orders. Police resorted to lathi charge. Women actively participated in
this movement. Yashodabai, Birj Rani Goud hoisted national flag and got arrested. After them,
women in four batches participated. Vimalabai Gyan Kumari Heda, Usha Pangrekar, Ahalyabai faced
lathi charge. Laxmi Radha Bai Deshmukh hoisted national flag at Itkalamandi. They continued their
struggle till Nizam signed standstill agreement with Indian union on 30th November 1947.
Analyse the Women's Movements.

14.6. SUMMARY
The Gonds, once the ruling community refused the Nizam oppressive rule and policies.
Revolted against Government Ramji Gond revolt in 1850 Komaram Bheems Jodenghat revolt
asserted the independence of Adivasis of Telangana leaders mobilised public for the abolition of
forced labour, untouchability and against other evils in the society. Dalit leaders demanded equal
educational and economic opportunities and equal rights to Peasant struggle fought for land to tiller,
wages and liberation of people from feudal oppression. From 1946 till1950 communist party
supported it and provided main motive force for massive mobilisation. Though Nizam suppressed
Tribal revolt, it took up the measure of distribution of forest land to Tribals under laoni (cowl) Patta,
and the Tribal areas Dastur V T Amal in 1946 to protect adivasi from non Tribals. Telangana peasants
and struggle resulted in promulgation of abolition of Vettis by the Government. The collective efforts
of Dalit leaders resulted in certain reforms and institution of one crore fund for Dalit education by
Nizam, establishment of schools, Women‟s participation in all the movements was noteworthy. The
peoples movement in Hyderabad was historic and showed the collective strength.
1.WhichDalit leader became the Education Minister during the reign of Mir Osman Ali Khan?
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
2. Who were the women participants in Join India Movement?
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
21

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ANSWERS –I
1. Pradhan, Kolam and Thotis

2. The period of Telangana Peasant Armed Struggle was between 1946 to 1951
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ANSWERS –II
1. B.S. Venkat Rao

2. Vimalabai, Gyan Kumari, Heda, Usha Pangrekar, Ahalyabai and Radhabai Deshmukh.

1. Estimate the role of Kumaram Bheem in Tribal Movement in Telanagana
2. Give an account of Adhi Hindu Movement of Bhagya Reddy Varma
3. Estimate the role of women in Telangana Peasant Struggle.

1. Write about revolt of Ramji Gond
2. Write about Arundhatiya Mahasabha
3. Write about Andhra Mahila Sabha
1. Kshirsagar.R.K : Dalit Movements in India and its leaders 1857-1956, Delhi 1994.
2. Janaki. K. : Role of women in Freedom Struggle in Andhra, Hyderabad 1999.
3. Barry Parier: The Telangana Movement.
4. Sundaraiah P. Telangana people struggle and its lessons 1992
5. Bhagya Bhukya: History of Modern Telangana, Delhi 2017
6. Rao: Yagati, Chinna- Dalit Struggle for Identity, New Delhi- 2003
UNIT-15: INTEGRATION OF HYDERABAD STATE INTO INDIAN
UNION
Contents
15.0: Objectives
15.1: Introduction
15.2: British Relations with Nizam
15.3: People’s Movements in Hyderabad State
15.4: Independence –Consequences
15.5: Stand Still Agreement
15.5.1: Violations of the Agreement
15.5.2: Civil Society Requests and Protests
15.5.3: Murder of Shoebullah Khan
15.5.4: Government of India’s Restrictions
15.5.5: Role of Vallabhai Patel
15.6: Case of Hyderabad Before the Security Council
15.7: Operation Polo
15.7.1: Pre-Police Action Conditions
15.7.2: Military Preparations
15.7.2.1: Hyderabad Military
15.7.2.2: Indian Army
15.8: The Surrender of Nizam
15.9: Summary
1
15.0: OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the process of integration of Hyderabad State into Indian Union.

2. Discuss the events during integration period.
3. Explain the developments during ‘Operation Polo’.
4. Analyse the entire process of accession by Indian Government.
15.1: INTRODUCTION
The erstwhile state of Hyderabad was undoubtedly the largest among the Indian States,
occupying a geographical extent of around 82 square miles and with a population of over 16 million.
In fact, Hyderabad had its own Government, Currency, Posts, Telephone and Telegraph system, Civil
Service, University, Railways, Industries, Army and Police, which were distinct from those of the
remaining Princely States. Hyderabad state existed for more than a century under the British
suzerainty, it was neither a part of British India nor of British territory, but was under the protection of
the British Crown.
Hyderabad under the Nizam rule was feudal autocratic and medieval in character. It ignored
the political, social, economic and cultural interests of majority of the people. Exploitation became a
common feature. The indirect rule of the British through residents and the ministers in the state served
as constitutional counter weight to the Royal autocracy. Neither the Princess nor their ministers did
ever try to share power with the people. The rulers did little to improve the socio, economic
conditions of the people the pomp and splendour that could be seen in the Darbar at Hyderabad was in
contrast to the utter poverty, illiteracy and lawlessness in the countryside.
Under this circumstance, On 15th August 1947, the people of British India had attained freedom after
a prolonged struggle extended for over a hundred years. Indian Union and Pakistan were bifurcated on
communal lines. Mir Osman Ali Khan, VII Nizam announced that the Hyderabad State will be
‘Independent Country’ and it will not be merged in India or Pakistan, this led to the ‘Police Action’ by
Indian Government on Hyderabad State in 1948 September 13th to 18th and merged the Hyderabad
State into India.
15.2: BRITISH RELATIONS WITH NIZAM
The British were guilty of breaches of promises made to the Nizam in their treaties of 1798,
1800, 1852, 1902 and 1936. Further they exploited Nizam on several occasions. On the other hand,
they benefited themselves throughout the alliance, and in return, they betrayed the Nizam. In the
preparations for the British withdrawal from India, the importance of the States was largely
2
overlooked and their rights were neglected. At the time of transfering power to India, Britain
unilaterally denounced her treaties with Hyderabad and her obligation. However, before its
withdrawal, Britain had promised an unfettered choice to the Nizam for merging with either India or
Pakistan or to remain as an independent sovereign country. Nizam chose independence.
15.3: PEOPLE’S MOVEMENTS IN HYDERABAD STATE
During this period, important development happened in the Princely State of Hyderabad. One
side is the spread of National Movement and on another side Telangana Peasant Struggle was going
on. The economic, political and social conditions that prevailed in Hyderabad State were more severe
than in the provinces ruled by the British, Peasants were oppressed, land revenue was excessive,
education was retarded and there were no health or social services. Where as in Hyderabad state,
slavery, serfdom and forced labour were common.
The growth of Nationalism in Hyderabad princely state was rather slow when compared to
the rest of British India. But, People’s movements against Nizam were an absorbing encounter. He
used different strategies to retain power but the people were for change in Governance and demanded
a responsible Government. The most intensive phase of the Hyderabad freedom struggle was
immediately after the transfer of power to the Indian hands in 1947. As such, the freedom struggle
assumed both the characteristics of liberation and problem of India’s unity, integrity and security,
thereby providing a wider canvas. In such a context, the torch-bearers of the Hyderabad freedom
struggle, led by Swami Ramanand Tirtha have to come out with their heart-rendering stories of
sacrifice, the inter-linkages, the political cross currents through which the struggle had to pass, the
important and imaginative turn it took, leading to a successful culmination of achieving democratic
freedom of the people and strengthening in a larger sense the integrity and unity of India.
In late 1945, there started a peasant uprising in Telangana area, led by communists. The
communists drew their support from various quarters. Among the poor peasants, there were
grievances against the Jagirdari system, which covered 43% of land holding. Initially they also drew
support from wealthier peasants who also fought under the communist banner, but by 1948, the
coalition had disintegrated. Initially, in 1945, the communists targeted zamindars and even the
Hindu Deshmukhs, but soon they launched a full-fledged revolt against the Nizam. From mid-1946,
the conflict between the Razakars and the Communists became increasingly violent, with both sides
resorting to brutal methods.
15.4: Indian Independence – Consequences
According to the Independence Act, 1947, the British paramountcy over the Indian States
(Princely States) ceased. This meant that the rulers of these princely States were free to choose their
future course independently. However, they were advised to accede either to the Indian Union or to
3
Pakistan. In this circumstance, by the mindful diplomacy of Vallabhai Patel, ably assisted by
V.P.Menon, the secretary of Home Affairs, some enlightened rulers like the Maharaja of Patiala, who
was the secretary of the Chamber of the Princes realized the necessity of merging their states with the
Indian Union. In other cases, firmness and ruthlessness and Patel’s diplomacy succeeded in bringing
the five hundred and odd Princely States into the Indian Union. But the question of merging of
Hyderabad state into Indian Union proved a little more difficult. The Nizam wanted the preservation
of a special status for Hyderabad and desired direct links with Britain. Lord Mountbatten made it clear
to the Nizam that his state could not join as a Dominion in the British Commonwealth of Nations. The
Nizam consequently went out of his way to delay the integration into the Indian Union.
At the end, the Governor General of India, Mountbatten in a speech to the constituent
assembly on 15th August 1947, stated ‘The only state of the first importance that has not yet acceded
is the premier State, Hyderabad, occupies unique position in view of its size, population and
resources, and it has its problems. The Nizam, while he does not propose to accede the dominion of
Pakistan, has not up to the present felt able to accede to the Dominion of India. His Exalted Highness
has assured me of his wish to co-operate in three essential subjects of External affairs, Defence and
Communications with that dominion whose territories surround his state, with assent of the
Government, negotiations will be continued with Nizam and I am hopefully of reaching a solution
satisfactory to all’. As such in pursuance of this policy, letters and telegrams were exchanged between
the Nizam and the Governor General, after the independence, political pressure was mounting on the
Nizam for a settlement. The Nizam in a letter to the Governor- General, dated 18th September,1947
offered to enter into a treaty with India and highlighted the important features with regard to the
defence, external affairs and communications.
15.5: STAND STILL AGREEMENT
The Government of India, after the independence insisted for accession, ‘involving full and overt
control of the three subjects of Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communications, but offering
Hyderabad autonomy in other matters’. The Nizam’s contention was that in the absence of the British,
he is supreme and was contemplating to acquire the title of ‘His Majesty’. Thus, he wanted treaty
between equals, with regard to the three subjects, and offered any form of association, except
accession. Both, the Nizam and the Government of India were adamant on their respective positions
and settlement could not be reached. This situation India realised that it may drift Hyderabad slowly
towards separatism. Under the circumstances, an alternative arrangement was devised in the form of
‘Stand Still Agreement’ and negotiations were under taken. The Nizam sent several delegations to
Delhi to negotiate terms and conditions. On the repeated advice of Lord Mountbatten and Nizam’s
Constitutional advisor Sir Walter Monckton, compelled to sign a Stand Still Agreement with the
Dominion of India for a period of one year. It was signed by the Nizam and Lord Mountbatten,
4
Governor-General of India on 29th November 1947. The Nizam, in his letter dated 29th November
1947 to the Governor-General, wrote : ‘By executing this Stand Still Agreement I am in no way
permanently prejudicing my rights as an independent sovereign, but I am of course conscious that Iam
in some important respects suspending the exercise of certain of those rights during the currency of
the Agreement’. The text of the Agreement reads as follows:
1. ‘Until new agreements in the behalf are made all arrangements and administrative
arrangements as to the matters of common concern, including External Affairs, Defence and
Communications, which were existing between the Crown and the Nizam immediately before
the 15th August ,1947, shall in so far as may be appropriate, continue as between the
Dominion of India(or any part thereof) and the Nizam’.
‘Nothing herein contained shall impose any obligation or confer and right on the Dominion-
(I) to send troops so stationed to be withdrawn from Hyderabad territory within six months of
the termination of hostilities.
2. ‘The Government of India and the Nizam agreed for the better execution of the purpose of
this Agreement to appoint Agents in Hyderabad and Delhi respectively, and to give facility to
them for the discharge of their functions’.
3. (i) ‘Nothing herein contained shall include or introduce paramountcy functions to create any
paramountcy relationship’.
(ii) ‘Nothing herein contained and nothing done in pursuance here of shall be deemed to
retain in favour of either party any right continuing after the date of termination of this
agreement, and nothing herein contained and nothing done in pursuance here of shall be
deemed to derogate from any right which, but for this Agreement, would have been
exercisable by either party to it after date of termination here of’.
4. ‘Any dispute arising out of this Agreement or out of Agreements hereby continued shall be
referred to the arbitration of two arbitrators, one appointed by each of the parties, and an
umpire appointed by those arbitrators.
5. ‘This agreement shall come into force at once and shall remain in force for a period of one
year’. In confirmation of the above terms, the Nizam and the Governor-General of India
appended their signature on 29th November, 1947. The Nizam first signed it, accompanied by
a detailed letter and the Governor-General later on, with a reply to the Nizam clarifying
certain matters. After signing the Agreement, 30th November 1947, the Nizam through
Farman appealed to the people to maintain peace and refrain from communal strife’.
15.5.1: Violations of the agreement
The Stand Still Agreement, unfortunately, did not fulfill the hopes raised by its conclusion.
India and Hyderabad exchanged charges and counter charges on various issues, including India’s
breach of its commitment to supply army, weapons and ammunitions urgently needed for internal
5
security. India had promised to provide all facilities for import and export trade to Hyderabad but, on
the contrary, had imposed a severe economic blockade on the state.
In Hyderabad city there was huge demonstration by Razakars led by Syed QasimRazvi.
against the administration's decision to sign Stand Still Agreement. The Indian Government offered
Hyderabad a Standstill Agreement which made an assurance that the status quo would be maintained
and no military action would be taken for one year. But, Hyderabad violated all clauses of the
agreement: in external affairs, in defense, by building up a large semi-private army; in
communications, by interfering with the traffic at the borders and the through traffic of Indian
railways. According to Taylor C. Sherman, "India claimed that the Government of Hyderabad was
edging towards independence by divesting itself of its Indian securities, banning the Indian currency,
halting the export of ground nuts, organizing illegal gun-running from Pakistan, and inviting new
recruits to its army and to its irregular forces, the Razakars.".
Nizam sent Ahmed Sayyed , E.L. Edroos, the Military General of Hyderabad to England for
the collection of arms and ammunition through Sidney Cotton and Henry Lashviz and made an
agreement with them. And also made an agreement with T.T.Moor the former military officer of
British for the Gun-powder. He also made regulations on usage of ‘Indian Rupee’ in export and
import in Hyderabad state. And against the rule of international affairs Nizam also gave twenty crore
rupees to Pakistan as a loan from Indian securities.
The administration of the Nizam’s Government, the army, the police and even the civil
service, which was completely dominated by the Muslim Middle Classes, tacitly supported the extra-
constitutional activities of the Razakars and their atrocities. The Hyderabad Radio and Press launched
a continuous tirade of propaganda against the Union of India and its leaderalie.
The atrocities of Razakarsreached a peak. Looting and arson were common. Innumerable
skirmishes took place on all borders of the State. The Razakars intruded into the territory of the Indian
Union to assert their authority. Trains passing through the State were attacked and looted. Neither the
life nor property of the Hindus was safe in the dominion of the Nizam. Witnessing these
developments, Sardar Vallabhai Patel , the then Minister of Home declared in the Constituent
Assembly that ‘Hyderabad had become an ulcer in the heart of India and this had to be operated on’.
Considering the reality of the situation, Mir Laik Ali, the then Prime Minister of Hyderabad
State, later had intensive discussions with V.P.Menon which resulted in a fresh settlement proposal
under the innocuous title of ‘Heads of Agreement’. This agreement was a eleven point programme,
which contained several clauses.This attempt also had not given any positive results.
15.5.2: Civil Society requests and Protests
6
The Representatives of the Mercantile community of Hyderabad and Secunderabad made
representations to the Nizam Government to restore law and order and said that if the Government
failed to take firm and decisive action, they might have to close down their business. Many lawyers in
the Hyderabad state boycotted the courts as an act of protest against the misdeeds of the Razakars. In
April, 1948, a Pleaders Protest Committee was constituted to draw the attention of the Government to
the grievances of the public with Vinayak Rao Vidyalankar as the Chairman. After thatthere were
Muslims who were unhappy at the course of events, who believed that what was happening was
wrong, whose heart came out in sympathy with the victims of the loot, arson and rape committed by
the Razakars, and who felt that all this should stop. They were from politics, services and journalism.
They witnessed the vandalism of the Razakars and attempted to help the victims.
15.5.3: Murder of Shoebullah Khan
Shoebullah Khan, a graduate of Osmania University and an independent rationalist, was the
editor of the Nationalist Paper ‘Imroze’ criticised the activities of Razakars. He was killed in the
streets of Hyderabad on August 21, 1948. Simultaneously, Owing to the increased intensity of by
atrocities Razakars people began to organise self-defence camps to protect themselves. In organizing
the defence against the Razakars and attack on the Razakar camps, the Communists played a very
important role, especially in the areas of Nalgonda, Warangal and Khammam, which were their
strongholds. The State Congress, too organised armed resistance on the state’s borders. Raids were
made on customs outposts, police stations and Razakar Camps. Outside the Communist strongholds in
the Telangana areas, it was the State Congress that was the main vehicle for organising popular
resistance.
Under this circumstance, the Government of India issued a white paper on Hyderabad on July
26, 1948, which read, ‘The Government of India cannot afford to be helpless (mute) spectator of the
orgies of misrule in Hyderabad. If the law and order situation there, which already showing signs of
collapse, further deteriorates and thereby imperils peace and order in India, the Government of India
would unquestionably be involved’.
15.5.4: Government of India’s Restrictions
From independence, the Government of India has taken up intensified actions on Nizams state
in many ways. As part of this, Indian Government banned the ‘Deccan Airways’, as a result the
transport, information and communication links of Hyderabad state with the other parts of the world
was restricted. In the same way the Railway track of Madras, Delhi Grand Trunk express was shifted
from the interior part of the Hyderabad state to its borders, the telephone system was jammed in order
to restraint the communication, passing restrictions on the Indian Government Securities which were
transferred to Hyderabad state. Accordingly, they banned the gold, diamond and coin export from
Hyderabad state and also stopped the transactions between Hyderabad State Bank and Imperial Bank
7
of India. As per the Nehru’s announcement in the Indian National Congress session that there are only
two ways to Hyderabad State, either it should merge with Indian Union or face the war. By the above
factors in fact India has continued the Stand Still Agreement and also got ready for police action on
Hyderabad state.
15.5.5: Role of Vallabhai Patel
Sardar Patel handled effectively the integration of the Princely State of Hyderabad with his
diplomatic skills and foresightedness. The problem of amalgamating 562 independent states with a
democratic self-Governing India was difficult and delicate. But it was essential to save India from
balkanization, once the Paramountcy of British crown would lapse. Sardar Patel took charge of the
States department in July 1947. He sensed the urgent need of the integration of Princely States. He
persuaded them to surrender defense, foreign affairs and communications to the Government of India.
Sardar Patel with an iron fisted hand subdued the Nizam. When the Nizam boasted anti-India
feelings and let loose a blood both by the Razakars, Patel decided upon Police Action. He ordered the
army to march into Hyderabad. The Nizam surrendered and Hyderabad was acceded to India.
1. Who played major role in integration of the princely state of Hyderabad into Indian Union?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Who was the Editor of Nationalist Paper ‘Imroze’?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
15.6: CASE OF HYDERABAD BEFORE THE SECURITY COUNCIL
The Hyderabad Delegation under Laik Ali, accompanied by Monckton, during January-
February 1948 had several meetings with the Governor General and discussed several aspects of the
affairs of Hyderabad. Finally, Mountbatten’s suggestion was agreed in principle by the Hyderabad
delegation and the Government of India that a plebiscite be held in Hyderabad on the issue of
accession, under certain conditions. To this Nizam agreed in principle but still he wanted to safeguard
the independence status of Hyderabad. However, the negotiation broke down on 19th June 1948.
Monckton advised that, if ‘Hyderabad Government decides not to make this offer, then an
immediate application should be made either to UNO or to the International Court of Justice…. to
8
intervene in the dispute between India and Hyderabad in order to preserve peace’. He also suggested
including the question of Plebiscite about Nizams accession to India to be conducted under the
auspicious UNO. Hyderabad was too late to act on this advice and the delegation to the UN, led by
Moin Nawaz Jung, the Minister of External Affairs only reached Paris on 13 th September 1948, by
then the Indian forces had already entered Hyderabad and changed the whole course of Politics and
entire History. Consequently, Sir Walter Monckton resigned as constitutional adviser to the Nizam,
attributing failure of his endeavours due to the Hyderabad policy of ‘too little, too late’.
After Lord Mountbatten left India gradually on 21st June 1948 without solving the Hyderabad
problem, the relations with India deteriorated and worsened the negotiations for permanent
arrangements of the relations through a friendly arrangement failed.
The case of Hyderabad before the security council was submitted through a cablegram of
Zahir Ahmed, Secretary General of Hyderabad Government external affairs, dated 21 August, 1948
and addressed to the president, which reads as follows.
“The government of Hyderabad in reliance on article 35 paragraph 2, of the character of the

United Nations, request you to bring to the attention of the security council the grave dispute which
has arisen between Hyderabad and India, and which unless settled in accordance with international
law and justice, is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security. Hyderabad
has been exposed in recent months to violent intimidation, to threats of invasion, and to crippling
economic blockade which has inflicted cruel hardship upon the people of Hyderabad which is
intended coerce into renunciation of its independence. The Frontiers have been forcibly violated and
Hyderabad villages have been occupied by Indian troops. The action of India threatens the existence
of Hyderabad the peace of the India and entire Asiatic continent the principle abundant documentary
evidence substantiating the present complaint’.
Eagleton further writes that, ‘This was followed by a cablegram dated September 12, 1948, in
which the Government of Hyderabad, in view of the ‘officially proclaimed intention of India as
announced by its Prime Minister to invade Hyderabad’, asked that the complaint be put upon the
agenda at ‘the earliest possible date such as Wednesday, fifteenth September. On the following day
(September 13) a cablegram informed the Secretary General that ‘Hyderabad had been invaded’.
Moin Nawaz Jung presented the case in detail to the Security Council and urged for a quick action to
safeguard peace and integrity of Hyderabad. Due to certain technicalities, immediate action was not
taken by the Security Council and it was filled on the Agenda. After the ‘Police Action’ the case
became an obsolete issue. India’s white paper on Hyderabad published on 10 August 1948, asserted
that in accordance with the Stand Still Agreement Hyderabad’s foreign affairs had to be governed by
India. Regarding Hyderabad’s case at the United Nations, India considered it as domestic issue
between Hyderabad and India.
9
15.7: OPERATION POLO
By September, 1948, it became clear that all negotiations to make the Nizam accede to the
Union had failed. In the early hours of September 13, the Indian forces marched into Hyderabad. The
invasion of Hyderabad by the Indian army was called by different names. Popularly it was called
Police Action and the operation was called ‘Operation Polo’.
15.7.1: Pre-Police Action Conditions
The month of May 1948, witnessed serious deterioration in the Indo-Hyderabad affairs. While
Political contact was maintained between the two Governments and Mountbatten was active in
bringing about a settlement, tension along the borders increased. Economic sanctions to force
Hyderabad to agree to India’s demands had been applied both before and after the signing of the
Stand Still Agreement. Thereafter, Mountbatten sent a letter requesting the Nizam to repose faith in
the Indian Government. Within three days of the above breakdown of negotiations between India and
Hyderabad started. Indian intervention to forcibly merge Hyderabad became inevitable. Although, the
Nizam was hoping for Mountbatten’s successor, Mr. C.Rajagopala Chary, to be more sympathetic to
the cause of Hyderabad, his hopes proved to be illusionary. This was chiefly because the issue of
Hyderabad was being directly handled by the then Home Minister, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, and not the
Prime Minister or the Governor-General. Patel, however, was strongly advocating a swift armed
intervention in Hyderabad. Nehru had his reservations on such a strategy for two reasons-one, he was
concerned at the possibility of communal riots in other parts of India. Second, he was equally
concerned about the international impact India’s intervention in Hyderabad’s might have. Nehru was
not prepared to undertake such a drastic action on Hyderabad.
15.7.2: Military Preparations
The period of independent Hyderabad was a period of great turmoil and crises. By the end of
August 1948, relations between India and Hyderabad deteriorated and became critical. Both sides
prepared for final call.
15.7.2.1: Hyderabadi Military
The Nizam was in a weak position as his army numbered only 24,000 men, of whom only
some 6,000 were fully trained and equipped.These included Arabs, Rohillas, North Indian Muslims
and Pathans. The State Army consisted of three armored regiments, a horse cavalry regiment, 11
infantry battalions and artillery. These were supplemented by irregular units with horse cavalry, four
infantry battalions (termed as the Saraf-e-khas, Paigah, Arab and Refugee) and a garrison
battalion.This army was commanded by Major General El Edroos, an Arab.
10
In addition to these, there were about 200,000 irregular militia called the Razakars under the
command of civilian leader Kasim Razvi. A quarter of these were armed with modern small firearms,
while the rest were predominantly armed with muzzle-loaders and swords.
15.7.2.2: Indian Army
On receiving directions from the Government to seize and annex Hyderabad, the Indian army
came up with the Goddard Plan. The plan envisaged two main thrusts – from Vijayawada in the East
and Solapur in the West – while smaller units pinned down the Hyderabadi army along the border.
Overall command was placed in the hands of Lt.Gen. Rajendrasinghji, DSO.
The attack from Solapur was led by Major General Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri and was
composed of four task forces:
1. Strike Force comprising a mix of fast moving infantry, cavalry and light artillery,
2. Smash Force consisting of predominantly armoured units and artillery,
3. Kill Force composed of infantry and engineering units.
4. Vir Force which comprised infantry, anti-tank and engineering units.
The attack from Vijayawada was led by Major General Ajit Rudra and comprised the 2/5
Gurkha Rifles, one squadron of the 17th (Poona) Horse, and a troop from the 19th Field Battery along
with engineering and ancillary units. In addition, four infantry battalions were to neutralize and
protect lines of communication. Two squadrons of Hawker Tempest aircraft were prepared for air
support from the Pune base.
The Specialty of J N Chowdary who has taken the responsibility of ruling Hyderabad state on
th
18 September 1948 was that he had worked in the British army at Secunderabad Bison division,
which was the largest military station in India. Because of that he has the complete understanding and
estimation of the strengths and military affairs of the Nizam’s state and that way in 1948 he succeeded
in achieving the victory on Nizam by the Operation Polo.
15.8: THE SURRENDER OF NIZAM
Operation Polo referred to as ‘Police Action’ was the five day long military action that the
Indian Union took against the state of Hyderabad. The battle between India and Hyderabad began on
13th September 1948 and end on 18th September 1948. On September 17th .1948 the Ministry of Laik
Ali has resigned and power was handed over to the Nizam. The Nizam sent a message through
Munshi to the Indian Government that he had ordered a ceasefire and the disbandment of the
Razakars. On the same day, the Nizam in a broad cast to the people declared that he had not only
ordered ceasefire but also gave instructions for the withdrawal of Hyderabad case from the UNO.
Major General J.N.Choudary took charge as the Military Governor of Hyderabad State. He continued
11
to carry on the administration,M.K.Vellodi,ICS, was made the Chief Minister, and the Nizam was
given the status of a Rajpramukh. Hyderabad State became a part of the Union of India.
1. Who was the Prime Minister at the time of Nizam surrender to Indian Union?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Who was the Governor General of India at the time of Indian Independence?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
15.9: SUMMARY
At the time of Partition in 1947, the princely states of India, who in principle had self-
Government within their own territories, were subject to subsidiary alliances with the British, giving
them control of their external relations. In the Indian Independence Act 1947 the British abandoned
all such alliances, leaving the states with the option of opting for full independence. However, by
1948 almost all had acceded to either India or Pakistan. One major exception was that of the
wealthiest and most powerful principality, Hyderabad, where the Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan, Asaf
Jah VII, a Muslim ruler who presided over a largely Hindu population, chose independence and hoped
to maintain this with an irregular army recruited from the Muslim aristocracy, known as the Razakars.
During the period from 15th August 1947 to September 1948, the Nizams Government printed its own
postal stamps bearing ‘Azad Hyderabad’.
In November 1947, Hyderabad signed a standstill agreement with the dominion of India,
continuing all previous arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in the state. However,
with the rise of militant Razakars, India found it necessary to station Indian troops and invaded the
state in September 1948 to compel the Nizam Subsequently, the Nizam signed an instrument of
accession, joining India.
15.10: MODEL ANSWER'S TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress Answers - I
12
1. Sardar Vallabhai Patel
2. Shoebullah Khan
Check Your Progress Answers - II
1. Mir Laik Ali

2. Lord Mountbatten
I. Answer the following questions in 30 lines each.
1. Critically examine the ‘Stand Still Agreement’.

2. Discuss about the ‘Operation Polo’.
3. Explain the case of Hyderabad before the Security Council.
II. Answer the following questions in 15 lines each.
1. Discuss briefly about the relations between Nizam and British.

2. Describe the violations of Stand Still Agreement.
3. Write a short note on Shoebullah Khan.
13.16: BOOKS FOR FURTHER READING
1. B.Kesavanarayana. : Modern Andhra and Telangana AD 1858-1956)

2. Vykuntam. Y. : Studies in Socio-Economic and Political History;
Hyderabad State, Hyderabad 2004
3. Vaikuntam. Y. : People’s Movements in the Princely States.
4. Vykuntam. Y. : State, Economy and Social Transformation:
Hyderabad State (1724-1948, Manohar, Newdelhi,2004.
5. Mir Laik Ali. : Tragedy of Hyderabad.
6. Menon. V.P. : Integration of Princely States , Hyderabad.
13

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B.A.

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF

Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

1.8 GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF TELANGANA

1.11 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Chandramouli, N : Rock Art of South India.

2.4 AGES IN PRE HISTORY

2.5 ROCK ART

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

2.7 Model Answers to Check your Progress

1. Chandramouli, N : Rock Art of South India

3.2.1 Archaeological Sources

3.2.2 Literary Sources

3.3 Origin and Chronology

3.4 Political Achievements

3.4.1 The Early Satavahanas

3.4.2 The Later Satavahanas

3.5 Administrative Features

3.6 Social Conditions

3.7 Economic Conditions

3.8 Cultural Conditions

3.8.1 Literary Developments

3.8.2 Art and Architecture

3.8.3 Religious Developments

3.9 Model Answers to Check Your Progress

3.10 Model Examination Questions

3.12 Further Readings

After studying this unit, you should be able to :

1. Know the Sources and Political achievements of the Satavahana rulers

The history of Satavahanas is known to us through Archaeological and Literary sources.

3.2.1 Archaeological Sources

Photo Captions (Left to Right)

Coins of Gautamiputrasatakarni and Yagnasri Satakarni

3.2.2 Literary Sources

The Malavikagnimitram of Kalidasa, Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva, Harsha Charitra of Bana

3.3 ORIGIN AND CHRONOLOGY

3.4. POLITICAL ACHIEVEMENTS

3.4.2 Later Satavahanas

Gautamiputra Satakarni (106-130 C.E)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS -I

3.5 ADMINISTRATIVE FEATURES

3.7 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

3.8.1 Literary Development

3.8.2 Art and Architecture

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS -II

Note : (a) Space is given below for writing your answer.

Check Your Progress Answers -I

Check Your Progress Answers -II

3.11 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.

II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.

1. Write a note on Satakarni-I rule

3.12 FURTHER READINGS

1. Satyanarayana : A study of the History and Culture of the Andhras

2. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L : The Age of Satavahanas

6.3: Rise of Kakatiyas

6.4: Political achievements of Sovereign Kakatiyas

6.5: Administrative System

6.5.1: Central Government

6.5.2: Provincial Administration

6.5.3: Village Administration

6.5.4: Military System – Nayamkara System

Eng-HIS&CULT TS Early Times To1948

Eng-HIS&CULT TS Early Times To1948