IPE-204 Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering Practical

Department of Industrial and Production Engineering
Lab Manual
IPE-204: Fundamental of Mechanical Engineering (Practical)
Credit Hour: 2.00
Bangladesh University of Textiles

92, Shaheed Tajuddin Ahmed Avenue, Tejgaon, Dhaka 1208
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Table of Contents
Contents Page No
List of Figures vii – ix
List of Tables x
General Guidelines xi
List of Experiments xii
Experiment No. 1: STUDY OF BOILER 01
1.1 Objectives 01
1.2 Introduction 01
1.3 Essentials of a Good Steam Boiler 01
1.4 Selection of a Steam Boiler 02
1.5 Important Terms for Steam Boilers 02
1.6 Classification of Steam Boilers 04
1.6.1 According to the contents in the tube 04
1.6.2 According to the position of Furnace 04
1.6.3 According to the axis of the shell 04
1.6.4 According to the number of tubes 05
1.6.5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam 05
1.6.6. According to the use 05
1.7 Working Principle of a Boiler 05
1.8. Cochran boiler 06
1.8.1 Working Principle 07
1.9 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler 07
1.10 Some Measures of interest 08
1.11 Assignments 09
Experiment No. 2: STUDY OF BOILER MOUNTINGS AND 10
ACCESSORIES
2.1 Objectives 10
2.2 Introduction 10
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2.3 Boiler Mountings 10
2.3.1 Water level indicator 11
2.3.2 Pressure Gauge 11
2.3.3 Safety Valves 12
2.3.3.1 Lever Safety Valve 12
2.3.3.2 Dead Weight Safety Valve 12
2.3.3.3 High Steam Low Water Safety Valve 13
2.3.3.4 Spring Loaded Safety Valve 14
2.3.4 Steam Stop Valve 14
2.3.5 Blow Off Cock 15
2.3.6 Feed Check Valve 15
2.3.7 Fusible Plug 15
2.4 Boiler Accessories 16
2.4.1 Feed Pump 17
2.4.2 Superheater 17
2.4.3 Economizer 18
2.4.4 Air Preheater 18
2.5 Assignments 19
Experiment No. 3: STUDY OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE 20
3.1 Objectives 20
3.2 Introduction 20
3.3 Comparison of Steam Engine and IC Engine 20
3.4 Classification of IC Engine 21
3.5 Main Components of IC Engine 22
3.5.1 Cylinder 23
3.5.2 Cylinder Head 23
3.5.3 Piston 24
3.5.4 Piston Rings 24
3.5.5 Connecting Rod 24
3.5.6 Crankshaft 25
3.5.7 Crank Case 25
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3.5.8 Flywheel 26
3.5.9 Gudgeon Pin 26
3.5.10 Spark Plug 26
3.5.10 Carburetor 27
3.5.11 Fuel Injector 27
3.6 Operations sequence in an IC Engine 28
3.7 The cooling system of the Internal Combustion engine 28
3.7.1 The necessity of cooling 28
3.7.2 Method of cooling: 28
3.8 Assignments 29
Experiment No. 4: STUDY OF PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINE 30
4.1 Objectives 30
4.2 Introduction 30
4.3 Working Principle of 4-Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine 30
4.3.1 Otto cycle 32
4.4 Working Principle of 4-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine 32
4.4.1 Diesel cycle 33
4.5 Assignments 34
Experiment No. 5: STUDY OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 35
5.1 Objectives 35
5.2 Introduction 35
5.3 Different Parts of a Centrifugal Pump 35
5.4 Types of Centrifugal Pumps 38
5.5 Working Principle 39
5.6 Application 39
5.7 Assignments 40
Experiment No. 6: STUDY OF A RECIPROCATING PUMP 41
6.1 Objectives 41
6.2 Introduction 41
6.3 Different Parts of a Reciprocating Pump 41
6.4 Reciprocating pump Types 43
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6.5 Working Principle of Reciprocating Pump 43
6.6 Application 44
6.7 Assignments 45
Experiment No. 7: STUDY OF STEAM TURBINE 46
7.1 Objectives 46
7.2 Introduction 46
7.3 Main Parts of a Steam Turbine 47
7.4 Working Principle of a Steam Turbine 49
7.5 Classification of Steam Turbines 49
7.6 Impulse Turbine 50
7.6.1 Main Components 50
7.6.2 Types 50
7.7 Reaction Turbine 51
7.7.1 Main Components 52
7.7.2 Types 52
7.8 Applications of Steam Turbine 53
7.9 Assignments 53
Experiment No. 8: STUDY OF AN AIR COMPRESSOR 54
8.1 Objectives 54
8.2 Introduction 54
8.3 Application 54
8.4 Classification 54
8.5 Technical Terms 55
8.6 Reciprocating Air Compressor 55
8.6.1 Construction 56
8.6.2 Types of Reciprocating Air Compressor 57
8.6.3 Working Principle of Reciprocating Air Compressor 57
8.6.4 Applications of Reciprocating Air Compressor 58
8.6.5 Advantages of Reciprocating Air Compressor 58
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8.6.6 Applications of Reciprocating Air Compressor 58
8.7 Assignments 59
Experiment No. 9: STUDY OF TENSILE TESTING USING UNIVERSAL 60
TESTING MACHINE
9.1 Objectives 60
9.2 Introduction 60
9.3 Universal testing machine for tension test 60
9.4 Test functions in universal testing machine 61
9.5 Tensile test 61
9.6 Stress-Strain diagram 61
9.7 Assignments 64
Experiment No. 10: STUDY OF DIFFERENT EQUIPMENT USED IN 65
FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT
10.1 Objectives 65
10.2 Fluid Flow Measurement Equipment 65
10.2.1 Hydraulic bench machine 65
10.2.2 Venturimeter 67
10.2.3 Notch 68
10.2.4 Measuring Scale 70
10.2.5 Reynolds Apparatus 70
10.2.6 Orifice Plate 71
10.2.7 Measuring Mug 72
10.8 Assignments 73
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List of Figures
Title Page No
Figure 1.1: Boiler 03
Figure 1.2: Working Principle of a boiler 06
Figure 1.3: Cochran Boiler 06
Figure 1.4: Babcock and Wilcox Boiler 08
Figure 2.1: Mountings and Accessories installed on a boiler 10
Figure 2.2: Water level indicator 11
Figure 2.3: Pressure Gauge 11
Figure 2.4: Level Safety Valve 12
Figure 2.5: Dead Weight Safety Valve 13
Figure 2.6: High Steam Low Water Safety Valve 13
Figure 2.7: Spring Loaded Safety Valve 14
Figure 2.8: Steam Stop Valve 14
Figure 2.9: Blow Off Cock 15
Figure 2.10: Feed Check Valve 16
Figure 2.11: Fusible Plug 16
Figure 2.12: Boiler Feed Pump 17
Figure 2.13 Super Heater 17
Figure 2.14: Economiser 18
Figure 3.1: Different parts of an IC Engine 22
Figure 3.2: Cylinder 23
Figure 3.3: Cylinder Head 23
Figure 3.4: Piston 24
Figure 3.5: Piston Rings 24
Figure 3.6: Connecting Rod 25
Figure 3.7: Crank Shaft 25
Figure 3.8: Flywheel 26
Figure 3.9: Gudgeon Pin 26
Figure 3.10: Spark Plug 27
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Figure 3.11: Carburetor 27
Figure 3.12: Fuel Injector 27
Figure 4.1: Working Principle of 4-Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine 30
Figure 4.2: P-V and T-S Diagram of Otto Cycle 32
Figure 4.3: Working Principle of 4-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine 32
Figure 4.4: P-V and T-S Diagram of Diesel Cycle 34
Figure 5.1: Different Parts of a Centrifugal Pump 35
Figure 5.2: Different types of Impeller 36
Figure 5.3: Body 36
Figure 5.4: Wear Ring 37
Figure 5.5: Working Principle of a Centrifugal Pump 39
Figure 6.1: Reciprocating Pump 41
Figure 6.2: Working Principle of Reciprocating Pump 44
Figure 7.1: Steam Turbine 46
Figure 7.2: Main Parts of a Steam Turbine 47
Figure 7.3: Working Principle of Impulse Turbine 51
Figure 7.4: Reaction Turbine 52
Figure 8.1: Reciprocating Air Compressor 56
Figure 8.2: Different parts of Reciprocating Air Compressor 56
Figure 8.3: Working Principle of Reciprocating Air Compressor 57
Figure 9.1: Universal Testing Machine 60
Figure 9.2: Stress-Strain Diagram for a Mild Steel 61
Figure 9.3: Stress-Strain Graph for four different Material 63
Figure 10.1: Hydraulic Bench Machine 66
Figure 10.2: Venturimeter 68
Figure 10.3: Rectangular Notch 68
Figure 10.4: Triangular Notch 69
Figure 10.5: Rectangular Notch 69
Figure 10.6: Stepped Notch 70
Figure 10.7: Measuring Scale 70
Figure 10.8: Reynolds Apparatus 71
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Figure 10.9: Orifice Plate 72
Figure 10.10: Measuring Mug 72
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List of Tables
Title Page No
Table I: General Guidelines xi
Table II: List of Experiments xii
Table 3.1: Comparison of Steam Engine and IC Engine 20
Table 9.1: Tensile Test Data 63
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General Guidelines
1. Students shall not be allowed to perform any experiment without apron and shoes.
2. Students must be prepared for the experiment prior to the class.
3. Report of an experiment must be submitted in the next class.
4. Viva for each experiment will be taken on the next day with the report.
5. A quiz will be taken on the experiments at the end of the semester.
6. Marks distribution:
Table I: Marks Distribution
Assessment Method
Bloom's Experiment Report &

Attendance Final
Taxonomy Performance Viva
Exam
Remember 2 2
Understand 2 2
Apply 4 4
Analyze 4 4
Evaluate 6 6
Create 2 2
Total 20 40 20 20
All Total 100
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List of Experiments
Table II: List of Experiments
Week Name of the Experiment
1 Study of Boiler
2 Study of Boiler Mountings and Accessories
3 Study of Internal Combustion Engine
4 Study of Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine
5 Study of a Centrifugal Pump
6 Study of a Reciprocating Pump
7 Study of Steam Turbine
8 Study of an Air Compressor
9 Study of Tensile Testing using Universal Testing Machine
10 Study of Different Equipment used in Fluid Flow Measurement
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Experiment No. 1
STUDY OF BOILER
1.1 Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are
i. To teach the students about the structure and application of boiler

ii. To provide the knowledge of working principle
iii. To introduce with the classification of the boiler
1.2 Introduction
A steam generator or boiler is, usually, a closed vessel made of steel. Its function is to transfer the
heat produced by the combustion of fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous) to water, and ultimately to
generate steam. The steam produced may be supplied:
1. To an external combustion engine, i.e. steam engines and turbines
2. At low pressures for industrial process work in cotton mills, sugar factories, breweries,
etc., and
3. For producing hot water, which can be used for heating installations at much lower
pressures.
1.3 Essentials of a Good Steam Boiler
Following are the important essentials of a good steam boiler:
1.It should produce maximum quantity of steam with the minimum fuel consumption.
2. It should be economical to install and should require little attention during operation.
3. It should rapidly meet the fluctuation of load.
4. It should be capable of quick starting.
5. It should be light in weight.
6. It should occupy a small space.
7. The joints should be few and accessible for inspection.
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8. The mud and other deposits should not collect on the heating plates.
9. The refractory material should be reduced to a minimum. But it should be sufficient to secure
easy ignition, and smokeless combustion of the fuel on reduced load.
10. The tubes should not accumulate soot or water deposits and should have a reasonable margin
of strength to allow for wear or corrosion.
11. The water and flue gas circuits should be designed to allow a maximum fluid velocity
without incurring heavy frictional losses
12. It should comply with safety regulations as laid down in the Boilers Act.
1.4 Selection of a Steam Boiler
The selection of type and size of a steam boiler depends upon the following factors:
1. The power required and the working pressure.
2.The rate at which steam is to be generated.
3.The geographical position of the powerhouse.
4.The fuel and water available.
5.The type of fuel to be used.
6.The probable permanency of the station.
7.The probable load factor.
1.5 Important Terms for Steam Boilers
Though there are many terms used in steam boilers, yet the following are important from the
subject point of view:
1. Boiler shell: It is made up of steel plates bent into cylindrical form and riveted or welded
together. The ends of the shell are closed by means of end plates. A boiler shell should have
sufficient capacity to contain water and steam.
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2. Combustion chamber: It is the space, generally below the boiler shell, meant for burning fuel
in order to produce steam from the water contained in the shell.
3. Grate: It is a platform, in the combustion chamber, upon which fuel (coal or wood) is burnt.
The grate, generally, consists of cast iron bars which are spaced apart so that air (required for
combustion) can pass through them. The surface area of the grate, over which the fire takes place,
is called grate surface.
4. Furnace: It is the space, above the grate and, below the boiler shell, in which the fuel is actually
burnt. The furnace is also called Fire box.
5. Heating surface: It is that part of boiler surface, which is exposed to the fire (or hot gases from
the fire).
6. Mountings: These are the fittings which are mounted on the boiler for its proper functioning.
They include water level indicator, pressure gauge, safety valve etc. It may be noted that a boiler
cannot function safely without the mountings.
7. Accessories: These are the devices, which form an integral part of a boiler, but are not mounted
on it. They include superheater, economizer, feed pump etc. It may be noted that the accessories
help in controlling and running the boiler efficiently.
Figure 1.1: Boiler
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1.6 Classification of Steam Boilers
1.6.1 According to the contents in the tube
The steam boilers, according to the contents in the tube may be classified as :(a) Fire tube or smoke
tube boiler, and (b) Water tube boiler.
In fire tube steam boilers, the flames and hot gases, produced by the combustion of fuel, pass
through the tubes (called multi-tubes) which are surrounded by water. The heat is conducted
through the walls of the tubes from the hot gases to the surrounding water. Examples of fire tube
boilers are Simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler. Cornish boiler. Scotch marine
boiler, Locomotive boiler, and Velcon boiler.
In water tube steam boilers, the water is contained inside the tubes (called water tubes) which are
surrounded by flames and hot gases from outside. Examples of water tube boilers are Babcock and
Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, La-Mont boiler, Benson boiler, Yarrow boiler and Loeffler boiler.
1.6.2 According to the position of Furnace
The steam boilers, according to the position of the furnace are classified as (a) Internally fired
boilers, and (b) Externally tired boilers
In infernally fired steam boilers, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Most of the tire tube
steam boilers are internally tired.
In externally fired steam boilers, the furnace is arranged underneath in a brick-work setting. Water
tube steam boilers are always externally fired.
1.6.3 According to the axis of the shell
The steam boilers, according to the axis of the shell, may be classified as (a) Vertical boilers, and
(b) Horizontal boilers.
In vertical steam boilers, the axis of the shell is vertical. Simple vertical boiler and Cochran boiler
are vertical boilers.
In horizontal steam boilers, the axis of the shell is horizontal. Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler
and Babcock and Wilcox boiler are horizontal boilers.
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1.6.4 According to the number of tubes
The steam boilers, according to the number of tubes, may be classified as:
(a) Single tube boilers and (b) Multitubular boilers.
In single tube steam boilers, there is only one fire tube or water tube. Simple vertical boiler and
Cornish boiler are single tube boilers.
In multitubular steam boilers, there are two or more fire tubes or water tubes. Lancashire boiler,
Locomotive boiler, Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler are multitubular boilers.
1.6.5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam
The steam boilers, according to the method of circulation of water and steam, may be classified
as: (a) Natural circulation boilers, and (b) Forced circulation boilers.
In natural circulation steam boilers, the circulation of water is by natural convection currents,
which are setup during the heating of water. In most of the steam boilers, there is a natural
circulation of water.
In forced circulation steam boilers, there is a forced circulation of water by a centrifugal pump
driven by some external power. Use of forced circulation is made in high pressure boilers such as
La-Mont boiler, Benson boiler, Loeffler boiler and Velcon boiler.
1.6.6. According to the use
The steam boilers, according to their use, may be classified as (a) Stationary boilers, and (8) Mobile
boilers.
The stationary steam boilers are used in power plants, and in industrial process work. These are
called stationary because they do not move from one place to another. The mobile steam boilers
are those which move from one place to another. These boilers are locomotive and marine boilers.
1.7 Working Principle of a Boiler
In a boiler, the heat energy of the flue gases transfer to the water through convection. The fuel is
burnt in the furnace which produces flue gases. These flue gases pass over the water containing in
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shell or tube according to the type of boiler. The heat of the flue gases transfer to the water and
convert it into steam. This is the basic principle of boiler.
Figure 1.2: Working Principle of a boiler
1.8. Cochran boiler
Cochran Boiler is a simple fire tube boiler with multiple fire tubes. It is a modification of a simple
vertical boiler. In the Cochran boiler, the heating surface is replaced with multiple fire tubes that’s
why it is the modification of Simple Vertical Boiler. Cochran boiler has greater efficiency
comparatively Simple vertical boiler.
Cochran boiler is a fire tube boiler (Fire inside the boiler and water surrounding to them) in which
coal or gases as a working fluid is used, for generating the steam and that steam further used for
several purposes
Figure 1.3: Cochran Boiler
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1.8.1 Working Principle
• Working of the Cochran boiler is from the grate the fuel gases or coal are used and that is
inserted.
• From the firing door, the fire is provided to start the burning of fuel.
• The burning of fuel generates the hot flue gases, and it comes to the combustion chamber.
Here almost temperature is maximum.
• We know this is a fire tube boiler. In the tube, hot flue gases are passing, and water is
surrounded
• So, the hot flue gases are passing through tubes. The hotness of the fire tube starts heating
the surrounded water. The water starts evaporating and at some point, it becomes steam.
• Now the steam comes at the top of the boiler.
• With the use of an Anti-priming pipe, the complete steam is extracted from the boiler and
here the steam stop valve is placed which works is to transfer the steam to other places
such as the turbine and so on.
• When the fuel is burned completely, and it becomes ash it comes down to the ash pit and
the smoke is released to the chimney and to the atmosphere.
1.9 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler is a simple water tube boiler in which water is flowing in the tube and
hot gases surround them.
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler is a horizontal type drum axis, stationary, high pressure, natural
circulation, solid fuel-fired water tube boiler in which coal is burned to heat the water for changing
the phase into steam and later that steam is used for power generation.
• The working is, first the fuel (coal) is placed at the grate, and water is supplied to the drum.
Now from the fire door ‘fire’ is supplied, to start burning of coal. The start burning of coal
produces hot gases.
• Water from the long pipe as you can see in the diagram (down take a header) is coming
and impurities parts get into the mud collector and water is moving to the tubes.
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• The temperature of the flue gases increasing so water starts gets heating.
• Here the baffle plate is placed to divert the flue gases direction to another side for an equal
amount of flue gases for heating.
Figure 1.4: Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
• The water starts evaporating in the tube as increases the temperatures.

• The steam formed will go up by short pipes to the drum and to the superheater to form
completely dry steam and during these process, circulation of water is on. The smoke
released by the damper to the chimney and to the atmosphere.
1.10 Some Measures of interest
Boiler Efficiency: Boiler efficiency is the ratio of the quantity of heat utilized actually by the water
and steam to the quantity of heat supplied, i.e.,
Boiler efficiency = Heat actually absorbed by the water and steam / quantity of heat supplied
Boiler Capacity: Boiler capacity is defined as the amount of steam a particular boiler can supply
per hour. Usually expressed in kg/hr or tons/hr
Boiler Pressure: The designated operating pressure of a boiler at which it can safely deliver the
steam at its rated capacity.
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1.11 Assignments
1. What are the differences between a fire tube boiler and water tube boiler?
2. State the advantage and disadvantages of a fire tube boiler and water tube boiler?
3. What are the application of boilers in textile industry?
4. What are the safety precautions of boiler?
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Experiment No. 2
STUDY OF BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
2.1 Objectives
The Objectives of this experiment are
i. To teach students the difference of boiler mountings and accessories

ii. To provide students with construction and purpose of boiler mountings and
accessories
2.2 Introduction
Boiler mountings and accessories are required for the proper and satisfactory functioning of the
steam boilers.
Figure 2.1: Mountings and Accessories installed on a boiler
2.3 Boiler Mountings
These are the fittings, which are mounted on the boiler for its proper and safe functioning. Though
there are many types of boiler mountings, yet the following are important from the subject point
of view:
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1. Water level indicator; 2. Pressure gauge; 3. Safety valves; 4. Stop valve; 5. Blow off cock; 6.
Feed check valve and 7. Fusible plug
2.3.1 Water level indicator
• It is fitted in front of the boiler and generally present two in number.

• It is used to indicate the water level inside the boiler. It shows the instantaneous level of
water that is present inside the steam boiler which is necessary for its proper working.
Figure 2.2: Water level indicator
2.3.2 Pressure Gauge
• It is also present in front of the boiler.

• It is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the boiler. is connected to the steam
space by a siphon tube.
Figure 2.3: Pressure Gauge

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• The pressure gauges generally used are of Bourdon type
2.3.3 Safety Valves
These are the devices attached to the steam chest for preventing explosions due to excessive
internal pressure of steam. A steam boiler is, usually, provided with two safety valves. These are
directly placed on the boiler. In brief, the function of a safety valve is to blow off the steam when
the pressure of steam inside the boiler exceeds the working pressure.
2.3.3.1 Lever Safety Valve
A lever safety valve used on steam boilers is shown in Figure 2.4. It serves the purpose of
maintaining constant safe pressure inside the steam boiler. If the pressure inside the boiler exceeds
the designed limit, the valve lifts from its seat and blows off the steam pressure automatically.
Figure 2.4: Level Safety Valve
2.3.3.2 Dead Weight Safety Valve
The Dead Weight safety valve consists of a valve V which is made of gun metal to prevent rusting.
It rests on the gun metal seat S and is fixed to the top of a vertical steam pipe P. The pipe has a
flange F at the bottom for fixing at the top of the boiler shell.
A weight carrier C is suspended from the top of the boiler. It carries cast iron rings (i.e., weight
W). the total weight must be sufficient to the keep the valve on its seat against the normal working
pressure.
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Figure 2.5: Dead Weight Safety Valve
2.3.3.3 High Steam Low Water Safety Valve
These valves are placed at the top of Cornish and Lancashire boilers only. It is a combination of
two valves, one of which is the lever safety valve which blows off steam when the working
pressure of steam exceeds. The second valve operates by blowing off the steam when the water
level becomes too low.
Figure 2.6: High Steam Low Water Safety Valve
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2.3.3.4 Spring Loaded Safety Valve
A spring-loaded safety valve is manly used for locomotives and marine boilers. It is loaded with
spring instead of weights. The spring is made of round or square spring steel rod in helical form.
The spring may be in tension or compression, as the steam pressure acts along the axis of the
spring. In actual practice, the spring is placed in compression.
Figure 2.7: Spring Loaded Safety Valve
2.3.4 Steam Stop Valve
• It is usually fitted on the highest part of the boiler with the help of a flange.
• The main function of the stop valve is
 To control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main steam pipe.
 To completely shut off the steam supply when required.
Figure 2.8: Steam Stop Valve
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2.3.5 Blow Off Cock
• It is fitted at the bottom of the boiler drum.

• The functions of blow-off Valve are
 To empty the boiler whenever required.
 To discharge the scale, mud and sediments which gets collected at the bottom of
the boiler.
Figure 2.9: Blow Off Cock
2.3.6 Feed Check Valve
• It is non-return valve and fitted to a screwed spindle to regulate the lift.

• It is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water level of the boiler. A boiler must
have its spindle lifted before the pump is started.
• It regulates the supply of water which is pumped into the boiler by feed pump
2.3.7 Fusible Plug
• It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace or firebox.

• Its function is to extinguish fire in the furnace when the water level in the boiler falls to
an unsafe limit. This avoids the explosion that may take place because of the overheating
of the furnace plate.
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Figure 2.10: Feed Check Valve
Figure 2.11: Fusible Plug
2.4 Boiler Accessories
These are the devices which are used as integral parts of a boiler and help in running efficiently.
Though there are many types of boiler accessories, yet the following are important from the subject
point of view:
1. Feet pump 2. Superheater 3. Economizer and 4. Air preheater.
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2.4.1 Feed Pump
The pressure of steam inside a boiler is high. So, the pressure of feed water has to be increased
proportionately before it is made to enter the boiler. Generally, the pressure of feed water is 20%
more than that in the boiler. Feed pump delivers feed water at a pressure higher than that in the
boiler. There are two types of feed pumps.
• Reciprocating feed pump

• Rotary feed pump
Figure 2.12: Boiler Feed Pump
2.4.2 Superheater
• It is placed in the path of hot flue gases from the furnace.

• A superheater is an important accessory used in the boiler. Its main function is to increase
the temperature of saturated steam without raising its pressure.
Figure 2.13 Super Heater
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2.4.3 Economizer
• An economiser is a device used to heat feed water by utilising the heat in the exhaust
flue gases before leaving through the chimney.
• As the name indicates, the economiser improves the economy of the steam boiler.
Figure 2.14: Economiser
2.4.4 Air Preheater
• An air preheater is used to recover heat from the exhaust flue gases.
• It is installed between the economiser and the chimney.
• The air required for the purpose of combustion is drawn through the air preheater where its
temperature is raised. It is then passed through ducts to the furnace.
• The air is passed through the tubes of the heater internally while the hot flue gases are
passed over the outside of the tubes.
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2.5 Assignments
1. What are the difference between boiler mountings and boiler accessories?
2. What are the differences between lever safety valve and dead weight safety valve?
3. Why Air preheater is used in high pressure boiler?
4. Why the safety valves are needed in a boiler?
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Experiment No. 3
STUDY OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
3.1 Objectives
• To introduce students with different parts of an IC Engine

• To teach the classification, working principle and application of IC Engine
3.2 Introduction
The internal combustion engines (briefly written as I.C. engines) are those nines in which the
combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder. These are petrol diesel, and gas engines.
In steam engines or steam turbines that the fuel, fed into the cylinder, is in the form of steam which
is already heated (or superheated), and is ready for working in the combustion cycle of the engine.
But, in case of internal combustion engines, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder by a spark and produces very high temperature as compared to steam engines.
3.3 Comparison of Steam Engine and IC Engine
Table 3.1: Comparison of Steam Engine and IC Engine
Steam Engine IC Engine

1. The combustion of fuel takes place outside 1. The combustion of fuel takes place inside
the engine cylinder (i.e. in a boiler) the engine cylinder.
2. Since combustion of fuel takes place 2. Since combustion of fuel takes place inside
outside the engine cylinder, therefore these the engine cylinder, these engines are very
engines are smooth and silent running. noisy.
3. The working pressure and temperature 3. The working pressure and temperature
inside the engine cylinder is low. inside the cylinder is very high.
4. Because of low pressure and temperature, 4. Because of very high pressure and
ordinary alloys are used for the manufacture temperature, special alloys are used for the
of engine cylinder and its parts. manufacture of engine cylinder and its parts.
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5. A steam engine requires a boiler and other 5. An I.C. engine does not require a boiler or
components to transfer energy. Thus, it is other components. Thus, it is light and
heavy and cumbersome. compact.
6. The steam engines have efficiency about 6. The I.C. engines have efficiency about 35-
15-20% 40%
7. It cannot be started instantaneously. 7. It can be started instantaneously.
3.4 Classification of IC Engine
The internal combustion engines may be classified in many ways, but the following are important
from the subject point of view:
1. According to the type of fuel used
(a) Petrol engines, (b) Diesel engines or oil engines, and (c) Gas engines.
2 According to the method of igniting the fuel
(a) Spark ignition engines (briefly written as SI. engines), (b) Compression ignition
engines (briefly written as C.I. engines), and (c) Hot spot ignition engines.
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle
(a) Four stroke cycle engines, and (b) Two stroke cycle engines.
4. According to the cycle of operation
(a) Otto cycle (also known as constant volume cycle) engines, (b) Diesel cycle (also known as
constant pressure cycle) engines, and (c) Dual combustion cycle (also known as semi-diesel cycle)
engines.
5. According to the speed of the engine
(a) Slow speed engines, (b) Medium speed engines, and (c) High speed engines.
6. According to the cooling system
(a) Air-cooled engines, (b) Water-cooled engines, and (c) Evaporative cooling engines.
21
7. According to the method of fuel injection
(a) Carburetor engines, (b) Air injection engines, and (c) Airless or solid injection engines.
8. According to the number of cylinders
(a) Single cylinder engines, and (b) Multi-cylinder engines.
9. According to the arrangement of cylinders
(a) Vertical engines. (b) Horizontal engine-c. (c) Radial engines, (d) In-line multi-cylinder engines,
(e)V-type multi-cylinder engines, W Opposite-cylinder engines, and (g) Opposite- piston engines.
10. According to the valve mechanism
(a) Overhead valve engines, and (b) Side valve engines.
11. According to the method of governing
(a) Hit and miss governed engines, (h) Quantitatively governed engines, and (c) Qualitatively
governed engines.
3.5 Main Components of IC Engine
An I.C. engine consists of hundreds of different parts, which are important for its proper working.
Figure 3.1: Different parts of an IC Engine
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3.5.1 Cylinder
Cylinder is the main body of IC engine. Cylinder is a part in which the intake of fuel, compression
of fuel and burning of fuel take place. The main function of cylinder is to guide the piston. It is in
direct contact with the products of combustion so it must be cooled. For cooling of cylinder, a
water jacket (for liquid cooling used in most of cars) or fin (for air cooling used in most of bikes)
are situated at the outer side of cylinder.
Figure 3.2: Cylinder
3.5.2 Cylinder Head
The top end of cylinder is closed by means of removable cylinder head. There are two holes or
ports at the cylinder head, one for intake of fuel and other for exhaust. Both the intake and exhaust
ports are closed by the two valves known as inlet and exhaust valve. The inlet valve, exhaust valve,
spark plug, injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder head. The main function of cylinder head is to
seal the cylinder block and not to permit entry and exit of gases on cover head valve engine.
Cylinder head is usually made by cast iron or aluminum. It is made by casting or forging and
usually in one piece.
Figure 3.3: Cylinder Head
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3.5.3 Piston
It is considered as the heart of an I.C. engine, whose main function is to transmit the force exerted
by the burning of charge to the connecting rod. The pistons are generally made of Al alloys which
are light in weight. They have good heat conducting property and also greater strength at higher
temperatures.
Figure 3.4: Piston
3.5.4 Piston Rings
These arc circular rings and made of special steel alloys which retain elastic properties even at
high temperatures. The piston rings are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the
Outer surface of the piston. Generally, there are two sets of rings mounted for the piston. The
function of the u p per rings is to provide airtight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into
the lower portion. Similarly, the function of the lower rings is to provide effective seal to prevent
leakage of the oil into the engine cylinder.
Figure 3.5: Piston Rings
3.5.5 Connecting Rod
Connecting rod connects the piston to crankshaft and transmits the motion and thrust of piston to
crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of crankshaft.
There are two ends of connecting rod one is known as big end and other as small end. Big end is
connected to the crankshaft and the small end is connected to the piston by use of piston pin.
24
Figure 3.6: Connecting Rod
3.5.6 Crankshaft
The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or thrust supplied by piston
to the connecting rod and converts the reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of
crankshaft. The crankshaft mounts in bearing so it can rotate freely. The shape and size of
crankshaft depends on the number and arrangement of cylinders. It is usually made by steel
forging, but some makers use special types of cast-iron. This shaft contains one or more eccentric
portions called crank That part of the crank, to which bigger end of the connecting rod is fitted, is
called crank pin.
Figure 3.7: Crank Shaft
3.5.7 Crank Case
It is a cast iron case, which holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an I.C. engine. It also serves as a
sump for the lubricating oil. The lower portion of the crank case is known as bed plate which is
fixed with the help of bolts.
25
3.5.8 Flywheel
Fly wheel is a rotating mass used as an energy storing device. A flywheel is secured on the
crankshaft. The main function of flywheel is to rotate the shaft during preparatory stroke. It also
makes crankshaft rotation more uniform. It is done by storing excess energy during the power
strokes, which is returned during other strokes.
Figure 3.8: Flywheel
3.5.9 Gudgeon Pin

These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted through the piston bosses and the small end bushes
or eyes to allow the connecting rods to swivel. It connects the piston to connecting rod. It is made
hollow for lightness. It is made of steel.
Figure 3.9: Gudgeon Pin
3.5.10 Spark Plug
This part is used in Spark Ignition Engine (SI Engine) only. The main function of a spark plug is
to deliver electric current from an ignition system to the combustion chamber. So, compressed
fuel/air mixture is ignited by an electric spark. A spark plug consists of a metal threaded shell
which is electrically isolated from a central electrode by a porcelain insulator. Spark plugs usually
require a voltage of 12,000–25,000V or more to produce spark properly.
26
Figure 3.10: Spark Plug
3.5.10 Carburetor
Carburetor is used for making an air and fuel mixture. It is replaced by EFI system. A proper
mixture is needed for proper combustion so that carburetor used. It mixes up the fuel and air.
Making a rich or lean mixture as requirement.
Figure 3.11: Carburetor
3.5.11 Fuel Injector
Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel into combustion chamber
at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder head. Fuel injection is a system for mixing
fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. It has become the primary fuel delivery system,
which is used in automotive petrol engines.
Figure 3.12: Fuel Injector
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3.6 Operations sequence in an IC Engine
Consider the following sequence of operation in a cycle, which is widely used.
1. Suction stroke
In this stroke, the fuel vapor in correct proportion, is supplied to the engine cylinder.
2. Compression stroke
In this stroke, the fuel vapor is compressed in the engine cylinder.
3. Expansion or working stroke
In this stroke, the fuel vapor is fired just before the compression is complete. It results in the sudden
rise of pressure, due to expansion of the combustion products in the engine cylinder. This sudden
rise of the pressure pushes the piston with a great force and rotates the crankshaft. The crankshaft,
in turn, drives the machine connected to it.
4. Exhaust stroke
In this stroke, the burnt gases (Or combustion products) are exhausted from the engine cylinder,
so as to make space available for the fresh fuel vapor.
3.7 The cooling system of the Internal Combustion engine:
3.7.1 The necessity of cooling
Cooling of I.C. Engine is necessary because of following ways-
• To prevent damage of engine parts due to high temperature.

• To prevent the breakdown of the lubricating system.
• To prevent overheating valves, its guide/ seats to prevent wear of valves.
• To prevent loss of strength of piston and other parts.
The purpose of the cooling system is to keep the engine at is efficient temperature (700– 900) at
all engine speed and operating condition.
3.7.2 Method of cooling:
It is classified as follows-
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1. Air cooling
In this system, the engine cylinder is cast with a no. of extended surface known as fines provided
around the surface of the cylinder. Atmospheric air flows through this fine and carried away the
heat generated from the cylinder into the atmospheric. This type of cooling is used in the
scooter/motorcycle etc.
2. Water Cooling
The water-cooling system is used in the engines of cars, buses, trucks etc. In this system, the water
is circulated through water jackets around each of the combustion chambers, cylinders, valve seats
and valve stems.
3.8 Assignments
1. What is the function of carburetor in SI Engine?
2. What are the differences between Water cooling and Air Cooling? Describe their Application?
3. Differentiate between Camshaft and Crankshaft?
4. Why lubrication is necessary in an IC Engine?
29
Experiment No. 4
STUDY OF PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINE
4.1 Objectives
• To expose the students with the construction and working principle of Petrol and
Diesel Engine
• To learn about the Application of Petrol and Diesel Engine
4.2 Introduction
The engine in which the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder is called IC
engine. It is more compact to occupy less space, more efficient, and portable. Two principal types
of reciprocating internal combustion engines are in general use: the Otto Cycle engine & the Diesel
engine. The inventor of Otto cycle engine was the German technician Nikolaus August Otto and
the Diesel engine was French-born German engineer Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel. Both Otto-
cycle and Diesel-cycle engines are manufactured in two-stroke and four-stroke cycle models.
4.3 Working Principle of 4-Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine
Figure 4.1: Working Principle of 4-Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine
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The four strokes of a petrol engine sucking fuel-air mixture (petrol mixed with proportionate
quantity of air in the carburetor known as charge) are described below:
1. Suction or charging stroke
In this stroke, the inlet valve opens, and charge is sucked into the cylinder as the piston moves
downward from top dead centre (T.D.C,) It continues till the piston reaches its bottom dead centre
(B.D.C.) as shown in Figure.
In this stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed, and the charge is compressed as the
piston moves upwards from B.D.C. to T.D.C. As a result of compression, the pressure and
temperature of the charge increases considerably (the actual values depend upon the compression
ratio). This completes one revolution of the crankshaft. The compression stroke is shown in Figure.
Shortly before the piston reaches T.D.C. (during compression stroke), the charge is ignited with
the help of a spark plug. It suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the products of
combustion but the volume, practically, remains constant. Due to the rise in pressure, the piston is
pushed down with a great force. The hot burnt gases expand due to high speed of the piston. During
this expansion, some of the heat energy produced is transformed into mechanical work. It may be
noted that during this working stroke, as shown in Figure both the valves are closed and piston
moves from T.D.C. to B.D.C.
4. Exhaust stroke
In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as piston moves from B.D.C. to T D. C. This movement
of the piston pushes out the products of combustion, from the engine cylinder and are exhausted
through the exhaust valve into the atmosphere, as shown in Figure completes the cycle, and the
engine cylinder is ready to suck the charge again.
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4.3.1 Otto cycle
It consists of two reversible adiabatic, two constant volume process. Heat is supplied during
process 2-3 at constant volume and heat is rejected during the process 4-1 at constant volume.
During adiabatic process 1- 2 and 3- 4, no heat is supplied or rejected.
Figure 4.2: P-V and T-S Diagram of Otto Cycle
4.4 Working Principle of 4-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine
It is also known as compression ignition engine because the ignition takes place due to the heat
produced in the engine cylinder at the end of compression stroke. It consists of three valves, inlet
and exhaust and a fuel injection valve in the following sequence of operation. The four strokes of
a diesel engine sucking pure air are described below:
Figure 4.3: Working Principle of 4-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine
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1. Suction or charging stroke
In this stroke, the inlet valve opens, and pure air is sucked into the cylinder as the piston moves
downwards from the top dead centre (TDC). It continues till the piston reaches its bottom dead
centre (BDC) as shown in Figure.
In this stroke, both the valves are closed, and the air is compressed as the piston moves upwards
from BDC to TDC. Asa result of compression, pressure and temperature of the air increases
considerably (the actual value depends upon the compression ratio). This completes one revolution
of the crank shaft. The compression stroke is shown in Figure.
Shortly before the piston reaches the TDC (during the compression stroke), fuel oil is injected in
the form of very line spray into the engine cylinder, through the nozzle, known as fuel injection
valve. At this moment, temperature of the compressed air is sufficiently high to ignite the fuel. It
suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the products of combustion. The fuel oil is
continuously injected for a fraction of the revolution. The fuel oil is assumed to be burnt at constant
pressure. Due to increased pressure, the piston is pushed down with a great force. The hot burnt
gases expand due to high speed of the piston. During this expansion, some of the heat energy is
transformed into mechanical work. it may be noted that during this working stroke, both the valves
are closed, and the piston moves from TDC to BDC.
4. Exhaust stroke
In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as the piston moves from BDC to TDC. This movement
of the piston pushes out the products of combustion from the engine cylinder through the exhaust
valve into the atmosphere. This completes the cycle, and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the
fresh air again.
4.4.1 Diesel cycle
It consists of constant pressure and a constant volume, and two adiabatic processes. Heat is
supplied during constant pressure process 2-3 and is rejected during constant volume process 4-1.
During adiabatic process 1-2 and 3-4, no heat is supplied or rejected.
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Figure 4.4: P-V and T-S Diagram of Diesel Cycle
4.5 Assignments
1. Write down the differences between Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine?
2. Discuss about the Ignition system of Petrol and Diesel Engine?
3. Draw the valve timing diagram for Petrol and Diesel engine.
4. Write doen the functions of spark plug and fuel injector?
34
Experiment No. 5
STUDY OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
5.1 Objectives
• To expose the students with the construction and working principle of Centrifugal pump
• To learn about the Application of Centrifugal pump
5.2 Introduction
The hydraulic machine which converts the mechanical energy into Hydraulic energy is called
Pumps. The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy, If the mechanical energy is
converted into pressure energy by means of a centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic
machine is called a Centrifugal pump. These are the most popular and commonly used type of
pumps for the transfer of fluids from low level to high level. It is used in places like agriculture,
municipal (water and wastewater plants), industrial, power generation plants, petroleum, mining,
chemical, pharmaceutical and many others.
When a certain mass of liquid is made to rotate by an external source, it is thrown away from the
centrifugal axis of rotation and a head is impressed which enables it to rise to a higher level.
Centrifugal Pumps can be used for viscous and non-viscous liquids and has higher efficiency.
5.3 Different Parts of a Centrifugal Pump
Figure 5.1: Different Parts of a Centrifugal Pump
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1. Impeller
An impeller is a rotating component of a centrifugal pump which transfers energy from the motor
that drives the pump to the fluid being pumped by accelerating the fluid outwards from the center
of rotation.
Figure 5.2: Different types of Impeller
2. Body/Casing
Pump body, which is also known as a casing. It is the largest component of the pump. It can be
fabricated or made for the casting. Body hosts all other components of the pump. It will also
provide the passage for fluid. The volute design of the body helps in increasing the pressure head
by converting energy. The Casing that receives the fluid being pumped by the impeller, slowing
down the fluid’s rate of flow. There are two types of pump casings, volutes and diffusers. A
volute is a curved funnel that increases in area as it approaches the discharge port.
Figure 5.3: Body
36
3. Delivery Pipe
It is a pipe which is connected at its lower end to the outlet of the pump, and it delivers the liquid
to the required height. Near the outlet of the pump on the delivery pipe, a valve is provided which
controls the flow from the pump into delivery pipe.
4. Suction Pipe with Foot Valve and Strainer
Suction pipe is connected with the inlet of the impeller and the other end is dipped into the sump
of water. At the water end, it consists of foot value and strainer. The foot valve is a one- way valve
that opens in the upward direction. The strainer is used to filter the unwanted particle present in
the water to prevent the centrifugal pump from blockage.
5. Wear Ring
The wear ring’s function is to protect costly impeller and body from damage due to high speed.
Figure 5.4: Wear Ring
6. Seals
Mechanical Seals and Gland Packings act as a method of containing fluid within the pump. They
are installed within the ‘seal area’ or ‘stuffing box’. Gland packing is a rope-like material cut into
rings to wrap around the shaft sleeve. A mechanical seal allows the rotating shaft to pass through
a stationary housing. It allows the rotating shaft to ensure the ‘wet’ area of the pump, without
allowing fluid to escape.
Gasket: Gaskets are a sealing element used where parts requiring sealing are in contact with each
other and do not perform a relative movement.
37
O-Ring Seal: O-Ring closes a gap between two surfaces so liquids and gases cannot pass through
in any direction. It changes its shapes when pressure is applied in the system.
7. Bearings:
The Bearing reduces friction on moving parts within the pump and supports the shaft to rotate
smoothly. They are commonly found in all pump types.
5.4 Types of Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal Pumps are classified into many types based on many categories, they are
• Based on number of impellers in the pump,

 Single stage pump
 Two-stage pump
 Multi-stage pump
• Based on orientation of case-split,
 Axial split Pump
 Radial split Pump
• Based on type of impeller design,
 Single suction Pump
 Double suction Pump
• Based on the basis compliance with industry standards,
 ANSI pump – (American National Standards Institute)
 API pump – (American Petroleum Institute)
 DIN pump – DIN 24256 specifications
 ISO pump – ISO 2858, 5199 specifications
 Nuclear pump – ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
specifications
• Based on type of volute
 Single volute Pump
 Double volute Pump
• Based on where the bearing support is,
 Overhung
38
 Between-bearing
• Based on shaft orientation
 Horizontal Pump
 Vertical Pump
5.5 Working Principle
The first step in the operation of a centrifugal pump is priming. It is the operation in which suction
pipe, casing of pump and portion of delivery tube are completely filled with the liquid, which is to
be pumped, so that all the air from this portion of the sump is driven out and no air pocket is left.
If there is any air pocket, it results in no delivery of liquid from pump. The necessity of priming a
centrifugal pump is due to the fact that the pressure generated in a centrifugal pump impeller is
directly proportional to the density of fluid. After the pump is primed, electric motor started to
rotate the impeller. Due to rotation impeller rotation, produces a vortex which imparts a centrifugal
head to liquid. Then the liquid starts to flow in an outward radial direction thereby leaving the
vanes of impeller. At the center of impeller, a partial vacuum is created, causes the liquid from
sump or well to rush through suction pipe to the eye of impeller.
Figure 5.5: Working Principle of a Centrifugal Pump
5.6 Application
• Oil & Energy - pumping crude oil, slurry, mud; used by refineries, power generation plants
39
• Industrial & Fire Protection Industry - Heating and ventilation, boiler feed applications, air
conditioning, pressure boosting, fire protection sprinkler systems.
• Waste Management, Agriculture & Manufacturing - Wastewater processing plants,
municipal industry, drainage, gas processing, irrigation, and flood protection
• Pharmaceutical, Chemical & Food Industries - paints, hydrocarbons, petro-chemical,
cellulose, sugar refining, food and beverage production
• Various industries (Manufacturing, Industrial, Chemicals, Pharmaceutical, Food
Production, Aerospace etc.) - for the purposes of cryogenics and refrigerants
5.7 Assignments
1. What is Priming? Why is it necessary?
2. What do you mean by cavitation? How can it be reduced?
3. What are different losses formed in Centrifugal pump?
4. Describe different kinds of head of Centrifugal pump.
40
Experiment No. 6
STUDY OF A RECIPROCATING PUMP
6.1 Objectives
• To expose the students with the construction and working principle of Reciprocating
pump
• To learn about the Application of Reciprocating pump
6.2 Introduction
Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump where certain volume of liquid is collected
in enclosed volume and is discharged using pressure to the required application. Reciprocating
pumps are more suitable for low volumes of flow at high pressures.
Reciprocating Pump is a Positive Displacement type pump that works on the principle of
movement of the piston in forwarding and backward directions whereas the Centrifugal pump uses
the kinetic energy of the impeller to supply the liquid from one place to another place
6.3 Different Parts of a Reciprocating Pump
Figure 6.1: Reciprocating Pump
41
Water Sump
It is the source of water. From the sump, water is to be transported to the delivery pipes by the
usage of the piston.
Strainer
It acts as a mesh that can screen all the dirt, dust particles, etc. from the sump. If there is no strainer,
then the dirt or dust also enters into the cylinder which can jam the region and affects the working
of the pump.
Suction Pipe
The main function of the suction pipe is to collect the water from the sump and send it to the
cylinder via a suction valve. The suction pipe connects the water sump and the cylinder.
Suction Valve
It is a non-return valve which means it can take the fluid from the suction pipe and send it to the
cylinder but cannot reverse the water back to it. In the sense, the flow is unidirectional. This valve
opens only during the suction of fluid and closes when there is a discharge of fluid to outside.
Cylinder
It is a hollow cylinder made of cast iron or steel alloy and it consists of the arrangement of piston
and piston rod.
Piston and Piston rod
For suction, the piston moves back inside the cylinder and for discharging of fluid, the piston
moves in the forward direction. The Piston rod helps the piston to move in a linear direction i.e.
either the forward or the backward directions.
Crank and Connecting rod
For rotation, the crank is connected to the power source like engine, motor, etc. whereas the
connecting rod acts as an intermediate between the crank and piston for the conversion of rotary
motion into linear motion.
Delivery Pipe
42
The function of the delivery pipe is to deliver the water to the desired location from the cylinder.
Delivery valve
Similar to the suction valve, a delivery valve is also a Non-return valve. During suction, the
delivery valve closes because the suction valve is in opening condition and during Discharge, the
suction valve is closed, and the delivery valve Is opened to transfer the fluid.
6.4 Reciprocating pump Types
A Reciprocating Pump can be categorized into three Types:
• According to Mechanism:
 Single-acting
 Double-acting Reciprocating Pump
• According to air vessel:
 Pump with air vessel and
 Pump without air vessel.
• According to Number of cylinders
 Single cylinder
 Double cylinder and
 Triple cylinder pump
6.5 Working Principle of Reciprocating Pump
• This type of pump consists of a piston that moves forward and backward in a close-fitting
cylinder. The movement of the piston is obtained by connecting the piston rod to crank by
means of a connecting rod. The crank is rotated by means of an electric motor.
• Suction and Delivery Pipes with a suction valve and a delivery valve are connected to the
cylinder. The suction and delivery valves are non-return valves, which allow the water to
flow in one direction only.
• The suction valve allows water from the suction pipe to the cylinder and where the delivery
valve allows water from the cylinder to the delivery pipe only.
• When the crank starts rotating, the piston moves in the cylinder.
43
Figure 6.2: Working Principle of Reciprocating Pump
• From the above diagram, when a crank is at A, the piston is at the extreme left position in
the cylinder. As the crank is rotating from A to C, (θ=0º to 180º) the piston is moving
towards the right in the cylinder.
• The movement of the piston towards the right creates a partial vacuum in the cylinder. But
on the surface of the liquid in the sump atmospheric pressure is acting, which is more than
the pressure inside the cylinder.
• Thus, the liquid is forced into the suction pipe from the sump. This liquid opens the suction
valve and enters into the cylinder.
• When a crank is rotating from C to A (θ=180º to 360º), the piston from the extreme right
position starts moving toward left in the cylinder.
• The movement of the piston towards the left increases the pressure of the liquid inside the
cylinder more than the atmospheric pressure.
• Hence the Suction valve closes, and the delivery valve opens. The liquid is forced into the
delivery pipe and is raised to a Required Height.
6.6 Application
Reciprocating pump is mainly used for
• Oil drilling operations

• Pneumatic pressure systems
44
• Light oil pumping
• Feeding small boilers condensate return
6.7 Assignments
1. Why Priming isn’t required for Reciprocating Pump?
2. What are the differences between Centrifugal Pump and Reciprocating pump?
3. Why Reciprocating pump is used in high pressure application?
4. What is the function of strainer in Reciprocating pump?
45
Experiment No. 7
STUDY OF STEAM TURBINE
7.1 Objectives
• To expose the students with the construction and working principle of Steam Turbine
• To learn about the Application of Steam Turbine
7.2 Introduction
A steam turbine is a prime mover in which rotary motion is obtained by the gradual change of
momentum of the steam. Steam turbine comes under the classification of a mechanical machine
that isolates thermal energy form the forced steam and converts this into mechanical energy. As
the turbine produce rotatory motion, it is most appropriate for the operation of electrical generators.
Figure 7.1: Steam Turbine
46
7.3 Main Parts of a Steam Turbine
Steam chest and the casing:
This part is connected to the higher-pressure steam supply line and the low-pressure steam exhaust
line respectively. The steam chest connected to the casing houses the governor valve and the over
speed trip valve. The casing contains the rotor and nozzles through which the steam is expanded
and directed against the rotating buckets
Rotor
The rotor Consists of shaft and disk assemblies with buckets. The shaft extends beyond the casing
through the bearing cases. One end of the shaft is used for coupling to the driven pump and the
other end of the shaft serves the speed governor and the over speed trip system.
The bearing cases
As mentioned in the rotor part, the bearing cases are connected to the rotor and support the rotor
and assemble casing and steam chest. The bearing cases contain the journal bearings and the
rotating oil seals, which prevent outward oil leakage and the entrance of water, dust, and steam.
The steam end bearing case contains the rotor positioning bearing and the rotating components of
the over speed trip system. An extension of the steam end bearing housing encloses the rotating
components of the speed
Figure 7.2: Main Parts of a Steam Turbine
47
Casing sealing glands
Seal the casing and the shaft. Spring-backed segmental carbon rings used for this and
supplemented by a spring-backed labyrinth section for higher exhaust-steam.
Governor system
Governor systems are speed-sensitive control systems that are integral with the steam turbine. The
turbine speed is controlled by varying the steam flow through the turbine by positioning the
governor valve. Consists of spring-opposed rotating weights, a steam valve, and an interconnecting
linkage or servo motor system. The governor sense turbine shaft speed through direct connection,
worm/worm wheel, or magnetic impulse from a gear. The turbine speed is compared to some
predetermined set point and the governor output signal to a servo motor. Change in the turbine
inlet and exhaust-steam conditions, and the power required by the pump will cause the turbine
speed to change. The change in speed results in repositioning the governor weights and subsequent
repositioning of the governor valve.
Labyrinth seal
Labyrinth is a means of reducing leakage from high pressure side to low pressure side by allowing
a small amount of leakage. The clearance between labyrinth and shaft is kept at the minimum
possible.
Nozzle ring and reversing blade assembly
The nozzle ring is bolted to the inside bottom half of the steam end casing. The nozzles located in
the nozzle ring, direct the steam flow from the steam chest to the Curtis stage first row blades. The
reversing blade assembly is located between the blade rows of the Curtis stage (the Curtis stage
has two rows of blades) and is bolted to the nozzle ring. The reversing blades reverse the steam
flow as it exits the first row of blades and directs the steam into the second row of blades of the
Curtis stage. The reversing blade assembly is positioned axially by spacers.
Sentinel valve
This is a warning device located on the top of the exhaust end turbine casing, indicates excessive
turbine exhaust end casing pressure. In the event the casing pressure exceeds a predetermined
48
setting above the normal operating pressure, the valve releases a small amount of visible steam to
the atmosphere, causing an audible sound. This valve will not serve as a relief valve.
Turning Gears
Large turbines are equipped with turning gears to rotate the rotors slowly during warm up, cool
off. This is to maintain the shaft or rotor at an approximately uniform temperature
circumferentially, so as to maintain straightness and preserve the balance.
7.4 Working Principle of a Steam Turbine
In a steam turbine, the force exerted on the blades is due to the velocity of steam. This is due to
the fact that the curved blades by changing the direction of steam receive a force or impulse. The
action of steam in this case is said to be dynamic. Thus, the dynamical pressure of steam rotates
the vanes, buckets or blades directly. The turbine blades ale curved in such a way that the steam
directed upon them enters without shock, though there is always some loss of energy by the friction
upon the surface of blades. In general, a steam turbine, essentially, consists of the following two
pasts:
• The nozzle in which the heat energy of high-pressure steam is converted into kinetic
energy, so that the steam issues from the nozzle with a very high velocity.
• The blades which change the direction of steam issuing from the nozzle, so that a force acts
on the blades due to change of momentum and propel them.
Thus, the basic principle of operation of a steam turbine is the generation of high velocity. Steam
jet by the expansion of high-pressure steam and then conversion of kinetic energy, so obtained into
mechanical work on rotor blades.
7.5 Classification of Steam Turbines
The steam turbines may be classified into the following types:
• According to the mode of steam action

 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine
• According to the direction of steam flow
49
 Axial flow turbine
 Radial flow turbine.
• According to the exhaust condition of steam
 Condensing turbine
 Non-condensing turbine.
• According to the pressure of steam
 High pressure turbine
 Medium pressure turbine
 Low pressure turbine.
• According to the number of stages
 Single stage turbine
 Multi-stage turbine.
7.6 Impulse Turbine
An impulse turbine, as the name indicates, is a turbine which runs by the impulse of steam jet. In
this turbine, the steam is first made to flow through a nozzle. Then the steam jet impinges on the
turbine blades (which are curved like buckets) and are mounted on the circumference of the wheel.
The steam jet after impinging glides over the concave surface of the blades and finally leaves the
turbine.
7.6.1 Main Components
• Buckets/Vane
• Runner and Blade
• Nozzle
• Casing
• Penstock
7.6.2 Types
• Pelton Wheel Turbine

• Turgo Turbine
• Cross Flow Turbine
50
The water at the reservoir has potential energy due to its high location with respect to the nozzle.
This potential energy is converted into kinetic energy by letting the water flow through the
penstock and then come out at high pressure through the nozzle. Inside the nozzle, there is a spear-
like arrangement that can be loosened and tighten to control the flow rate of water. When the water
jet from the nozzle strikes the curved surface of the bucket, it imparts its energy to the bucket
which results in the rotation of the bucket. Due to the curvature of the direction of the water jet is
almost reversed to absorb the maximum force from the water jet. The reversal is about 165 degrees.
The flow rate of water controlled at the nozzle helps in determining the speed and power generated
at the rotor.
The rotor is connected to a shaft and this shaft is connected to a gearbox that modulates and
transmits the power to a generator at a specified speed. This generator produces the electricity at
the required frequency.
Figure 7.3: Working Principle of Impulse Turbine
7.7 Reaction Turbine
In a reaction turbine, the steam enters the wheel under pressure and flows over the blades. The
steam, while gliding, propels the blades and make them to move. As a matter of fact, the turbine
runner is rotated by the reactive forces of steam jets. The backward motion of the blades is similar
to the recoil of a gun. It may be noted that an absolute reaction turbine is rarely used in actual
51
practice. In the case of a reaction turbine, the water first strikes the fixed blades then strikes the
nozzle. While, in impulse turbine (IT), the water first hits the fixed nozzle and then hits the moving
blades.
7.7.1 Main Parts
• Casing
• Guide Mechanism
• Turbine Runner
• Draft Tube
Figure 7.4: Reaction Turbine
7.7.2 Classification
• Propeller Turbine
• Kaplan Turbine
• Francis Turbine
• Parson Turbine
• Straflo Turbine etc.
52
Using a rotor with a moving nozzle and high-pressure water coming out of the nozzle will help us
to understand the reaction turbine working principle in a good way. The nozzle receives a reaction
force when the water departs the nozzle. This reaction force causes the rotor to spin at high speed.
Similarly, in a reaction turbine working, the reaction force is produced by the moving fluid over
the impeller blades. The reaction force generated in the impeller blade causes the impeller to rotate.
After driving over the impeller blades, the liquid ends up in the drain and finally in the trail race.
7.8 Applications of Steam Turbine
Steam turbines are a part of various industries, from medium to large scale, and include dozens of
institutional applications.
• Chemical Industry: Providing heat and electricity to drive different processes in the
chemical and pharmaceutical industries, steam turbines are integrated in the process of
producing power.
• Waste Plants: Steam turbines help generate the power needed to harness energy from
wastes.
• Oil & Gas: Used as a pump drive or a compressor, steam turbines support dozens of
operations in the oil and gas industry.
• Sugar Mills: Offering high levels of efficiency and sustainable operations, steam turbines
are used to produce green carbon-dioxide energy from bagasse.
7.9 Assignments
1. Differentiate between Impulse Turbine and Reaction Turbine
2. Differentiate between Kaplan and Francis Turbine
3. Explain the functions of blading in Steam Turbine.
4. Write down the significance of angle of blade on friction?
53
Experiment No. 8
STUDY OF AN AIR COMPRESSOR
8.1 Objectives
• To teach the students about construction and working principle of an air compressor
• To introduce them with the application of an air compressor
8.2 Introduction
Air compressor, as the name indicates, is a machine to compress the air and to raise its pressure.
The air compressor sucks air from the atmosphere, compresses it and then delivers the same under
a high pressure to a Storage vessel. From the storage vessel, it may be conveyed by the pipeline to
a place where the supply of compressed air is required. Since the compression of air requires some
work to be done on it, therefore a compressor must be driven by some prime mover.
8.3 Application
The compressed air is used for many purposes such as for operating pneumatic drills, riveters, road
drills, paint spraying, in starting and supercharging of internal combustion engines, in gas turbine
plants, jet engines and air motors, etc. It is also utilized in the operation of lifts, rains, pumps and
a variety of other devices. In industry, compressed air is used for producing blast of air in blast
furnaces and Bessemer converters.
8.4 Classification
The air compressors may be classified in many ways, but the following are important from the
subject point of view:
• According to working
 Reciprocating Compressors
 Rotary compressors
• According to action
 Single acting compressors
 Double acting compressors
54
• According to number of stages
 Single stage compressors
 Multi-stage compressors
8.5 Technical Terms
The following technical terms, which will be frequently used in this chapter, should be clearly
understood at this stage:
1. Inlet pressure: It is the absolute pressure of air at the inlet of a compressor.
2. Discharge Pressure: It is the absolute pressure of air at the outlet of a compressor.
3.Compression Ratio (or pressure ratio): It is the ratio of discharge pressure to the inlet pressure.
Since the discharge pressure is always more than the inlet pressure, therefore the value of
compression ratio is more than unity.
4. Compression Capacity: It is the volume of air delivered by the compressor, and is expressed in
m 3/min or m3/s.
5. Free air delivery: It is the actual volume delivered by a compressor when reduced to the normal
temperature and pressure condition. The capacity of a compressor is generally given in terms of
free air delivery.
6. Swept volume: It is the volume of air sucked by the compressor during its suction stroke.
Mathematically, the swept volume or displacement of a single acting air compressor is given by,
𝜋𝜋
Vs = 4 ∗ 𝐷𝐷2 *L where D = Diameter of cylinder bore, and L = Length of piston stroke.
7. Mean Effective Pressure: Asa matter of fact, air pressure on the compressor piston keeps on
changing with the movement of the piston in the cylinder. The mean effective pressure of the
compressor is found out mathematically by dividing the work done per cycle to the stroke volume.
8.6 Reciprocating Air Compressor
Reciprocating Air Compressor is a positive displacement air compressor in which air is sucked in
a chamber and compressed with the help of a reciprocating piston. It is called as positive
displacement compressor because air is first sucked in a chamber and then compression is achieved
55
by decreasing area of the chamber. The area is decreased by a piston which does reciprocating
motion.
Figure 8.1: Reciprocating Air Compressor
8.6.1 Construction
Figure 8.2: Different parts of Reciprocating Air Compressor
• Piston: It does reciprocating motion in the cylinder and responsible for the compression of
the air.
• Cylinder: It is a chamber in which air is compressed.
• Connection Rod: It connects the piston and crankshaft.
56
• Crankshaft: It is connected to the shaft of electric motor. And transfers its rotary motion
to the piston.
• Suction valve: The air is sucked through suction valve when piston moves to BDC.
• Discharge valve: The compressed air is discharged through the discharge valve to the
storage tank.
8.6.2 Types of Reciprocating Air Compressor
• Single Acting
• Double Acting
• Single stage air Compressor
• Double stage air Compressor
8.6.3 Working Principle of Reciprocating Air Compressor
Figure 8.3: Working Principle of Reciprocating Air Compressor
A single stage reciprocating air compressor, in its simplest form, consists of a cylinder, piston,
inlet and discharge valves. From the geometry of the compressor, we find that when the piston
moves downwards (or in other words, during outward or suction stroke), the pressure inside the
cylinder falls below the atmospheric pressure. Due to this pressure difference the inlet valve (IV.)
gets opened and air is sucked into the cylinder, at inlet pressure until the piston completes the
outward stroke. Now when the piston moves upwards (or in other words, during inward or delivery
57
stroke), the pressure inside the cylinder goes on increasing till it reaches the discharge pressure.
At this stage, the discharge valve (D.V.) gets opened and air is delivered to the container. At the
end of delivery stroke, a small quantity of air, at high pressure, is left in the clearance space. As
the piston starts its suction stroke, the air contained in the clearance space expands till its pressure
falls below the atmospheric pressure. At this stage, the inlet valve gets opened as a result of which
fresh air is sucked into the cylinder, and the cycle is repeated.
8.6.4 Applications of Reciprocating Air Compressor
Reciprocating compressor used to produce high-pressure gas output. Reciprocating compressor is

mainly used in the refrigeration cycle. It is widely used in oil refineries, gas pipelines, natural gas
processing plants, chemical plants, etc. it is also used in blowing of the plastic bottle
8.6.5 Advantages of Reciprocating Air Compressor
• Used to produce high-pressure gas.

• It can compress gases and refrigerant of a wide range of molecular density.
• High efficiency and flexibility.
• Cheap and rugged design.
8.6.6 Disadvantages of Reciprocating Air Compressor
• One of the drawbacks of the reciprocating compressor is that it cannot self-regulate its
capacity against a given output pressure, it will continue displacing the gas until told not
to do.
• The size of compressor is very large for a given capacity.
• Part of the work input is lost due to frictional resistance between the piston and cylinder.
• Pulsating of fluid flow. The operation can be made smooth by using a flywheel.
• High vibration and noise.
• Piston rings and valves are extremely sensitive to the dirt present in the fluid.
58
8.7 Assignments
1. Differentiate between Rotary and Reciprocating Air Compressor.
2. Draw P-V and T-S diagram for a single stage reciprocating air compressor
3. When multistage compression used for air? What are the advantages?
59
Experiment No. 9
STUDY OF TENSILE TESTING USING UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
9.1 Objectives
• To be introduced with universal testing machine

• To learn how to perform tensile testing
• To draw the stress strain diagram from the data
9.2 Introduction
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine. As the axial

load is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length is measured
at each increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place.
Knowing the original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress σ and the
strain ε can be obtained.
9.3 Universal testing machine for tension test
Figure 9.1: Universal Testing Machine
60
9.4 Test functions in universal testing machine
• Compression test
• Tensile test
• Torsion test
• Bending test
• Hysteresis Test
9.5 Tensile test

In tensile test the specimen is gripped in machine jaws and load is applied through a screw gear
mechanism by a movable crosshead jaw when we apply load our specimen is elongated under load.
Test specimen: A mild steel rod.

Apparatus: Universal testing machine.
9.6 Stress-Strain diagram

The diagram shown below is that for a medium-carbon structural steel (mild steel).
Figure 9.2: Stress-Strain Diagram for a Mild Steel
61
Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)
From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line.
Hooke's Law states that within the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain.
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original
shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be developed such that
there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.
Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region from P to
R is called the plastic range.
Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking
strength.
Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to P, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve
from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The resilience of the
material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.
Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to R, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-
62
strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.
Working Stress, Allowable Stress

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The maximum
safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress.
Figure 9.3: Stress-Strain Graph for four different Material
Table 9.1: Tensile Test Data
Stress, σ = (Pa) Elongation Δl = l2-l1

Observation Load, F (N) 𝐹𝐹 Remarks about
𝐴𝐴 (mm) point
1
2
3
4
5
63
9.7 Assignments
• Show sample calculation of any observation.

• Find Modulus of Resilience
• Plot a graph indicating Stress Vs Strain.
• Discuss about finding.
64
Experiment No. 10
STUDY OF DIFFERENT EQUIPMENT USED IN FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT
10.1 Objectives
 To know the structure of different equipment.

 To know about the application of different equipment.
10.2 Fluid Flow Measurement Equipment
Different equipment is required for the measurement of various fluid flow parameters in a fluid
mechanics laboratory. Some important ones are described below-
10.2.1 Hydraulic bench machine
Hydraulic bench is a very useful apparatus in hydraulics and fluid mechanics. It is involved in
majority of experiments to be conducted e.g. To find the value of the co-efficient of velocity ‘Cv’,
coefficient of discharge ‘Cd’, to study the characteristics of flow over notches, to find metacentric
height, to find head losses through pipes, to verify Bernoulli’s theorem etc.
Parts of Hydraulic Bench Machine:
Centrifugal pump
It draws water from sump tank and supplies it for performing experiments.
Sump Tank
It stores water for Hydraulic bench. It is located in the bottom portion of Hydraulic bench. Water
from here is transported to other parts by using a pump. It has a capacity of 160 liters.
Vertical pipe
It supplies water to the upper part of hydraulic bench from sump tank through a pump.
Control valve
It is used to regulate the flow in the pipe i.e. to increase or decrease the inflow of water in the
hydraulic bench.
65
Connecter
With the help of this we can attach accessories with the hydraulic bench. Special purpose
terminations may be connected to the pump supply by unscrewing connecter, no hand tools are
required for doing so. It is located in the channel.
Channel
It is used in number of experiments It provides passage for water for different experiments.
Figure 10.1: Hydraulic Bench Machine
Drain valve
It is used for emptying sump tank.
Side channels
They are the upper sides of the channel. They are used to attach accessories on test.
66
Volumetric tank
It stores water coming from channel. This tank is stepped to accommodate low or high flow rates.
It has a capacity of 46 litters.
Stilling baffle
It decreases the turbulence of water coming from channel. It is located in the volumetric tank.
Scale & Tapping
A sight tube and scale are connected to a tapping in the base of the volumetric tank and gives an
instantaneous indication of water level.
10.2.2 Venturimeter
Venturi meters are flow measurement instruments which use a converging section of pipe to give
an increase in the flow velocity and a corresponding pressure drop from which the flowrate can be
deduced. They have been in common use for many years, especially in the water supply industry.
The Venturimeter consists of three main parts as shown in figure.
1. Convergent cone
2. A Cylindrical throat
3. Divergent cone
The inlet section of the venturimeter is of the same diameter as that of the pipe, which is followed
by a convergent cone. The convergent cone is a short pipe, which tapers from the Original size of
the pipe to that of the throat of the venturimeter. The throat of the venturimeter is a short parallel-
sided tube having uniform cross sectional area smaller than that of the pipe. The divergent cone of
the venturimeter is a gradually diverging pipe with its cross-sectional area increasing from that of
the throat to the original size of the pipe. At the inlet section and at the throat, (i.e., section 1 and
2) pressure taps are provided to measure the pressure difference. By applying the Bernoulli
equation to the inlet section and at the throat, (i.e., section 1 and 2) an expression for the discharge
is obtained. Water is allowed to flow through the meter at different rates ranging from zero to the
67
maximum and the corresponding pressure differences shown in the manometer are noted. The
actual discharge A is determined using the measuring tank and the stopwatch.
Figure 10.2: Venturimeter
10.2.3 Notch
A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir extending above the free surface.
Since the top edge of the notch above the liquid level serves no purpose, therefore a notch may
have only the bottom edge and sides. The bottom edge, over which the liquid flows, is known as
sill or crest of the notch and the sheet of liquid flowing over a notch (or a weir) is known as nappe
or vein. A notch is, usually made of a metallic plate and is used to measure the discharge of liquids.
Rectangular notch
Rectangular notch is the type of notch which has a rectangular opening.
Figure 10.3: Rectangular Notch
68
Triangular notch
A triangular notch is also called a V-notch. Consider a triangular notch, in one side of the tank,
over which water is flowing as shown in figure.
Figure 10.4: Triangular Notch
Trapezoidal Notch
A trapezoidal notch is a combination of a rectangular notch and two triangular notches as shown
in figure. It is, thus obvious that the discharge over such a notch will be the sum of the discharge
over the rectangular and triangular notches.
Figure 10.5: Rectangular Notch
69
Stepped Notch
A stepped notch is a combination of rectangular notches as shown in figure. It is thus obvious that
the discharge over such a notch will be the sum of the discharges over the different rectangular
notches.
Figure 10.6: Stepped Notch
10.2.4 Measuring Scale
Measuring scales are used for measuring the height of water.
Figure 10.7: Measuring Scale
10.2.5 Reynolds Apparatus
Reynold’s apparatus is used for performing Reynolds experiment.
70
Figure 10.8: Reynolds Apparatus
10.2.6 Orifice Plate
An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in the middle. It is usually placed in a pipe in which fluid
flows. When the fluid reaches the orifice plate, the fluid is forced to converge to go through the
small hole; the point of maximum convergence actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical
orifice, at the so-called vena contract a point (see drawing to the right). As it does so, the velocity
and the pressure changes. Beyond the vena contracta, the fluid expands. and the velocity and
pressure change once again. By measuring the difference in fluid pressure between the normal pipe
section and at the vena contracta, the volumetric and mass flow rates can be obtained from
Bernoulli's equation.
71
Figure 10.9: Orifice Plate
10.2.7 Measuring Mug
Measuring mug is used for measuring volume of fluid. It is similar to normal mug, but it has
volumetric scale drawn on its body.
Figure 10.10: Measuring Mug
72
10.8 Assignments
1. Why does V notch give more accurate flow of measurement?
2. What is advantage of V notch over rectangular notch?
3. Why is coefficient of discharge of orifice meter is less than venturimeter?
4. Why is Vena Contracta formed in orifice?
73

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Department of Industrial and Production Engineering

Bangladesh University of Textiles

2. Students must be prepared for the experiment prior to the class.

3. Report of an experiment must be submitted in the next class.

5. A quiz will be taken on the experiments at the end of the semester.

Table I: Marks Distribution

Bloom's Experiment Report &

The objectives of this experiment are

i. To teach the students about the structure and application of boiler

1. To an external combustion engine, i.e. steam engines and turbines

1.3 Essentials of a Good Steam Boiler

Following are the important essentials of a good steam boiler:

3. It should rapidly meet the fluctuation of load.

4. It should be capable of quick starting.

5. It should be light in weight.

6. It should occupy a small space.

7. The joints should be few and accessible for inspection.

without incurring heavy frictional losses

1.4 Selection of a Steam Boiler

1. The power required and the working pressure.

2.The rate at which steam is to be generated.

3.The geographical position of the powerhouse.

4.The fuel and water available.

5.The type of fuel to be used.

6.The probable permanency of the station.

7.The probable load factor.

1.5 Important Terms for Steam Boilers

cannot function safely without the mountings.

Figure 1.1: Boiler

1.6.1 According to the contents in the tube

1.6.2 According to the position of Furnace

1.6.3 According to the axis of the shell

(a) Single tube boilers and (b) Multitubular boilers.

1.6.5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam

1.6.6. According to the use

1.7 Working Principle of a Boiler

Figure 1.2: Working Principle of a boiler

1.8. Cochran boiler

Figure 1.3: Cochran Boiler

1.9 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

1.9.1 Working Principle

Figure 1.4: Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

• The water starts evaporating in the tube as increases the temperatures.

1.10 Some Measures of interest

3. What are the application of boilers in textile industry?

4. What are the safety precautions of boiler?

STUDY OF BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES

The Objectives of this experiment are

i. To teach students the difference of boiler mountings and accessories

Figure 2.1: Mountings and Accessories installed on a boiler

2.3 Boiler Mountings

2.3.1 Water level indicator

• It is fitted in front of the boiler and generally present two in number.

Figure 2.2: Water level indicator

2.3.2 Pressure Gauge

• It is also present in front of the boiler.

Figure 2.3: Pressure Gauge

2.3.3 Safety Valves

2.3.3.1 Lever Safety Valve

Figure 2.4: Level Safety Valve

2.3.3.2 Dead Weight Safety Valve

2.3.3.3 High Steam Low Water Safety Valve

Figure 2.6: High Steam Low Water Safety Valve