Chapter 1 To 3 MMWPDF

MATHEMATICSINTHEMODERNWORLD
PartI.NatureofMathematics
Whatdoesmathematicshavetodowithnatureorart?
Acloserlookatancientfabricdesignsandthewoodyscalesofpineconealsorevealsrepeating
patterns that can be analyzed in a mathematical way. Mathematics is the
scienceofpatternsandrelationships.Mathematicsreliesonbothlogicandcreativity,
anditispursuedbothforavarietyofpracticalpurposesandforitsintrinsicinterest.
“Agreatdiscoverysolvesagreatproblem
butthereisagrainofdiscoveryinthesolutionofanyproblem.
Yourproblemmaybemodest;
butifitchallengesyourcuriosity
andbringsintoplayyourinventivefaculties,
andifyousolveitbyyourownmeans,
youmayexperiencethetensionandenjoythetriumphofdiscovery.”
GeorgePolya
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2
Chapter
MATHEMATICS
1 INOURWORLD
Objectives:Attheendof thechapter, thestudentsareexpectedto:
1. Articulatetheimportanceofmathematicsinone‘slife.
2. Expressappreciationformathematicsashumanendeavors.
3. Argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how is it
expressed, represented, and used.
4. Identifypatternsinnature andregularitiesintheworld.
Lessons:
1.1 TheMeaningofMathematics
1.2 MathematicsasaStudyofPatterns
1.3 MathematicsinNature
Lesson1.1TheMeaningofMathematics
Mathematicsmaybeviewedindifferentperspectives.Initswildest
significance,itisthedevelopmentofalltypesofformaldeductive
reasoning.Generally,itissaidtobethescienceofcalculation.Othersview
itasascienceofnumbersandspaceandotherssaythatitisascienceof
measurement,quantityandmagnitude.Lockesaid―Mathematicsisawaytosettleint
hemindofchildrenahabitofreasoning.”Itisadiscipline
investigating―formalstructures‖(Bernays),itisthe―scienceoforders‖
(Russell),it isthe―scienceoforder inprogression‖ (Hamilton).Mathematics
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hasbeenseenalsoasalogicalconstructthatisbasedonalot ofaxiomsof either set
theory or number theory.
Traditionally,mathematics ispresenteddeductivelyat school. And is

oftenperceivedaswellstructuredandproblemsarealgorithmically
approached.Merriamdictionarydefinesmathematicsasthescienceof
numbersandtheiroperations,interrelations,combinations,
generalizations,andabstractionsandofspaceconfigurationsoftheir structure,
measurement, transformations and generalizations.
Mathematicsisderivedfromtheancientword manthaneinmeaning
"tolearn".TheGreekrootmathesismeans"knowledge"oritsotherform
máthemameaningscience,knowledge,orlearning,andmathematikósormathe
matameans"fondoflearning".Thesemighthavebeenthenotionof
theearlymathematiciansandphilosophersthatiswhytheycontinueto
seekforknowledgeandthetruth.Mathematicscouldthenbedefinedasa
desireforaparticularkindofknowing.Knowingthatisself-containedon the
individual or may be seen as an autonomous thinking (Schaaf, 1963).
Mathematicsisdescribedinsomanywaysthatfitswithintheareaofhuma
nknowledge.Basicallyitisseenasastudyofpatternsand
relations.Itisalsoawayofthinking.Mathematicsisseenasanartwhich
ischaracterizedbyorderandinternalconsistency.Itisalanguagethatusescarefu
llydefinedtermsandsymbols.Thus,mathematicsisatool (Reys, Lindquist,
Lambdin, Smith and Suydam, 2004).
Mathematicshasfivebasiccharacteristics‘namely:precision,
definition,reasoning,coherence,andpurposefulness.Theyarenot
independentofeachother.Itispreciseinthesensethatmathematical
statementsareclearandunambiguous.Itisclearwhatisknownandwhatisnotkn
own.Definitionsaboundinmathematics.Itisthebedrockof
mathematicalstructureandtheplatformthatsupportsreasoning.
Reasoningisthelifebloodofmathematics.Itistheenginethatdrives
provingandproblemsolving.Itsabsenceistherootcauseofthelearningbyroteap
proach.Conceptsandskillsareinterwoveninmathematics.And lastly,
mathematics is goal-oriented, and forevery concept or skill there is a
purpose for it.
Hardy(1941)statesthatthebeautyofmathematicsresidesinthe
factthatmathematicsisallabout,notjustpatterns,butpatternsofideas. Devlin
definesmathematics asthe―scienceofpatterns‖ andthenmore fully
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as:―thescienceoforder,patterns,structure,andlogicalrelationships‖
(Devlin,2001,p.73).Mathematicshasalsooftenbeendescribedasthe
languageofscience.Sincethemixtureofsymbolsandwordsisso
powerfullydescriptiveandcommunicativeperhapsthedefinition:
―mathematicsisthelanguageofthescienceoforder,patterns,structure
andlogicalrelationships‖maybeconsidered.Whateverformorwayone
definesmathematicssolongasitbecomesmeaningfultotheuserthenitwould be a
definition for that user.
Assignment1.1
Dividetheclassinto9groups.Eachgroupdrawsanumberwhich
arethechaptersofIanStewart‘sNature‘sNumbers.Thegroupshowsa
powerpointpresentationabouttheirtopicor howtheyinterpretthetopic.
Activity1.1b
Afterallofthegroupshavepresented,eachonewillanswerthe
followingcreatively;eitherthroughapoem,asong,anartworkorthrough whatever
skill one wishes to:
1. Whatnewideas aboutmathematicsdidyoulearn?
2. Whatisitaboutthathavechangedyourthoughtsaboutit?
3. Whatisitmostusefulaboutmathematicsforhumankind?
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Lesson1.2MathematicsasaStudyofPatternsandRelationships
Mathematicsisthescienceofpatternsandrelationships.Patterns
provideasenseoforder.Itallowsonetomakeaneducatedguess.Alotof
disciplinesarebasedonmakinghypothesisandhypothesesareoftenbasedonpatter
ns.Assumptionsarealsobasedonpatterns,recurringpatterns.Thus,theunderstan
dingofpatternsaidsinthedevelopmentof
mentalskillsneededinthetransformationofideastoinformationthento
knowledge.
Asatheoreticaldiscipline,mathematicsexploresthepossible
relationshipsamongabstractionswithoutconcernforwhetherthose
abstractionshavecounterpartsintherealworld.Investigatingthepatterns
thatonefindsinnumbers,shapes,andexpressionswouldleadtomaking
mathematicaldiscoveries.Patterns,relationships,andfunctionsconstituteauni
fyingthemeofmathematics.Patternsareaneffectivewayto
demonstratetherelationshipbetweenvariables.Itprovidesopportunitiesto
modelandtoanalyzesituations.Theopportunitiestoanalyze,extend,and
createavariety ofpatternsandtousepattern-based
thinkingtounderstandandrepresentmathematicalandotherreal-
worldphenomena
areofagreatessenceindevelopingmathematicalskills.Itgives
opportunitiesforproblemsolving,makingandverifyinggeneralizations, and
building mathematical understanding and confidence.
Theabstractionscanbeanythingfromstringsofnumbersorletters to
geometricfigurestomeasurementstosetsofequations.Inquiriessuchas"Doest
heintervalbetweenprimenumbersformapattern?"―Istherean
expressionforthechangeinthesurfaceareaofanyregularsolidasits volume
approaches zero?‖; needs investigatory approaches of patterns.
Inordertorecognizepatterns,oneneedstohaveanunderstanding
ofcriticalthinkingandlogicalreasoning,importantskillsneededby
everyone.Thesearemajorcomponentsinproblemsolvingandisinvolved in
data analysis.
Acentrallineofinvestigationofpatternsisidentifyingineachsequenceasmal
lsetofbasicideasandrulesevidentinthem.Oneusuallylooksatdifferencesbetweens
ucceedingitems.Thedifferencemaybe
arithmeticalinnaturebutnotalways.Attimesoneinvestigatesthe
movementofshapes,ortherelationofthesequencesofletters.Logicaland
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abstractreasoningaregreattoolsininvestigatingthesemathematical patterns.
Patternsessentiallyprovidesameansofrecognizingbroaderaspects
thatcanbeshoveddowninordertoarriveataspecificanswertoa
particularproblem.Thebenefitofunderstandingpatternsopensmany
doorswherethereisknowledgethatcanbeapplied.Thestudyofpatterns
givesan opportunityforonetodevelopthesenseofobservation,
hypothesizing,experimenting,discoveringandcreating.Predictingand
estimatingandthought-provokingactivitiesofrecognizingpatterns
emphasizes the roleand purpose of mathematics itself.
CommonPatterns
A. LOGICPATTERNS
Logicpatternsarerelatedtogeometricpatternsandnumber
patterns.Ithelpsusclassifyobjectsorfigures.Onekindoflogicpatterns
dealwithcharacteristicsofvariousobjects.Anotherkinddealswithorders:
thereisasequenceofobjectsandapatternintheattributestheobjects
possess.Theyarecommonlypartofaptitudetests.Thedevelopmentof
numeracyliteracyandgeometricliteracyfollowsafteronedevelopsasense
ofpatternsinvolvinglogicorreasoningthroughassociationorthrough relation.
Example 1. In a polygon, a diagonal connects two vertices that are

not already connected by an edge.
Howmanydiagonalscanbedrawnina hexagon?
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Example2.Lookatthefollowingpattern.
Howmanycircleswillbeinthenextfigureinthepattern?
A.40 B.39 C.36 D.27
B. NUMBERPATTERNS
Itisalistorsetofnumbersthatfollowacertainsequenceorpattern.Asanar
rangementofnumber,itillustratesawaythatitfollowsa
particularpropertyorpattern.Whennumbersarearrangedineither
ascendingordescendingorder,andhavewithitbasicoperationsof
mathematicsoracertainseriesofarithmeticaloperationlikeadditionor
multiplicationrepeatedlydone.Anarithmeticsequenceismadebyadding
thesamevalueeachtime.Thevalueaddediscalledthecommon difference.
Patternscanbeintheformofcountingupordownandthemissing
numberisoftheformofcompletingcountupordown.Like1,5,9,13,17,
.......whosefirsttermis1andjumps4 every timetogettheotherterms.
Someothertypesarecreatedinwhicheverysuccessivetermismultiplied(d
ividing)bythesamevalueeachtime.Forexample,4,16,64,
......isanumberpatterninwhich4isthefirstnumberandwecan
multiply4by4toget16andmultiply16by4toget64andsoon.This
numberpatterniscalledageometricnumberpattern.32,16,8,4,2,.............................is
againageometricnumberpatterninwhichthefixednumberis ½whichis the
multiplier.
Thereareothernumberpatterns.Therearepatternsinwhichthe
numbersareintheincreasingform.Inthispattern,theamountthatis
addedintheterms,changeseverytimeinpredictablemanner.For
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example,consider4,5,7,10,14,19,.....Intheabovepattern,thepattern
startswith4,add1andtheamountwhichwecanaddincreaseby1every
time.Othertypesareofthenatureof thewell-known Fibonacci
sequence0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,......TheFibonaccisequenceis a series
ofnumberswherea number isfoundbyaddingupthetwo
numbersbeforeit.Startingwith0and1,thesequencegoes0,1,1,2,3,5,
8,13,21,34,andsoforth.
OneofthemostinterestingNumber Patterns is Pascal's Triangle

(namedafterBlaisePascal, a famousFrenchMathematicianand
Philosopher).Tobuildthetriangle,startwith"1"atthetop,thencontinue
placingnumbersbelowitinatriangular pattern.Eachnumberisthe numbers
directly above it added together.
Torecognizeanysequence,wehavetoknowhowthetermsofa
sequencearerelated.Itmaybethattheyareinarithmeticformorgrowing
patternorgeometricpattern.Attimesoneneedtorecognizeapropertyor
characteristic the number has.
Letusconsider1,8,27,64,.................Here,wecan findthenextnumberas
follows:8is23,27is33and64is43.Thus,wewritethesequenceas13,23,
33,43,........So,thenexttermsare53=125and63=216.
Example1:Findthenextnumberinthepattern45,48,51,54,57,
Solution:
Givenpatternis45,48,51,54,57,
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Here,thepatternisarepeatedadditionof3,weget:45,48,51,54,
57,60
Intheproblem,sixthtermis60inthispatternwhichisthemissing term.
Example2:Findoutthemissingnumberinthepattern67,74,81,88,,
102
Solution:
Givenpatternis67,74,81,88,,102
Here,thepatternisrepeatedadditionof7,weget67,74,81,88,,102
Inthe problem,fifthtermis95.
Therefore,themissingtermintheabovepatternis95fortherepeated addition
of 7.
Example3:Whatisthenextnumberinthepattern108,102,96,
Solution:
Givenpatternis108,102,96,
Here,thepatternisthesubtractionof6,weget108,102,96,90
In the problem,fourthtermis missing and the next termofthe given

pattern is 90.
Therefore,thenextnumberintheabovepatternis90forthe subtraction of
6.
C. GEOMETRICPATTERN
A geometricpattern isakindof pattern formedof sequencesof

linesandcurvestoformgeometric shapesandfigures.A motif,pattern,or
designdepicting abstract,nonrepresentationalshapessuchaslines,
circles,ellipses,triangles,rectangles,andpolygons.Wegenerallyassociate
geometricpatternswithwallpaper designsandtiling. Theycouldalsobe
associatedtonumber patternsandpredictthenextgeometricshapethatwould
follow the sequence.
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Example 1: Determine what shape, figure, or series of figure

wouldfollow the sequence.
Example 2:Drawthemissingfigureinthesequence.
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NAME: SCORE:
SCHEDULE:
DATE:
Exercise1.2A
SeriesofNumbers.
1. Findthe missing term inthe following sequence:8, ,16, ,24,28,32.

2. Whatisthevalueofninthefollowingnumbersequence?16,21,n,31,36.
3. Find the next term in the sequence: 7, 15, 23, 31, .
4. Findthenextterminthesequence:31,24,17,10, .
5. Findthenextthreetermsin:-14,-10,-6,-2, , , .
6. Findthe35thterminthearithmeticsequence:3,9,15,21,…
7. Findthenexttwotermsinthesequence:5,2,8,3,11,4,14,5,17,6, ,
8. Find the next number: 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 9, 8,

9. What shouldcome in placeofthe blankspace in the followingseries? 3,
5, 9,15, 23,33, , 59.
10. What shouldcome in placeofthe blankspace in the followingseries?
16, 22, 28,34, , 46.
11. What shouldcome in placeofthe blankspace in the followingseries? 2,
3, 6, 11, 18,27, .
12. Whatshouldbecomeinplaceofxinthefollowingseries? 2, 2,
4, 12, 48, 240, x.
13. Identifythenextnumberinthefollowingseries: 2,
8, 26, 62, 122, 212,
14. What is the next number in the pattern?
76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86,
15. What is the next number in the pattern?
4, 12, 36, 108,
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NAME: SCORE:
SCHEDULE:
DATE:
Exercise1.2B
I. Identifythenextshapeintheseries.
1.
a. b. c. d.
2.
a. b. c. d.
3.
a. b. c. d.
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II. Whichofthefigurescanbeusedtocontinuetheseriesgivenbelow? 1.
a. b. c. d. e.
2.
a. b. c. e.
III. Whichofthefigures,doyouthinkbestfitstheseriesbelow?
a. b. c. d.
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Lesson1.3MathematicsinNature
Euclid saidthat"Thelawsofnaturearebutthemathematical
thoughtsofGod."Galileoaffirmedbystatingthat―Mathematicsisthelanguage in
which God has written the Universe.‖
Mathematics is everywhere, it is seen anywhere in the universe. With

thedevelopmentofaformalsystemofthoughtforrecognizing,classifying,
andexploitingpatterns;onecouldsystematizeandorganizetheseideasof
patterns.Itwouldbeherethatwecoulddiscovergreatsecretsofnature‘s
patterns.Theyarenotjusttheretobeadmired,theyarevitalcluestothe
rulesthatgovernsthenaturalprocess.
Analyzingthoroughly,havingtheessentials ofmathasourbasis,we
couldfurtherdiscovermathematicsinourworldandunravelthemysteryoftheu
niverse.Themajorityofourknowledgeofmathematicsandmodern
scienceisstrictlybasedandsupportedonourobservationsofour
environment.Whatwasonceseenastherandomnessofnatureisnow
distinguishedastheintricateapplicationsofmathematicsandillustrates
thecomplexitiesofournaturalworld.Hereareaveryfewpropertiesof
mathematics that are depicted in nature.
A. SHAPES
Geometryisthebranchofmathematicsthatbasicallydescribes
shapesandestablishestherelationshipsbetweenthem.Figures
withregularshapesarecategorizedaspolygons.Polygonsarefascinating,
especiallywhentheyareapproximatedinnature.Whenlookingcarefully,
onecanseethemallaroundus.
Spatialpatternscanberepresentedbyafairlysmallcollectionof
fundamentalgeometricalshapesandrelationshipsthathavecorresponding
symbolicrepresentation.Tomakesenseoftheworld,thehumanmind relies
heavily on its perception of shapes andpatterns. Theartifacts around
us(suchasbuildings,vehicles,toys,utensilsandbasicthingsweusein
life)andthefamiliarformsweseeinnature(suchasanimals,leaves,stones,flowe
rs,andthemoonand sun)can often becharacterized interms of
geometricform. Someof theideasandtermsof geometryhavebecome
partofeverydaylanguage.Althoughrealobjectsneverperfectlymatcha
geometricfigure,theymoreorlessapproximatethem.Thepropertiesand
characteristicsaboutgeometricfiguresandrelationshipscanbeassociated
toobjects.Formanypurposes,itissufficienttobefamiliarwithpoints,
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lines,planes;triangles,rectangles,squares,circles,andellipses;rectangularsoli
dsandspheres;relationshipsofsimilarityandcongruence;
relationshipsofconvex,concave,intersecting,andtangent;anglesbetween
linesorplanes;parallelandperpendicularrelationshipsbetweenlinesand
planes;formsofsymmetrysuchasdisplacement,reflection,androtation; and
the Pythagorean theorem.
Bothshapeandmeasurement(magnitude)orscalecanhave
importantconsequencesfortheperformanceofsystems. Forexample,
triangularconnectionsmaximizerigidity,smoothsurfacesminimize
turbulence,andasphericalcontainerminimizessurfaceareaforanygiven
massor volume.Changing thesizeof objects whilekeepingthesameshape
canhaveprofoundeffectsowingtothegeometryofscaling:Areavariesas
thesquareoflineardimensions,andvolumevariesasthecube.Ontheotherhand,
someparticularlyinterestingkindsofpatternsknownas fractalslook
verysimilartooneanotherwhenobservedat anyscale whatever—
andsomenaturalphenomena(suchastheshapesofclouds, mountains, and
coastlines) seem to be like that.
SomeCommonShapesVisibleinNature:
Sphere.Asphereisaperfectlyroundgeometricalobject
inthree-dimensionalspace,suchastheshapeofa roundball.
TheshapeoftheEarthisveryclosetothat
ofanoblatespheroid,asphereflattenedalongtheaxis
frompoletopolesuchthatthereisabulgearoundthe
equator.
Hexagons.Hexagonisasix-sidedclosed-polygons,2- dimensional.Forabeehive,closepackingisimporta
Cones.Aconeisathree-dimensionalgeometricshape
thattaperssmoothly fromaflat, usually circularbase to
apointcalledtheapexorvertex.Volcanoesformcones,
thesteepnessandheightofwhichdependsonthe
runniness(viscosity)ofthelava.Fast,runnylavaforms
flattercones;thick,viscouslavaformssteep-sidedcones.
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Parallellines. Inmathematics, parallellinesstretchto

infinity,neitherconvergingnordiverging.Theparallel
dunesintheAustraliandesertaren'tperfect-the physical
world rarely is.
B. SYMMETRY
Symmetryisatypeofinvariance:apropertythatsomethingdoesnot
changeunder asetoftransformations. Itisa mappingof theobjectonto
itselfwhichpreservesthestructure.Symmetryineverydaylanguagerefers
toasenseofharmoniousandbeautifulproportionandbalance.Although
thesetwomeaningsof"symmetry"cansometimesbetoldapart,theyare
related.Plainly,symmetryiswhenafigurehastwosidesthataremirror
imagesofoneanother.Itwouldthenbepossibletodrawalinethrougha
pictureoftheobjectandalongeithersidetheimagewouldlookexactlythe same.
This line would be called a lineof symmetry.
ThereareTwoKindsofSymmetry.
One is bilateralsymmetry in which an object has twosidesthat are

mirrorimagesofeachother. Thehumanbodywouldbeanexcellent
exampleofalivingbeingthathasbilateralsymmetry.
Theotherkindofsymmetryisradialsymmetry.Thisiswherethere
isacenterpointandnumerouslinesofsymmetrycouldbedrawn. The most obvious
geometric example would be a circle.
C. PATTERNS
Thougheverylivingandnon-livingthingoftheworldmayseem to
followapatternofitsown,lookingdeeplyintothegeometryand
mechanismofthepatternformationcanleadyoutobroadlyclassifythem into
merely two categories:
 Self-organizedpatterns/Inherentorganization
 Invokedorganization
Self-Organizedpatterns
Aself-organizingpattern,followsasimplesetofrules,andtheyuse
onlylocalinformationtodeterminehowaparticularsubunitevolves.They
arerepresentedbysuccessivepatterns.Thispatterncanberepresentedas
successivehorizontalrows;the'successor'patternisjustunderits
predecessor.Whenthebasicrulejustdefinedisappliedtothatrow(the
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activerow)andthentosubsequentrows,acomplexpatterndevelops.Thus,self-
organizationisaprocessinwhichpatternatthegloballevelofa
systememergessolelyfromnumerousinteractionsamongthelowerlevel
componentsofthesystem.Moreover,therulesspecifyinginteractions
amongthesystem‘scomponentsareexecutedusingonlylocalinformation,
withoutreferencetotheglobalpattern.Inotherwords,thepatternisan
emergentpropertyofthesystem,ratherthanapropertyimposedonthe system
by an external influence.
Therefore,ifrulesaretobeusefulforunderstandingthepatternsin
life,suchas thestripesonazebra's coat,theremustbea specific rule.The
zebra'scoatalternatesincontrastingareasoflightanddarkpigmentation.
Hencethepatternsofthezebra'scoatreflecttheearlyinteractionof chemicals as
they diffused through the embryonic skin.
InvokedOrganization
Notallpatternsthatoccurinnaturearisethroughself-organization.
Aweaverbirdusesitsownbodyasatemplateasitbuildsthehemisphericaleggcha
mberofthenest.Aspiderwhencreatingaweb
followsageneticallydeterminedrecipeinrelationtoitsstickyorbandthe
variousradiiandspiralsit creates. Asimilarinvoked organization isthatof
thehoneycombmadebybees.Inthesecases,thestructuresarebuilt
somethingofanarchitectthatoverseesandimposesorderandpattern.
Thereare no sub units that interact with one another to generate a pattern.
Eachoftheanimalsactslikeastonemasonorlaborer,measuring,fitting, and
moving pieces into place.
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Thisisanexampleofasocialinsect
architecture.Thewaspnests,anexampleof invoked
organization in nature.
Morethanthisbiologicalsystemexisting
onthepatternscreatedinnature,thereisagreatmat
hematicsembeddedinitasidefromthe
plaingeometricfigure.Thegeometryofthe
patternscouldalsobelinkedtomathematical
numbersdirectlyorindirectly.Theseriesof
numbersseemtohavebeenforcedtothem.The
FibonaccinumbersorsequenceandtheGolden
ratio are but the basic example of them.
LeonardoFibonaccibeganthestudyofthissequencebyposingthe
followingprobleminhisbook,LiberAbaci:“Howmanypairsofrabbits
willbeproducedinayear,beginningwithasinglepair,ifinevery
montheachpairbearsanewpairwhichbecomesproductivefromthe
secondmonthon?”
Thisproblemgivesrisetothesequence1,1,2,3,5,8,13,...in
whichanytermafterthefirsttwocanbefoundbysummingthetwo
previousterms.Infunctionalnotationwecouldwritef(n)=f(n-1)+f(n-
2)usingf(0)=1andf(1)=1.Interestingly,theratiobetweentwo
consecutivetermsofthisseriestendstothenumber1.61803399.Itisa
numbercommonlyencounteredwhentakingratiosof distancesinsimple
geometricfiguressuchaspentagons,decagonsanddodecagons.Itis
denotedbyPHI,andiscalledthedivineproportion,goldenmean,orgolden
section.
Surprisingly,theFibonaccinumbersarefoundtooccurinawidevarietyofune
xpectedsituations.Indeed,theiroccurrenceisverycommon
innatureincludingimagesofflowersandoffruitsandvegetables.There
aremanyexamplesofbiologicalgrowthinvolvingtheFibonaccinumbers
suchasbranchintrees,thereproductionofbees,thepatternofpetalsin
manyflowersandplants.Theyalsoformthenumberofleavesandseed
grainsofmanyplants.Auniqueandbeautifulspiralpatternisobservedin
maturesunflowerswhichalsodisplayFibonaccinumbers.Inparticular,itisseenthat
thesunflowerhasF(10)=55spiralsinonedirectionandF(11)
=89spiralsintheotherdirectionrepresentingfairlylargeFibonacci
numbers.Thescalepatternsonpineapplesandpineconesprovideexcellentexampl
esofFibonaccinumbers.Thescalesofpineapplesare, indeed, hexagonal in shape.
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AnothergeometricalfigurethatiscommonlyassociatedwithPhiis
theGoldenRectangle.ThisparticularrectanglehassidesAandBthatare
inproportiontotheGoldenRatio.IthasbeensaidthattheGolden
Rectangleisthemostpleasingrectangletotheeye.Ifwetaketheisosceles
trianglethat has thetwobaseangles of72 degrees and webisect oneof the
baseangles,weshouldseethatwegetanotherGoldentrianglethatis
similartothefirst.Ifwecontinueinthisfashion,weshouldgetasetof
WhirlingTriangles.
OutoftheseWhirlingTriangles, weare
abletodrawalogarithmicspiralthatwill
convergeattheintersectionofthetwobluelines,
(see figure).
Alogarithmicspiralthatisacommonlyobse
rved pattern in nature.
Apine cone (leftmost figure)exhibits

thepatternofspiralsofbothdirections–13clockwiseand8counterclockwise
(13and8areconsecutivetermsoftheFibonacciSeries).Theseedofthe
coneflower(middlefigure)followsalogarithmicspiralpattern.Theshellof
asnail(rightmostfigure)isalsointheshapeofspiral.
Theworldaroundusseemstomakeupofseveraldistinctpatterns,
evolvingvariouscomplexstepsofformation.However,lookingmoredeeply we
see manysimilarities andresemblances.Thenumerousmodels
explainedabovehavenoexperimentalproofandmaynotbecorrect,but
theydefinitelyshowlinkagesbetweenpatternsformedunderhighly
contrastingnaturalconditionse.g.(azebracoatandsanddunes)andalso
showthatthemechanismsbetweentheformationsofthesepatternsneed not
necessarily be complex
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TheGoldenRatio
Mathematicsdeals withharmony.Harmony isthebalanceand order

withinasystem.Itisbeauty,aqualitythatispresentinathingorperson
thatgivesintensepleasureordeepsatisfactiontothemind.Thepleasure
maybearisingfromsensorymanifestations(asshape,colour,sound,etc.),amean
ingfuldesignorpattern,orsomethingelse(asapersonalityinwhich
highspiritualqualitiesaremanifest).Theattractionthatonehasis dependent on
the ratioone sees.The ratio is ofhigh degree ofproportional.
LeonardodaVinci'sdrawingsofthehumanbodyemphasizedits
proportion.TheratioofthefollowingdistancesisoftheGoldenRatio:(foot to
navel):(navel to head).
ThewordgoldensectionwasknowntotheGreekmathematiciansas
‗divisionofalineinmeanandextremeratio‘thatappearedinthe
celebratedquotationofJohannKepler(1571–1630):―Geometryhastwo
greattreasures:oneisthetheoremofPythagoras;theother,thedivisionof
alineinextremeandmeanratio.Thefirstwemaynameasameasureof gold, the
second we may name as a precious jewel.‖
(a) (b)
A x C y B A
x z
x
F x E y D B x D y
CThegoldenratio(orthegoldennumberorthegoldensection)is
definedbydividingalinesegmentAB=abythepointC,asshownin
Figure1,intotwounequalpartsxandysuchthat(y<x)insuchawaythattheratioofthe
largerpartxtothesmallerpartyisequaltothatofthe
total length x + y = a to the larger segment x,
that is,
𝐴𝐶 𝑥 𝐴𝐵 𝑥+ 𝑦 𝑦
= = = =1+
𝐵𝐶 𝑦 𝐴𝐶 𝑥 𝑥
23
TheGoldenRatioisaproductofearlyGreekmathematics,which
sawthedevelopmentoftherelatedconceptsofratioandproportion.Ifp
andqareanytwonaturalnumbersorpositiveintegers, 𝑝 representsthe
𝑞
ratioofptoq.Aratioisthequotientoftwonumbersorquantities.When
tworatiosareequated,oneobtainsaproportion.Thus, 𝑝=𝑟 representsa
𝑞 𝑠
proportion.Proportionsofthetype𝑝=𝑟 areknownascontinuous
𝑞 𝑠
proportions.Oneparticulartypeofcontinuousproportion, 𝑝= 𝑞
,was
𝑞 (𝑝+𝑞)
veryspecialtotheancientGreeks,whonamedittheGoldenProportion.TheGolde
nProportionisthesimplestofcontinuousproportionsbecauseit
hasonlytwounknownsandusesthemostbasicarithmeticoperation, addition.
ItfollowsfromtheGoldenProportionthat:
𝑞 (𝑝+ 𝑞)
𝑝 = 𝑞
Simplifyingtherightfraction:
𝑞 𝑝
= +1
𝑝 𝑞
Multiplyingbothsidesoftheequationby𝑞:
𝑝
𝑞
𝑞2 +1
()=
𝑝 𝑝
𝑞
Theratio
𝑝 derivedfromtheGoldenProportionwascalledthe
GoldenRatiobytheancientGreeks,anditsexactvalueis (1±√5) obtained
2
bysolving𝑥2−𝑥−1=0forx,theGoldenRatio𝑞beingrepresentedbyx.
𝑝
TheGoldenRatiobecamethestandardofperfectioninGreekartand
architecture.ThistraditionwascontinuedbytheRomansandcarriedon
intotheMiddleAges,wheretheGoldenRatioisrepresentedinthe
architectureofthegreatcathedrals.Thegreatartistsandarchitectsofthe
Renaissanceinherited thiscultural legacyandpassed itontotheirheirsin the
Modern Age.
ThedescriptionofthisproportionasGoldenandDivineisfitting
perhapsbecauseitisseenbymanytoopenthedoortoadeeper
understandingofbeautyandspiritualityinlife.That'sanincredibleroleforasingl
enumbertoplay,butthenagainthisonenumberhasplayedan incredible role in
human history and in the universe at large.
ItisamathematicalfactthattheratioofaFibonaccinumbertothe
numberthatprecedesitinthesequenceapproachestheGoldenRatioatthelimito
fthesequence.ItisalsoamathematicalfactthatanyFibonacci
24
numbercanberepresentedbyageneralformula,knownasBinet's
FormulathatincorporatestheGoldenRatio.LettingF(n)representthenthnumber
of the Fibonacci sequence,
1 𝑛 1−√5 𝑛
𝐹(𝑛)= 1+√5 −( )) 2
√5 (( 2 )
TheFibonacciSequencecanbederivedfromPascal'sTrianglebyaddingnum
bersinPascal'sTrianglediagonally. Thediagonalsequenceof numbers
ontheupper rightrepresentsthefirstnineterms oftheFibonacci
sequence(excludingtheinitialzero).Theyareseentobethesumsof
numbersinPascal'sTriangleconnectedbydiagonallines.
25
26
Chapter
MATHEMATICAL
2 LANGUAGEAND
SYMBOLS
1. Discussthelanguage,symbolsandconventionsofmathematics.
2. Explainthenatureofmathematicsasalanguage.
3. Performoperationsonmathematicalexpressionscorrectly.
4. Acknowledgethatmathematics isa usefullanguage.
5. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and
arguments made about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
6. Writeclearandlogicalproofs
Lessons:
2.1 TheFundamentalElementsoftheLanguageofMathematics
A. Numbers
B. Sets
C. Relations
D. Functions
E. Operations
2.2 MathematicsasaLanguage
27
Languageasdefinedbydictionariesisabodyofwordsorsymbols
andthesystemsfortheirusecommontoapeoplewhoareofthesame
communityornation,thesamegeographicalarea,orthesamecultural
tradition.Itisasystematicmeansofcommunicatingbytheuseofsoundsorconve
ntionalsymbols(Chen,2010,p.353).Aside fromthe symbols,one‘s
understandingofthelanguageisenormouslyenhancedbyaknowledgeof
basicgrammarorsyntax.Thisunderstandingisessentialforanybodywho
wantstolearnmoreaboutthelanguageanditsusage.Itwouldbethen
thatoneisabletocommunicatewithothers.Thesameistrueof
mathematics.Oneneedstolearnandunderstandthemathematical
languageinordertothink,tocomprehend,andtocommunicate
mathematically.Mathematicsasalanguageiscomposedofvocabularies
consistingof symbolsandwordsandgrammar whichisa setof ruleson how to
use these symbols.
Mathematicalsymbolscombinedwithwordscanconveycomplex,
powerfulideasmoreefficientlythananyotherlanguage.Ithasbeenatool
andthegreatinstrumentforknowledgeandwisdomtodevelopand
flourish.Thehistoryofman‘scivilizationisinparallelwiththehistoryand
development of mathematics. It has become a universal language.
Thus,theobjectofthissectionistoexplainthemostimportant
mathematical―partsofspeech‖,someofwhicharesimilartothoseof natural
languages and others quite different.
Lesson2.1.The FundamentalElementsoftheLanguageof
Mathematics
Mathematicsdealswithideas--relationships,quantities,processes,
waysoffiguringoutcertainkindsofthings,reasoning,generalizingand
manymore.Ituseswords,butitisnotaboutwords.Theideaswhenthey
aresharedneedtohavemeansfortheybeconveyed.Aplainknowledgeof
themathematical termdoes notimply thatweknow the language.Knowing
―denominator‖and―addend‖isnotmathanddoesnotmakeone
mathematical. Words help us communicate.
Thenatureofthelanguageofmathematicshasanumberof
distinctivefeaturesthatisdifferentfromthecommonspokenlanguage.It
includesaspectswhichareparticulartomathematicsandasappliedto other
disciplines.
28
The language of mathematics has a specialist mathematical

vocabulary, which includes:
 Technicaltermsspecifictomathematics (e.g.equilateral,quotient,
probability);
 Specialistuse ofmoregeneralterms(e.g.line,factor,frequency);
 Mathematicaltermsthatweuseeverydayforconveyingideas (e.g.
function, expression, difference, area).
It alsoincludesa specialsyntax,particularlyinrelationtothe
expressionoflogicalrelationships.Thus,theuseofand,of,or,a,ifand
thentodefinemathematicalrelationshipsareallsignificant.Itinvolvesthe
useofmathematicalsymbols.Suchsymbolsrangefromnumeralstomore
specializednotation.Thesesymbolshaveasyntaxoftheirown.
Mathematicshasadifferentwayofcommunicating,includingwrittenand
spokenformsofmathematicalexplanation,proofordefinition,aswellas
texttypeslikewordproblems.Thesebroaderwaysofusinglanguageare
important in expressing mathematical ideas and reasoning.
Wearealreadyfamiliarwithmostofthebasicsymbolsthatareused. For
example, thedigits0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5,6, 7,8, 9;havebecomepart of our
everydaylives.Withitistheextensionofour notionaboutnumbers,we
understand its meaning.
Thesesymbolsinmathematicsarepreciseformofshorthand
notation.Weneedtobeconfidentwhenusingthesesymbols,andtogain
thatconfidenceweneedtounderstandtheirmeaning.Tounderstandtheir meaning
therearetwo things to help us:
 Context-thisisthecontextinwhichweareworking,orthe particular
topics being studied, and
 Convention-wheremathematiciansandscientistshavedecided that
particular symbols will have particular meaning.
Theadvantageofmathematicalnotation,bothsymbolicand
graphical,isthatitishighlycompact(conveyingalotofinformationand
ideasinverylittlespace)andfocused(conveyingtheimportantinformation for
the current situation and omitting the rest).
A. NUMBERS
Anumberisasymbol,eitherafigureorword,thatexpressesa
certainvalueoraspecifiedquantitythatisdeterminedbycount.Thereare
severalkindsofnumbersthatincombinationwithalogicforinterrelating
29
themforminterestingabstractsystemsandcanbeusefulinavarietyof
verydifferentways.Theage-oldconceptofnumberprobablyoriginatedin
theneedtocounthowmanythingstherewereinacollectionofthings.
TheHindu-Arabicnumbersystem,ascommonlyusedtoday,is
basedontensymbols(0,1,2,...9)andrulesforcombiningthemin
whichpositioniscrucial.Itspositiondeterminesitsplacevalue.Thebasic
unitareones,tensandhundreds.Theymayeitherbeintheunitor thousands,
millions or more.
Therearedifferentkindsofnumbers.Thenumbersthatcomefrom
countingthingsarewholenumbers,whicharethenumberswemostlyuse
ineverydaylife.Awholenumberbyitselfisanabstractionforhowmany things
there are in aset but not for thethings themselves. "Three" can refer
tochairs,trees,people,oranythingelse.Butinmostpracticalsituations,wewantt
oknowwhattheobjectsare,aswellashowmanythereare.Thus,theanswertomo
st calculationsis amagnitude—
anumberconnectedtoalabel.Ifsomepeopletraveled165milesin3hours,their
averagespeedwas55milesperhour,not55.Inthisinstance,165,3,and
55arenumbers;165miles,3hours,and55milesperhourare
magnitudes.Thelabelsareimportantinkeepingtrackofthemeaningsof the
numbers.
Fractionsarenumbersweusetostandforapartofsomethingora
comparisonoftwoquantities.Onecommonkindofcomparisonoccurs
whensomemagnitudesuchaslengthorweightismeasured—thatis,is
compared toastandardunit suchas ameterorapound. Fractionsmay be
writtenindecimalform,specificallyifitisaterminatingdecimal.For
example,theordinaryfraction3/4andthedecimalfraction0.75both
representthesamenumber.However,thetwoexpressionsmayhave
somewhatdifferentimplications:3/4couldbeusedtosimplymeancloser
to3/4thanto2/4or4/4,whereas0.75mayimplybeingcloserto0.75than to 0.74
or 0.76—a much more precise specification.
Moreflexibilityinmathematicsisprovidedbytheuseofnegative
numbers,whichcanbethoughtofintermsofanumberline.Anumber
linelaysconsecutivenumbersatequalintervalsalongastraightline
centeredonzero.Thenumbersononesideofzeroarecalledpositive,and
thoseontheotherside,negative.Ifthenumberstotherightofzeroare
positive,thenumberstotheleftofzeroarenegative;ifdistanceabovesealevelispositi
ve,distancebelowsealevelisnegative;ifincomeispositive,
30
debtisnegative. If 2:15isthescheduledtimeof lift-off, 2:10is"minus5

minutes."Thecompleterangeofnumbers—positive,zero,andnegative—
allowsanynumbertobesubtractedfromanyotherandstillgiveananswer.
Numbershavemanydifferentuses,someofwhicharenot
quantitativeorstrictlylogical.Incounting,forexample,zerohasaspecial
meaningofnothing.Yet,onthecommontemperaturescale,zeroisonlyan
arbitrarypositionanddoesnotmeananabsenceoftemperature(orof
anythingelse).Numberscanbeusedtoputthingsinanorderandto
indicateonlywhichishigherorlowerthanothers—nottospecifybyhow
much(forexample,theorderofwinnersinarace,streetaddresses,or
scoresonpsychologicaltestsforwhichnumericaldifferenceshaveno
uniformmeaning).Andnumbersarecommonlyusedsimplytoidentify things
without any meaningful order, as in telephonenumbers and as used on
athletic shirts and license plates.
B. SETS
Inanattempttobetterunderstandtheuniverse,ancientastronomersclas
sifiedcertaingroupsofstarsasconstellations.Inregional
sportscompetitions,groupingsaredonetofacilitatethemanagementof
activities.Schoolsareorganized intodistrictsorareas,too.Itisstill
extremelyhelpfultoclassifyitemsintogroupsthatenableustofindorder and
meaning in our complicated world.
BasicPropertiesofSets:
Definition:A setisawell-definedcollectionofdistinctobjects.Itis
usuallyrepresentedbycapitalletters.Asetissaidtobewell-defined
iftheelementsinasetarespecificallylistedorifitselementsare
describedtodeterminewhetheranobjectinquestionisanelement
ornotanelementoftheset.Theobjectsthatbelonginasetarethe
elements,ormembers,oftheset.Theobjectsofasetarealso separated by
commas.
Examples:
A={a,e,i,o,u}
B = {set of planefigures}
C = {Ca, Au, Ag}
31
Asetcanberepresentedbylistingitselementsbetweenbraces:
A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0}.Thisisthetabularorrosterform.The
symbol∈isusedtoexpressthatanelementispartofaset(or
belongstoaset),forinstance3∈A.Analternativewaytodefinea
set,calledsetbuildernotation,isbystatingaproperty(predicate)
P(x)verifiedbyexactlyitselements,forinstanceA={x∈Z|1≤x≤ 5}=―setof
integersx suchthat1≤x≤5‖—i.e.: A= {1,2,3,4,5}. In general:A={x∈U|
p(x)},whereUisthedomainofdiscoursein
whichthepredicateP(x)mustbeinterpreted,orA={x|P(x)}ifthe
domainofdiscourseforP(x)isimplicitlyunderstood.{x|…}.isread as―x
suchthat.Insettheorythetermuniversalsetisoftenusedinplaceof―domain
ofdiscourse‖foragivenpredicate.Otherscallitas the rule form.
Illustrations:
Roster Rule
{1,2,3} {x|xisanaturalnumberlessthan4}
{0,1,2,3}={0,1,2,3} {𝑥|𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛4}
5555 555 5
{2,4,6,8,10} {x|xisanevenintegerbetween0and12}
{0,3,6,9} {k|kisamultipleof3between-1and12}
Someimportantsetsarethefollowing:
1. N={1,2,3,···}=thesetofnaturalnumbers.
2. W={0,1,2,3,···}=thesetofwholenumbers.
3.Z={−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,···}=thesetofintegers.
4. Q=thesetofrationalnumbers(terminatingorrepeatingdecimals).
5. Q‘=thesetofirrationalnumbers(nonterminating,nonrepeating
decimals).
6. R=thesetofrealnumbers.
7. C=thesetofcomplexnumbers.
DefinitionsRegardingSets
Asetisfiniteifthenumberofelementsinthesetisawholenumber.Thecar
dinalnumberofafinitesetisthenumberofelementsinthe set. It contains only a
countable number of elements.
Example:
A={barangaysinBaguioCity}
32
Asetisinfiniteifthecountingofelementshasnotend.Thesetof
integersZorpositiveintegersN(ornaturalnumbers),negativeintegersZ -,and
nonnegative integers (or whole numbers) are infinite sets.
Z ={…,-2,-1,0,1,2, ….}; Z -= {-1,-2,-3…};N ={1, 2,3…}; W={0,1,
2,…}
Thesetofallelementsthatarebeingconsiderediscalledthe
universalset.WewillusetheletterUtodenotetheuniversalset.IfA={1,
2,3}andB={3,4,5}thentheuniversalsetU,consideringnootherset present
isU={1,2,3,4,5}.
Theemptyset, or nullset, is the set that contains no elements. The

symbolØor{}isusedtorepresenttheemptyset.Asanexampleofthe
emptyset,considerthesetofnaturalnumbersthatarenegativeintegers.
Theset{Ø}isnotemptysinceitcontainsoneelement.
SetA,A={ Ø},isnotanemptysetsinceithasoneelement.Theset with only

one element is a unitset.
SetA isequaltosetB,denotedbyA =B,ifandonlyifA andB have exactly the

same elements.
Example:
Ah,o,p,eB
p,o,e,h
SetA isequivalenttosetB,denotedbyA~ B,ifandonly ifA and

Bhavethesamenumber ofelements. Thecardinalityof thetwosetsisthe same.
Example:
A
l,o,v,eB
,,,
{Ø}. ThesetsC={a,b,c}andD={4,5,6}areequivalent sets.Also,{2}~Equal sets
are equivalent, but not vice versa.
Setsthathavecommonelementsarejointsets.ThesetsA={4,5,
6}andB={6,10,11}arejointsets,since6isacommontobothAandB.ThesetsC={r,I,
c,h}andD={p,o,b,r,e}arejointsetsbecauseris common to both C and D.
33
Twosetsaredisjointiftheyhavenocommonelements.ThesetE=
{a,b,c}andF={e,f,g}aredisjointsets,sincenoelementiscommon.The
set{0}and{Ø}arealsodisjointsets.ThepositiveoddintegerZO={1,3,5,
…} and the nonnegative even integers Z e= {0, 2, 4, …} aredisjoint sets. Also,
thenegativeintegersZ-={-1, -2,…}andthe nonnegativeintegers W={0, 1, 2, …}
aredisjoint sets.
SetAisasubsetof setBdenotedbyA⊂B, if everyelementofA belongs to B.
InSymbol,A⊂Bifx€A,thenx€B.
Asidefromthedefinition,ifthereisatleastoneelementfoundinB
butnotinA,thenAisapropersubsetofBdenotedbyA⊂B.Thereare
twoimpropersubsetsofanygivenset,theemptysetandthesetitself.The power
setP of A, denoted by P(A) is defined as the set of all subsets of A.
Thefollowinggeneralizationsareconsequencesofthe definition.
a. Everysetisasubsetofitself,i.e.A⊂A.
b. Anemptysetisalwaysasubsetofeveryset,i.e.Ø⊂A.
c. Thesets{Ø} and {0}arenot empty, since each contains
oneelement.
Takenotethatthenumberofsubsetsofagivensetis2nwheren
denotesnumberofelementsoftheset.Intheprecedingexample,Ahas22
=4subsets.
Example:
ThesetB={a,b,c}has23subsets.Thepowersethasthe element with
breakdown as follows:
Improper subset with 3 elements:{a, b, c}, or BProper
subsets with 2 elements: {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}
Proper subsets with 1 element: {a}, {b}, {c}
Improper subset with no element:{ }
PowersetofB=P(B)={B,Ø,{a,b},{a,c},{b,c},{a},{b},{c}}
ThecomplementofasetA,denotedbyA‘,isthesetofallelementsof the
universal set U that are not elements of A.
Therearetwofundamentalresultsconcerningtheuniversalsetand
theemptyset.Becausetheuniversalsetcontainsallelementsunder
consideration,thecomplementoftheuniversalsetistheemptyset.
34
Conversely,thecomplementoftheemptysetisthe universalset,because
theemptysethasnoelementsandtheuniversalsetcontainsallthe elements
underconsideration.Usingmathematicalnotation,westatethese fundamental
results as follows:
U’=ØandØ‘=U.
TheEnglishlogicianJohnVenn(1834–1923)developeddiagrams
thatcanbeusedtoillustratesetsandrelationshipsbetweensets.This
diagramfacilitatedone‘sconceptualizationofthesetsandrelationswithin
it.ItiscalledtheVennDiagram.InaVenndiagram,theuniversalsetis
representedbyarectangularregionandsubsetsoftheuniversalsetare
generally representedby ovalorcircularregions drawn insidethe
rectangle.Otherswouldpreferdifferenttypesofpolygonstoemphasize
differencesbetweenthem.TheVenndiagrambelowshowsauniversalset
andoneofitssubsets,labeledassetA.Thesizeofthecircleisnotaconcern.Theregi
onoutsideofthecircle,but insideoftherectangle, represents the set A‘.
U
A
AVennDiagram
Theoperationsonsetsbehaveinamannersomewhatsimilarto the basic

operations on numbers.
FourBasicOperationsonSets:
1. UnionofSetsAandB
A∪B=setsofallelementsfoundinAorBorboth={x|x∈Aorx
∈B}
Example: {a,b,c,d,e}∪{b,e,f,g}={a,b,c,d,e,f,g}
Ingeneral:A∪U=U,A∪Ø=A,A∪A=A
35
2. IntersectionofSetsAandB
A∩B=setofallelementscommontobothAandB={x|x∈Aand
x∈B}
Example: {1,2,3,4}∩{0,2,3,4,9}={2,3,4}
Ingeneral:A∩U=A,A∩Ø=Ø,A∩A=A
3. ComplementofA
A‘=setofallelementsfoundintheuniversalsetbutnotinA={x| x ∈ U and
x not ∈}
Example: A={1,2},U={1,2,3,4,5}A‘={3,4,5}
Ingeneral:A‘∪U=U,A‘∪A=U
4. DifferenceofsetsAandB
A–B=setofallelementsfoundinAbutnotinB={x|x∈Uandx
∈B}
B–A={x|x∈Bandx∈A}
Example1:
A={4,5,6,7},B={1,6,7,8,9}
A–B={4,5}
B–A={1,8,9}
Example2:
C = {b, r, a, I, n}; D = {r, a, I, n, d, r, o, p, s}C
– D = {b}
D–C={d,r,o,p,s}
Ingeneral:A–B=B‘∩A;B–A=A‘∩B
LawsofSets
Setsinvolvingtheoperationsunion,intersection,complementanddifferencesa
tisfypropertieswhichweshallrefertoasthelawsofsets.
1. CommutativeLaw–Theorderinwhichthesetsaretakendoesnot affect
the result.
A∪B=B∪A A∩B=B∩A
Examples:
{2}∪{3}={3}∪{2};{2}∩{3}={3}∩{2}
2. AssociativeLaws–Thegroupinginwhichthesetsaretakendoes not
affect the result.
A∪(B∪C)=(A∪B)∪C A∩(B∩C)=(A∩B)∩C
Examples:
[{a}∪{b,c}]∪{c,e,f}={a}∪[{b,c}∪{c,e,f}]
36
3. IdentityLaws–Asetoperatedtoanothersetcalledtheidentity
elementgivesthesetitself.
A∪Ø=A,forunionofsets,theidentityistheempty set.
A∩U=A,forintersectionofsets,theidentityelementisthe
universalset.
4. InverseorComplementLaws–Thisinvolvesinsideandoutsideof a set.
A∪A‘=U A∩A‘=Ø
5. DistributiveLaws–
Theselawsinvolvethreesetswithtwodifferentoperations,distributingthefir
stoperationoverthesecondone.
A∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C); LeftDistributiveLawof∪over∩. A∩
(B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C); Left Distributive Law of∩ over ∪.(A
∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C) ∩ (B ∪ C); Right Distributive Law of∪ over ∩.
(A∪B)∩C=(A∩C)∪(B∩C); RightDistributiveLawof∩over∪.
37
38
NAME: SCORE:
SCHEDULE: DATE:
Exercise2.1.A
A. Writeifthesetisempty,unit,finiteorinfinite.
1. A={TouristspotsinthePhilippines} 1.
2.B={Studentsinyourclasswhoare9yearsold} 2.
3.C={MidpointofsegmentAB} 3.
4.D={TVNetworksinthePhilippines} 4.
5.E={WholeNumbersGreaterthan3andlessthan4} 5.
6.F={Raindrops} 6.
7.G={YourFather} 7.
8.H={SetofWholeNumbersBetween-1and0} 8.
9.I={ComplexNumbers} 9.
10.J={StepsinSolvinganyProblem} 10.
B.Determineifthepairofsetsareequal,equivalent,jointordisjoint.
Alettersinthewordloop
1.
1.
Blettersinthewordpool
CvowelsintheEnglishalphabet
2.
2.
Dlettersintheword seven
Elettersofthewordfaith
3.
3.
Flettersofthewordhope
Gwholenumberslessthan10
4.
4.
Hwholenumbersgreaterthan10butlessthan15
Ithefirst8countingnumbers
5.
5.
Jwholenumbersbetween0and9
Ku,r,b,a,n
6. 6.
Lr,u,r,a,l
Mu,r,b,c
7. 7.
Ni,n,v,u
Olettersof the word
Plettersof kindthewordkin
8. 8.
dle
QvowelsintheFilipinoalphabet
9.
9.
Rvowelsinthewordmiscellaneous
10.
SsetofT oddnumbersbetween0to10
10.
setof evennumbersbetween0to10
39
40
NAME: SCORE:
SCHEDULE: DATE:
Exercise2.1.B
U1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
A1,2,3,4,5
Given: B5,6,7,8,9,10
C2,4,6,8,10
D1,3,5,7,9
A. Findthefollowing:
1. AB 1.
2. A'B 2.
3. AB  B' 3.
4.A-C' 4.
5. AC' 5.
6.AD 6.
7. BC  A 7.
8. AD'' 8.
9. AU 9.
10.B'CD 10.
B. TrueorFalse
1.AØ=A 1.
2. A'AU 2.
3. AUA 3.
4. A–B=
B'A 4.
5. AUU 5.
41
C. RELATIONS
Relationsaboundindailylife:peoplearerelatedtoeachotherin
manywaysasparentsandchildren,teachersandstudents,employersand
employees,andmanyothers.Inbusinessthingsthatareboughtarerelatedtotheirco
standtheamountpaid is relatedtothenumber ofthings
bought.Wealsolookattherelationofthepricesasthesupplyisincreased
orreduced.Ingeometry,wesaythattheareaisalsorelatedtothevolume.
Inphysicsdistancetravelledisrelatedtothevelocity.Ingeneral,werelate onesetof
informationtoanother. Thus, anycorrespondencebetweenthe elements of two
sets is a relation.
Mathematically;arelationisacorrespondencebetweentwothings
orquantities.Itisasetoforderedpairssuchthatthesetofallfirst
coordinatesoftheorderedpairsiscalledDomainandthesetofallthe
secondcoordinatesoftheorderedpairsiscalledRange.Arelationmaybe
expressedasastatement,byarrowdiagram,throughtable,byan equation, or
graphically.
Example:
R={(1,2),(2,4),(3,6),(4,8),(5,10)}
TypesofRelations
1. One–to–Onerelation
2. One–to–Manyrelation
3. Many–to–Onerelation
AnEquivalenceRelationhasthefollowingproperties:
i. Reflexive: 𝑥~𝑥
ii. Symmetric: If𝑥~𝑦,theny~𝑥.
iii. Transitive: If𝑥~𝑦&y~𝑧,then𝑥~𝑧.
D. FUNCTIONS
Afunctionisaveryimportantconceptinmathematics.Afunction
isarelationsuchthateachelementofthedomainispairedwithexactlyoneelemen
toftherange.Anequivalentdefinitionis;afunctionisarelationinwhichnotwo
orderedpairshavethesamefirstcoordinate. To denote this relationship, we
use the functional notation:
y=f(x)
where findicatesthatafunctionexistsbetweenvariablesxandy.
42
Thenotationf:A→Bisusedtodenoteafunctionwhichmeansthat
fisafunctionwithdomainAandrangeB;f(x)=ymeansthatftransform
x(whichmustbeanelementofA)intoy(whichmustbeanelementofB).
EvaluatingaFunction
Thefunctionalnotationy=f(x)allowsustodenotespecificvaluesof
afunction.Toevaluateafunctionistosubstitutethespecifiedvaluesoftheindepende
ntvariableintheformulaandsimplify.
Example:
Whenf(x)=2x–3,findf(2)
Solution:
f(2)=2(2)–3=4–3
f(2)= 1
a.Iff(x)=2x2–3x+5,finda.f(4)
b.f(-3)
c.c.f(5)
Solution:
a.f(4)=2(4)2–3(4)+5=2(16)–12+5=32–12+5=25
b.f(-3)=2(-3)2–3(-3)+5=2(9)+9+5=18+9+5=32
c.f(5)=2(5)2–3(5)+5=2(25)–15+5=50–15+5=40
FundamentalOperationsonFunctions
1. Thesum/differenceoftwofunctionsfandgisthefunctionsdefined by
(f±g)(x)=f(x)±g(x)
Theresultant functionisthealgebraicsum ofthetwofunctions.
2. Theproductoftwofunctions fand gis thefunctiondefined by

(fg)(x)= f(x)g(x)
Theresultantfunctionisequaltotheproductoftheseparate images.
3. Thequotientoftwofunctionsfandgisdefinedbythefunction
(𝑓)(x)=𝑓(𝑥),g(x)≠0
g g(𝑥)
Theresultantfunctionisequaltothequotientoftheseparateimages.
43
Example1: Iff(x)=8-3xandg(x)=5-x,find
a.(f+g)(x) b.(f-g)(2) c.(fg)(x) d.(𝑓)(x)
g
Solutions:
a.(f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x)=(8–3x)+(5–x)=8+5–3x–x=13–4x
b.(f–g)x)=f(x)-g(x)=(8–3x)–(5–x)=8–5–3x–(-x)=3–2x
c.(fg)(x)=f(x)g(x)=(8–3x)(5–x)=40–23x+3x2
d.(𝑓)(x)=8−3𝑥
𝑔 5−𝑥
Example2: Iff(x)=8-2xandg(x)=6-2x2,find
a.(f+g)(x) b.(f-g)(x) c.(fg)(x)
d.(f+g)(2) e.(f-g)(2) f.(fg)(2)
Solutions:
a.(f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x)
=(8–2x)+(6–2x2)
=8–2x+6-2x2=8+6–2x-2x2
=14–2x-2x2
b.(f–g)(x)=f(x)-g(x)
=(8–2x)-(6–2x2)
=8–2x-6+2x2=8-6–2x+2x2
=2–2x+2x2
c.(fg)(x)=f(x)g(x)
=(8–2x)(6–2x2)
=8(6)+(-2x)6+8(-2x2)+(-2x)(-2x2)
= 48 – 12x - 16x2+ 4x3d.
(f+g)(x) = 14 – 2x - 2x2;
(f+g)(2)=14–2(2)–2(2)2
=14–4–8=2
e.(f–g)(x)=2–2x+2x2;
(f–g)(2)=2–2(2)+2(2)2
=2–4+8=6
f. (fg)(x) = 48 – 12x - 16x2+ 4x3; (fg)
(2) = 48 – 12(2) - 16(2)2+ 4(2)3
=48–24–64+32=-8
InverseofaFunction
The inverse of a function is another function that undoes it, and that
it undoes.
Forexample,thefunctionthattakesanumbernton–5isthe inverse of the
function that takes n to n + 5.
Whatistheinverseofy=2x?
44
Sinceyisintermsofx,thenitsinverseshouldbeintermsofy.We look for x

= f(y), that is, x = ½ y.
E. OPERATIONS
AbinaryoperationonasetAisafunctionthattakespairsof elements of A
and produces elements of A from them.
We usethesymbol * to denotearbitrary binary operation on a setA.

Four Properties:
1. Commutative: x*y=y*x
2. Associative: x*(y*z)= (x*y)* z
3. Identity: e*x=x*e
4. Inverse: x*y=y*x=e
Computation is associated with operations. It is themanipulation of

numbersandothersymbolsto arriveatsomenewmathematicalstatement.
Theseothersymbolsmaybelettersusedtostandfornumbers.For
example,intryingtosolveaparticularproblem,wemightletXstandfor
anynumberthatwouldmeettheconditionsoftheproblem.Therearealso
symbolstosignifywhatoperationstoperformonthenumbersymbols.The
mostcommononesare+,-,x,and/(therearealsoothers).Theoperations
+and-areinversesofeachother,justasxand/are:Oneoperation
undoeswhattheotherdoes.Theexpressiona/b canmean"the quantity a
comparedtothequantityb,"or"thenumberyougetifyou divideaby
b,"or"apartsofsize1/b."Theparenthesesin a(b+c) tellusto
multiplyabythesumof b and c.Mathematiciansstudysystemsof
numberstodiscovertheirpropertiesandrelationshipsandtodeviserules for
manipulating mathematical symbols in ways that give valid results.
Avariableisasymbolthatassumesmanyvaluesusedtorepresent
unknowninaproblem.Aconstantisaquantitythatassumesspecific
valueandwhosevaluesremainunchanged―throughouttheproblem‖.For
example,5𝑟 = 6,inthisexpression5and6aretheconstantsandristhe
variable.Therearetwokindsofconstants,theabsoluteornumerical
constantsandthearbitraryconstants.Absolutenumericalconstantsare
those,whichhavesamevalueinallproblems,andarbitraryconstantsare
those,whichhavethesamevaluethroughoutanyparticularproblembut
assumesdifferentlyindifferentproblemsintermsoftheirvalues.Forexample,inthef
ormulaforthecircumferenceofthecircle,𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟,𝜋isan
absolutevalueandrisanarbitraryconstant.Theletterrisarbitrary
becauseitistheradiusofwhatevercirclewouldbegiven.Intheareaof
45
square𝐴 =𝑠2,sisa constantfora particularsquare,henceanarbitrary

constant.Avariableisalsocalledafactorofaterm.Itisusuallytheliteral
coefficient in every algebraic expression.
Analgebraicexpressionisacollectionofalgebraicsymbols,of
constants,variablesorfinitenumberofindicated operationsinvolving
variablesandconstants. For example,16, -5y, 2m , 3d 5b, andn/2–4x.
2 2-
Anequationisastatementthattwoalgebraicexpressionsareequal.
Therefore, an equation always includes the quality symbol, =. Examples of
equations are
2x+4=16,2y=16,and4x+2y=25–y
46
NAME: SCORE:
SCHEDULE: DATE:
Exercise2.1C
A.Foreachof thefollowing functions, find

a. ageneralformulaforf+g,f–g,fgand𝑓.
g
b. thevalueofeachcombinationatx=3andx=-2.
c. Thedomainofeachcombinationbyusingthedefinitions.
1.f(x)=4x–5andg(x)=5–2x
2.f(x)=7–3xandg(x)=x2–3x
3.f(x)=9–x2andg(x)=√5−2𝑥
4.f(x)=2andg(x)=x2+3x+2
𝑥
5.f(x)=3x–4andg(x)=√𝑥2−4𝑥+3
47
48
Lesson2.2.MathematicsasaLanguage
Mathematicsstudentsbuildafoundationofbasicunderstandingsin
number,operation,andquantitativereasoning;patterns,relationships,
andalgebraicthinking;geometryandspatialreasoning;measurement;and
probabilityandstatistics.Theyusenumbersinordering,labelling,and
expressingquantitiesandrelationshipstosolveproblemsandtranslate
informallanguageintomathematicallanguageandsymbols.Studentsuse
objectstocreateandidentifypatternsandusethosepatternstoexpress
relationships,makepredictions,andsolveproblemsastheybuildan
understandingof number,operation,shape, andspace.Asthey progress,
theymovefrominformaltoformallanguagetodescribetwo-andthree-
dimensionalgeometricfiguresandlikenessesinthephysicalworld.And
begintoassociatemeasurementconceptsastheyidentifyandcompare
attributes of objects and situations.
Theylatercollect,organize,anddisplaydataanduseinformation
fromgraphstoanswerquestions,makesummarystatements,andmake
informalpredictionsbasedontheirexperiences.Astheywidentheirscope
inmathematics,algorithmsarebeingutilizedforgeneralizations.
Appropriatelanguageandorganizationalstructuressuchastablesand
chartstorepresentandcommunicaterelationships,makepredictions,and
solveproblemsbecometheirbasictools.Studentsselectanduseformal
languagetodescribetheirreasoningastheyidentify,compare,classifyand
generalize concepts.
Mathematicsasoneprogresses,centersonproof,argumentation,
personalperspectiveandinsights,convincingpeopleandmakingthem
understand.Thus,thereiseleganceinwritingmathematics.Itisessentialto it. It
is like prose and poetry.
Sincewritingmathematicallyisessentialthenafterknowingthe
fundamental concepts, one needs to practice writing. To start with, just like
any languages definitions are important.
Mathematicsholdsontodefinitions.Theconceptsneededin
mathematicsaredefinedproperly.Definitioninmathematicsisaconcisestateme
nt.Itisconcisebecauseitplainlycontainsthebasicpropertiesofanobjectorconce
ptwhichunambiguouslyidentifythatobjectorconcept.
Thus,theessentialcharacteristicsofagooddefinitionareconcise,basicandunam
biguouslyidentified.Itisconciseandnotrambleonwith
49
extraneousorunnecessaryinformation.Itsimplyinvolvesbasicproperties,
ideallythosethataresimplystatedandhaveimmediateintuitiveappeal.It
shouldnotinvolvepropertiesthatrequireextensivederivationorproof,or
thosethatarehardtoworkwith.Inordertobecomplete,adefinitionmust
describe exactly the thing being defined. Nothing more, and nothingless.
GOODDEFINITION:
Arectangleisaquadrilateralallfourofwhoseanglesareright angles.
POORDEFINITION:
Arectangleisaparallelograminwhichthediagonalshavethesame
lengthandalltheanglesarerightangles.Itcanbeinscribedina
circleanditsareaisgivenbytheproductoftwoadjacentsides.
ThisisnotCONCISE.Itcontainstoomuchinformation,allofwhichiscorrect
but most ofwhich is unnecessary.
POORDEFINITION:
Arectangleisaparallelogramwhosediagonalshaveequallengths.
Thisstatementistrueandconcise,butthedefiningpropertyisnotBASIC.Thiswoul
dworkbetterasatheoremtobeprovedthanasadefinition.Inmathematics,assert
ionsofthiskindareregardedas characterizations rather than as definitions.
BADDEFINITION:
Arectangleisaquadrilateralwithrightangles.
This is AMBIGUOUS. With some right angles? With all right angles?
There are lots of quadrilaterals that have some right angles but are
not rectangles.
UNACCEPTABLEDEFINITION:
Rectangle:hasrightangles
ThisisunacceptablebecausemathematicsiswrittenasEnglishiswritten,in
complete,grammaticalsentences.Suchabbreviations frequently hide
major misunderstandings as will be pointed outbelow.
Thoughmathematicsusesalotofsymbolsandterminologies,itisnotplain
lyputtingthemtogetherjustliketheEnglishlanguage.Theremay
besentencesthatarecorrectinEnglishlanguagebutmakenosensein
mathematics.Mathematicalsymbolsareapreciseformofshorthand.They
havetohavemeaningforyou.Tohelpwithunderstandingyouhave
50
contextandconvention.IntheEnglishlanguage,wehavenouns(name
giventoobjectofinterest)andsentences(thosethatstateacomplete
thought.Nounsarenamesofperson,placeorthing.Therearesentences
thataretrue,nottrueorthosewhicharesometimestruesometimesfalse.
AtruesentenceinEnglishis―Theword‗mathematics‘has11letters.A
falsesentenceisthat ―Theword ‗mathematics‘
haseightletters.‖Thesentence―Mathematicsisadifficultsubject.‖issometimestru
e,sometimes false.
In Mathematical language, there is also an expression (name given to
mathematicalobjectofinterest)andamathematicalsentence(justlikethe
Englishlanguagemuststateacompletethought).Examplesofmathematical
expressions arenumber,set, matrix,ordered pair,average. A
truemathematicalstatementis2+ 3=5. Anexampleof a mathematical
sentencethatisfalseisthat:2+3=4.Amathematicalstatementthatis sometimes
true or sometimes false is: x = 2.
Properwritingofmathematicalsentencesaidstothepropersolving of
problems and proofs of theorems or conjectures.
Expression Mathematicalexpression
Anumberincreasedby7 x + 7
Thriceanumberaddedto10 3x + 10
onenumberisfourtimestheother x,4x
sumofthreeconsecutiveintegers x+(x+1)+(x+2)
Tenlessthanfourtimesacertain 4x–10
number
motheris6yearsmorethanthree times Ifxisson‘sage,then,threetimes
older than her son son‘sageis3xandsixmorethan3xis 3x
+6
LOGICANDREASONING
Mathematicsstartedasapracticaltechniquetoimmediateproblems
inlife.Thiswascompiledandhasbeenapplicableingovernance.Inthe handsof
theancientGreeks mathematicsbecomesasystematicbodyof
knowledge.Mathematics is established as a deductivesciencein which the
standard of rigorous demonstration is deductive proof.
Aristotleprovideda codificationoflogicwhichremainsdefinitivefor
twothousandyears. Theaxiomaticmethod isestablishedandis
systematicallyappliedtothemathematicsoftheclassicalperiodbyEuclid,
whose Elementsbecomesoneofthemostinfluentialbooksinhistory.The
nextmajoradvancesinlogicafterAristotleappearinthenineteenth
51
century,inwhichBooleintroducesthepropositional(boolean)logic
andFregedevisesthepredicatecalculus.Thisprovidesthetechnicalbasis for
thelogicizationofmathematicsandthetransitionfrominformalto formal proof.
Thereisanabundant listofstatementsinmathematics.These
statementsdifferfromthestatementsincommunication.Somestatements
arebestconfirmedbyexperimentandotherstatementsarebestconfirmed
byargument.IfIweretotellyou,whilesittinginaconfinedroomwithno
windows,thatitisrainingoutsiderightnow,thenthereisnoamountof
argumentthatwouldbeasconvincingassteppingoutsidetoseefor
yourself.Thestatement―itisraining''isnotananalyticalstatementabout
therelationshipbetweenconcepts. Itisbuta syntheticpropositionabout
theworldthatmightormightnotbetrueatanygiventime.Incontrast,
mathematicalstatementsareanalyticalstatementsthatarebetterproved
byargumentthanbyexperiment. Thissetsthedifferenceof mathematics from
the other sciences. Reasoning in mathematics is different.
Logicisthescienceofreasoning,proof,thinking,orinference.Logic
allowsustoanalyzeapieceofdeductivereasoninganddeterminewhether
itiscorrectornot–todetermineiftheargumentisvalidorinvalid.Itisa
toolusedinmathematicalproofs.Therulesoflogicspecifythemeaningof
mathematicalstatements.Forinstance,theseruleshelpusunderstand
andreasonwithstatements.Logicisthebasisofallmathematical reasoning, and
of all automated reasoning.
Logic is a tool for workingwith complicated compound statements.

Itincludes:
 Alanguageforexpressingthem.
 Aconcisenotationforwritingthem.
 A methodology for objectively reasoning about their truth or
falsity.
 Itisthefoundationforexpressingformalproofsinallbranchesof
mathematics
Amathematicalproofisanargumentthatbeginswithasetof postulates
or assumptions and proceeds to aconclusion by agreedmethods
ofargument.Adeductiveargument
isonethat,ifvalid,hasaconclusionthatisentailedbyitspremises.Meaning,thetr
uthoftheconclusionisa logical consequenceofthepremises—
ifthepremisesaretrue,thenthe conclusion must be true.
52
Apropositionisadeclarativesentence(thatis,asentencethat declaresa
fact)thatiseither trueor false,butnotboth. Asa declarative
sentence,itexpressesacompletethoughtwithadefinitemeaning.
Examples:
1. SaintLouisUniversity isinBaguioCity.
2. QuezonCity,isthecapitalofthePhilippines.
3. Benguet is part of the Cordillera Administrative
Region.4.1 + 1 = 2.
5.2+2=3.
Notallsentencesareconsideredpropositions.
Examples:Considerthefollowingsentences.
1. Whatdayistoday?
2. Readthe instructionscarefully.
3.5x + 1 = 2.
4.x+2y=3z.
Sentences1&2arenotpropositionssincetheyarenotdeclarative sentences.
Sentences3&4arenotpropositionsbecausetheyareneithertrue nor false.
Sentences3&4canbeturnedintoapropositionifweassignvalues to the
variables.
Mathematicallythepropositionsareconvertedsymbolically.Weuse
letterstodenotepropositionalvariables(orstatementvariables),thatis,
variablesthatrepresentpropositions,justaslettersareusedtodenote
numericalvariables.Theconventionallettersusedforpropositional
variablesareP,Q,R,S,....Thetruthvalueofapropositionistrue, denoted
byT,ifitisa trueproposition,and thetruth valueofaproposition is false,
denoted by F, if it is a false proposition.
Manymathematicalstatementsareconstructedbycombining one or
morepropositions.Newpropositions,calledcompoundpropositions,are formed
fromexistingpropositions usinglogical operators orlogical
connectives.LogicalConnectiveisawordorsymbolthatjoinstwo sentences or
propositions to produce a new one.
Thefivebasiclogicalconnectivesareconjunction,disjunction,
implication, bi-conditional, and negation.
53
Thetablebelowshowsthedifferentlogicalconnectivesand the
correspondingkeywordsusedandthesymbolused.
Name Connective(KeyWord) Symbol

Conjunction And V
Disjunction Or V
ImplicationorConditional If…then… →
Biconditional …ifandonlyif… ⫘
Negation Not ~
Conditionalstatementsplayanessentialroleinmathematicalreasoning.Theyare
oftenseeninthedifferenttheoremsofmathematics.Therearedifferentwaysofexpressin
gp →q.Thecommonones
encounteredinmathematicsare:―pimpliesq‖,―ifp,thenq‖,―ifp,q‖,―pis
sufficientforq‖,―qifp‖,―qwhenp‖,―anecessaryconditionforpisq‖,―q
unlessnotp‖,―ponlyifq‖,―asufficientconditionforqisp‖,―qwhenever p‖, ―q is
necessary for p‖ and ―q follows from p‖.
NegationofmathematicalstatementPisdenotedby¬P,readas
―notP‖.
IfPistrue,then¬Pisnottrue.
Examples
1. P:Thetraineesaresleepy.
¬P:Thetraineesarenotsleepy.
2. Q:Ihaveanewphone.
¬Q:Idonothaveanewphone.
TRUTHVALUES
Summaryoftruthvaluesofcompoundstatementsusinglogical connectives
P Q PVQ PVQ P→𝑸 P⫘Q

T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T
54
Theconditionalstatementcanbetransformedtonewconditional
statements.Inparticular,therearethreerelatedconditionalstatementsthatoccurs
ooftenthattheyaregivenspecialnames.Thesearethe
converse,thecontrapositiveandtheinverse.Thecontrapositivealwayshasthesam
etruthvalueastheconditional.
AssigningP as the antecedent orhypothesis and Qas

theconsequentorconclusion;theconditionalandtheimplicationsor
transformation of it is as follows:
CONDITIONAL: P→Q
CONVERSE: Q→P
INVERSE: ¬P→¬Q
CONTRAPOSITIVE:¬Q→¬P
Whentwocompoundpropositionsalwayshavethesametruthvaluewecallt
hemequivalent,sothataconditionalstatementandits
contrapositiveareequivalent.Theconverseandtheinverseofaconditional
statementareequivalentstatementsbutneitherisequivalenttothe
originalconditionalstatement.Animportantthingtorememberisthatone
ofthemostcommonlogicalerrorsistoassumethattheconverseortheinverseofacon
ditionalstatementisequivalenttothisconditional statement.
Adeductiveargument isonethat,ifvalid,hasaconclusionthatis
entailedbyitspremises.Meaning,thetruthoftheconclusionisa logical
consequenceofthepremises—ifthepremisesaretrue,thenthe conclusion
must be true.
A logicalargumenthas threestages:
 Premises:Theclaimsthataregiveninsupportofanargument
--thebuildingblocksofalogicalargument.Apremiseisa
propositionalstatementwhichiseithertrueor false.
 Inference:Thelogicalmovefromoneormorepremisesto
arriveatitsconclusion.Allinferencesmustabidebyaruleofinference
for an argument to be valid.
 Conclusion:Thepremisethatistheconsequence,orproduct,of the
above premises + inference.*
Aconclusioncanthenitselfbecomeapremise(buildingblock)ofa
continued or new argument.
55
Symbolic logic symbolizesargumentsfor simple, efficientassessment

ofvalidity.Asargumentsgetlongerandmorecomplex,symbolsare especially
important.
WritinganArgument inSymbolic Form
WriteArgumentsinSymbolicFormandValidArguments.
Givenpropositions:
I have a college degree (p)I
am lazy (q)
Usingthepropositions andcreatinganargument:
IfIhaveacollegedegree,thenIamnotlazy.
I don‘t have a college degree.
Therefore, I am lazy.
Symbolicform:
IfIhaveacollegedegree,thenIamnotlazy(p→~q) I don‘t have
a college degree (~ p)
Therefore, I am lazy
qHypothesis:((p →~ q) ∧ ~ p)
Conclusion:q
Argumentinsymbolicform:((p
→~ q) ∧ ~ p)→ q
Totesttoseeiftheargumentisvalid,wetaketheargumentin
symbolicformandconstructatruthtable.Ifthelastcolumninthetruth table
results in all true‘s, then the argument is valid.
p q ~p ~q (p→~q) ((p→~q)∧~p) ((p→~q)∧~p)→q

T T F F F F T
T F F T T F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T F
Therefore,thisargumentisinvalidbecausethelastcolumnhasafalse item.
Symbolize the argument, construct a truth table, and determine if the
argument is valid.
It will be sunny or cloudy
today.It isn‘t sunny.
Therefore,itwillbecloudy.
56
S = It will be sunny
C=Itwillbecloudy
Itwillbe sunnyorcloudytoday. S∨C

Itisn‘tsunny. ~S
Therefore,itwillbecloudy. C
Hypothesis: (S ∨C)∧~S
Conclusion: C
S C ~S S∨C (S∨C)∧~S ((S∨C)∧~S)→C
T T F T F T
T F F T F T
F T T T T T
F F T F F T
Thisisavalidargument
RulesofInference
Addition(Add.) ModusPonens(M.P.)
p p⊃q
∴pvq p
∴q
Simplification(Simp.) ModusTollens(M.T.)
p·q p⊃q
∴p ~q
∴~p
Conjunction(Conj.) HypotheticalSyllogism(H.S.)
p p⊃q
q q⊃r
∴p·q ∴p⊃r
ConstructiveDilemma(C.D.) DisjunctiveSyllogism(D.S.)
(p ⊃ q) · (r ⊃ s) pvq
pvr ~p
∴qvs ∴q
DestructiveDilemma(D.D.)
(p⊃q)·(r⊃s)
~qv~s
∴~pv~r
57
IllustrativeExample:
Showthatthepremises:
―Itisnotsunnythisafternoonanditiscolderthan yesterday,‖
―We willgo swimmingonly ifitissunny,‖
―If wedo not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip,‖
and
―Ifwetakeacanoetrip,thenwewillbehomebysunset‖
Leadtotheconclusion:
―Wewillbehomebysunset.‖
Let:Pbetheproposition:―Itissunnythisafternoon.‖Qbetheprop
osition:itiscolderthanyesterday.‖Rbetheproposition:―
Wewillgoswimming.‖
Sbetheproposition:―Wewilltakeacanoetrip.‖
Tbetheproposition:―We willbehomebysunset.‖
Thenthepremisesbecome¬P∧Q,R→P,¬R→S,andS→T. The
conclusion is simply T.
Constructinganargumenttoshowthatthepremisesleadtothedesired
conclusion:
Step: Reason:
1. ¬p∧q Premise
2. ¬p Simplificationusing(1)
3. r→p Premise
4. ¬r Modustollensusing(2)and(3)
5. ¬r→s Premise
6. s Modusponensusing(4)and(5)
7. s→t Premise
8. t Modusponensusing(6)and(7)
Note:Atruthtablecouldbeusedintheproofoftheconclusion,that
istoshowthateachofthefourhypothesesaretrue,theconclusion
isalsotrue.However,sincetherearefivepropositionalvariables,p,
q,r,s,andt,thetruthtablewouldhave25rowsor32rows.
Whenthevariablesinapropositionalfunctionareassignedvalues,
theresultingstatementbecomesapropositionwithacertaintruthvalue.
58
However,thereisanotherimportantway,calledquantification,tocreatea
propositionfromapropositionalfunction.Itexpressesthewordsall,some,many,
none and few are used in quantification.
Aquantifierisaconstructsthatspecifiesthequantityofspecimensin the
domain of discourse that satisfy a formula.
TWOTYPESOFQUANTIFICATION
1. Universal–tellsusthatapredicateistrueforeveryelementunder
consideration.
2. Existential–tellsusthatthereisoneormoreelementunderconsideration
for which the predicate is true.
TheuniversalquantificationofP(x)isthestatement
―P(x)forallvaluesofxinthedomain.‖
Thenotation―∀𝑥,𝑃(𝑥)"denotestheuniversalquantificationofP(x).
Here∀iscalledtheuniversalquantifier.Weread―∀𝑥,𝑃(𝑥)"as―forallx
P(x)‖or―foreveryxP(x).‖AnelementforwhichP(x)isfalseiscalleda counterexample of
―∀𝑥,𝑃(𝑥)".
―∀𝑥,𝑃(𝑥)"is Trueif P(x) is true for every x in the Domain. It is falseif
P(x)isFalseforatleastonexintheDomain.
Example:
1. LetP(x)bethestatement―x+1>x.‖Whatisthetruthvalueof
thequantification∀x,P(x),wherethedomainconsistsofallreal
numbers?
BecauseP(x)istrueforallrealnumbersx,thequantification
∀x,P(x) is true.
2. LetQ(x)bethestatement―x<2―.Whatisthetruthvalueofthe
quantification∀x,Q(x),wherethedomainconsistsofallreal numbers?
Q(x)isnottrueforeveryrealnumberx.Therefore∀x,Q(x)is false.
TheexistentialquantificationofP(x)istheproposition
―ThereexistsanelementxinthedomainsuchthatP(x).‖
Weusethenotation―∃𝑥,𝑃(𝑥)"fortheexistentialquantificationofP(x). Here
―∃"is called the existential quantifier.
―∃𝑥,𝑃(𝑥)"isTrueifP(x)istrueforatleastonexinthedomain.Itis false if P(x)
is false for every x in the domain.
59
NOTE:
Adomainmustalwaysbespecifiedwhenastatement∃x,P(x)is
used.Furthermore,themeaningof∃x,P(x)changeswhenthedomain
changes.Withoutspecifyingthedomain,thestatement∃x,P(x)hasno meaning.
Examples:
1. LetP(x)denotethestatement―x>3.‖Whatisthetruthvalueof
thequantification∃xP(x),wherethedomainconsistsofallreal numbers?
Because―x>3‖issometimestrue―forinstance,whenx=4‖
theexistentialquantificationofP(x),whichis∃x,P(x),istrue.
2. LetQ(x)denotethestatement―x=x+1.‖Whatisthetruthvalue of the
quantification ∃x,Q(x), where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
BecauseQ(x)isfalseforeveryrealnumberx, theexistential
quantification of Q(x), which is∃x,Q(x), is false.
Thequantifiers∀and∃havehigherprecedencethanalllogical
operatorsfrompropositionalcalculus.Forexample,∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥)∨𝑄(𝑥)isthe
disjunctionof∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥)andQ(x).Inotherwords,it𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠(∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥))∨
𝑄(𝑥)ratherthan∀𝑥(𝑃(𝑥)∨𝑄(𝑥)).
NegatingQuantifiedExpressions:
Considerthenegationofthestatement;―Everystudentinyourclass has
taken a course in calculus.‖
∀x,P(x),whereP(x)isthestatement―xhastakenacourseincalculus‖andt
hedomainconsistsofthestudentsinyourclass.The
negationofthisstatementis―Itisnotthecasethateverystudentinyourclasshast
akenacourseincalculus.‖Thisisequivalentto―Thereisa
studentinyourclasswhohasnottakenacourseincalculus.‖Andthisis
simplytheexistentialquantificationofthenegationoftheoriginal propositional
function, namely,∃x¬P(x).
What is the Negations of the Statement “There is anHonest

Politician”?
Let H(x) denote ―xis honest.‖ Then the statement ―There is an honest
politician‖isrepresentedby∃𝑥𝐻(𝑥),wherethedomainconsistsofall
politicians.Thenegationofthisstatementis¬∃𝑥𝐻(𝑥),whichisequivalent
to∀𝑥¬𝐻(𝑥).Thisnegationcanbeexpressedas―Everypoliticianisdishonest.‖
60
DeMorgan’sLawsforQuantifiers
Equivalent Whenisnegation
Negation WhenFalse?
Statement True?
¬∃𝑥,𝑃(𝑥) ∀𝑥,¬𝑃(𝑥) Foreveryx,P(x)isfalse. Thereisanxfor
whichP(x)is true.
¬∀𝑥,𝑃(𝑥) ∃𝑥,¬𝑃(𝑥) Thereisanxforwhich P(x) P(x)istruefor

is false. every x.
MultipleQuantifierssuchas∀𝑥∀𝑦,∃𝑥∃𝑦,∀𝑥∃𝑦,etc…aresaidtobe
NESTEDQUANTIFIERS.Thesearepropositionalfunctionswithmultiplequa
ntifiers involvingmorethanonevariable.
**Notethateverythingwithinthescopeofaquantifiercanbethoughtofas a
propositional function.
Forexample,
∀x∃y(x+y=0)
isthesamethingas∀xQ(x),whereQ(x)is∃yP(x,y),whereP(x,y)isx
+y=0.
IllustrativeExamples:
A. TranslateintoEnglishtheStatement:
∀x∀y((x>0)∧(y<0)→(xy<0)),
wherethedomainforbothvariablesconsistsofallreal
numbers.
Solution:
Thisstatementsaysthatforeveryrealnumberxand
foreveryrealnumbery,ifx>0andy<0,thenxy<0.That
is,thisstatementsaysthatforrealnumbersxandy,ifxis
positiveandyisnegative,thenxyisnegative.Thiscanbe stated
moresuccinctlyas―Theproductofapositivereal
numberandanegativerealnumberisalwaysanegativereal
number.‖
B. TranslatetheStatement:
∀x(C(x)∨∃y(C(y)∧F(x,y)))
intoEnglish,whereC(x)is―xhasacomputer,‖F(x,y)is
―xandyarefriends,‖andthedomainforbothxandy
consistsofallstudentsinyourschool.
61
Solution:
Thestatementsaysthatforeverystudentxinyour
school,xhasacomputerorthereisastudentysuchthatyhasacomp
uterandxandyarefriends.Inotherwords,every
studentinyourschoolhasacomputerorhasafriendwhohas a
computer.
62
NAME: SCORE:
SCHEDULE: DATE:
Exercise2.2
A. Determinethetruthvalueofallthestatements. WriteTrueorFalse.
1.47+7=54and41isaprimenumber. 1.
2.If3and7areeven,andcircleshave4vertices. 2.
4.If12and64areeven,andsquarehave4rightangles. 4.
6. Ifpis"sheepbaaw",qis"catsneigh"andris"cowsmoo".Thenwhatisthe
truthvalueof(pVq)->r? 6.
7. Ifpis"triangleshave3vertices",qis"owlshoot"andris"343isthe
squareof7"whatisthetruthvalueofp->(q^r)? 7.
8. Determinethetruthvalueof:"triangleshave3verticesand
circleshave360degrees". 8.
9. Ifpis"cowshoot"andqis"owlsbaaw".Thenwhatis
thetruthvalueofIfp,thenq? 9.
10. Determinethetruthvalueofthenegationofthestatement:
"If3+7=10,then1+2=3." 10.
B. Fillintheblanks.
1. Ifyougeta100onyourfinalexam,thenyourteacherwillgiveyouan―A‖
 The ―If‖statement orp is .
 The―then‖statement
or q is .
2. IfyouliveinBaguioCity,thenyouliveinBenguet.
or q is .
3. Ifanumberisdivisibleby10,thenthenumberendsinzero.
orq is .
63
64
Chapter
PROBLEM
3 SOLVINGAND
REASONING
a.)Usedifferenttypesofreasoningtojustifystatementsandarguments made
about mathematics and mathematical concepts
b.)Differentiate inductive reasoning from deductive reasoning
c.)Solve problems employing Polya‘s four steps
d.)Solveproblemsinvolvingpatternsandrecreationalproblems
e.)Increase awareness on the importance of reasoning and
problemsolving
f.)Organize their methods and approaches for proving and
solvingproblems
Lessons:
3.1 UnderstandingMathematicalReasoning
3.2 InductiveandDeductiveReasoning
3.3 Polya‘sFourStepsinProblemSolving
3.4 MathematicalProblemsinvolvingPatterns
3.5 RecreationalProblemsusingMathematics
65
Lesson3.1MathematicalReasoning
ReasoningisanessentialskillinMathematicsmostespeciallyin problem-
solving;itisalsoimportantinstudents‘activities.Mathematical
reasoningreferstotheabilityofapersontoanalyzeproblemsituations
andconstructlogicalargumentstojustifyhisprocessorhypothesis,to
createbothconceptualfoundationsandconnections,inorderforhimtobe
abletoprocessavailableinformation.Withthedevelopmentof mathematical
reasoning, students recognize that mathematics makes sense and
canbeunderstood.Theylearnhowtoevaluatesituations, select problem-
solving strategies,drawlogicalconclusions,developanddescribe solutions,
and recognize how those solutions can be applied.
Reasoningusesstatementsthatconsistoftwoclauses;thefirst
clausebeginswith―if‖andthesecondclausestartswith―then‖.These
clausesarecommonlyknownashypothesisandconclusionandtogether
theyformastatementarereferredtoasconditional statement.The
conditionalstatementisrepresentedby―Ifpthenq‖hereprepresentsthe
―if‖clauseknownasthehypothesisandtheqrepresentsthe―then‖clause
knownastheconclusion.Theconditionalstatementisrepresentedbythe
symbol p ⇒ q which is read as ―ifp then q‖.
Examples:
1. Iftwoanglesare complementary,thentheirsumis90˚.
Hypothesis: If two angles are complementary
Conclusion: Their sum is90˚.
2. If the number ends in 0 or 2, it is divisible by 2.

Hypothesis: If the number ends in 0 or 2
Conclusion: It is divisible by 2.
3. If two triangles are congruent, then their corresponding parts

arecongruent.
Hypothesis:Iftwotrianglesarecongruent
Conclusion:Theircorrespondingpartsarecongruent
4. All vegetarians eat vegetables.

Hypothesis: If one is a vegetarian
Conclusion: He eats vegetables
66
5. He who is lazy shall not eat.

Hypothesis: If one is lazy
Conclusion: He shall not eat
Takenotethataconditionalstatementmaysometimesbetrueor
false.Aconditionalstatementwhosehypothesisistruefollowedbyafalse
conclusionisfalse;otherwisetrue.Toshowthataconditionalstatementis false, a
counterexample is needed.
Further,mathematicalreasoningistheprocessoffindingtheproof
foracertainmathematicalstatementbyusinglogicanddeductions.There
arevarioustypesofproofssuchasproofbycontradictionandproofby
contrapositive.Theseproofswilltakeanassumptionandthenprovethe
statementbasedon theassumption.(https://math.tutorvista.com/math/mathematical-
reasoning.html)
ProofbyContradiction
Proofbycontradictionisaprocessofmathematicalreasoningto
proveagivenstatement.Inthismethod,toprovepweassume¬p and
deriveacontradictionfromthat. Thensince¬p impliesacontradiction,it cannot
hold true. Hence p must be
true.
Inaproofbycontradiction,thegivenstepswillbefollowed.
1. Takeapropositionptobeproved.
2. Makeanassumptionthatpisfalseand¬pistrue.
3. Deducethatif¬pistrue,bothqand¬qforapropositionqistrue.
4. Hence,wegetacontradiction.Statethatbecauseofthecontradiction,itca
n'tbethecasethatthestatementisfalse,soit must be true.
5. Itisprovedthattheassumptionpisfalseiswrong;thus,pistrue.
Themostcommonillustrationofproofbycontradictionistoprove that √2 is
an irrational number.
Statement:√2isanirrationalnumber.
Proof:Assumethat√2 isarationalnumber.Then,itcanbeexpressedasa fraction.

Letussuppose√2=𝑎/𝑏whereaandbarerelativelyprime.
67
Squaringbothsides,
2
2=𝑎
𝑏2
2b2=a2
sincea2isevenawillalsobeeven.
4b2=2(a 1)
2
similarly,itcanbeproventhatbisevennumber.
As bothaand b are even numbers then theycannot be relatively

prime.
1. Provethatthenegativeofanirrationalnumberisirrational.
Solution:
Statement:Thenegativeofanirrationalnumberxisirrational.
Proof:Supposethat-xisarationalnumber.
Then,wewillhavetwointegersaandbsuchthat,
–x=a/b
Multiplyingbothsidesby-1, x
= −a/b
Asaisaninteger,-aisalsoaninteger.Hence,−a/b isarational
numberwhichisacontradiction.Ourassumptionisprovedtobewrong. It is
concluded that negative of an irrational number isirrational.
(https://math.tutorvista.com/math/mathematical-reasoning.html)
2. Thesumoftwoevennumbersisalwayseven.
Solution:
Letusnegateouroriginalstatement:Thesumoftwoevennumbers is
not always even.
Thatwouldmeanthattherearetwoevennumbersthatwillgiveus
anoddnumberwhenweaddthem.Bydefinition,evennumbersareevenly
divisible by 2. So we could write our new supposition as:
2a+2b=c
Evenandoddnumbersare alwaysintegers(nofractionsor
decimals),soweknow2aand2bareintegers,whichmeansaandbare
68
alsointegers.Ifwedivideanevennumberlike2aby2,we'llalwaysgeta
integer.Wealsoknowcisanoddinteger,whichmeansit'snotevenly
divisibleby2.Nowwecanfactorouta2fromtheleftside:
2(a+b)=c
Andthendivideby2:
𝑐
a+b=
2
Thestuffontheleft,a+b,mustadduptoanintegerbecausethe
sumoftwointegersisalwaysanotherinteger.Butwealreadydecidedcc
mustbeanoddnumber,whichmeanswecan'tdivideitevenlyby2.That
𝑐
means
isnotaninteger.
2
𝑐
Ifa+bisaninteger,but isn'taninteger,there'snowayour
2
equationistrue.Thestuffontheleftcan'tpossiblyequalthefractionon
theright.So,thatisacontradiction!
Conclusion:Sincethesumoftwoevennumbers2aand2bmust
alwaysbeanintegerthat'sdivisibleby2,thiscontradictsthesupposition
thatthesumoftwoevennumbersisnotalwayseven.Hence,ouroriginal
proposition is true: the sum of two even numbers is always even
ProofbyContrapositive
Inthismethod,toprovep→qweproveitscontrapositive,¬q→¬p, instead.
1. Iftwo angles are complementary,then theirsumis 90˚.
Hypothesis: If the sum of two angles is not 90˚
Conclusion: The angles are not complementary

Hypothesis: If the number is not divisible by 2
Conclusion: It is does not end in 0 or 2

arecongruent.
69
Hypothesis: If the corresponding parts of two triangles are

notcongruent
Conclusion:Thetrianglesarenotcongruent
4. Allvegetarianseatvegetables.Hypothesis: If
one does not eat vegetables Conclusion: He
is not a vegetarian

Hypothesis: If one eats
Conclusion: He is not lazy
When we interchange the hypothesis and the conclusion of a

conditionalstatementp⇒q,weform theconversestatement q ⇒ 𝑝.
1. Iftwo angles are complementary,then theirsumis90˚.
Hypothesis: If the sum of two angles is 90˚
Conclusion:Theanglesarecomplementary

Hypothesis: If the number is divisible by 2
Conclusion: It is ends in 0 or 2

arecongruent.
Hypothesis: If the corresponding parts of two triangles are
congruentConclusion: The triangles are congruent

Hypothesis: If one eats vegetables
Conclusion: He is a vegetarian

Hypothesis:Ifonedoesnoteat
Conclusion: He is lazy
Ifwenegatethehypothesisandconclusionofaconditionalstatementp⇒
q,thenweformtheinversestatementnotq⇒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑝.
70
1. Iftwo angles are complementary,then theirsumis 90˚.

Hypothesis: If two angles are not complementary
Conclusion: Their sum is not 90˚.

Hypothesis: If the number does notend in0 or 2
Conclusion: It is not divisible by 2.

arecongruent.
Hypothesis:Iftwotrianglesarenotcongruent
Conclusion:Theircorrespondingpartsarenotcongruent

Hypothesis: If one is not a vegetarian
Conclusion: He does not eat vegetables

Hypothesis:Ifoneisnotlazy
Conclusion: He shall eat
71
72
NAME: SCORE:
SCHEDULE: DATE:
Exercise3.1
A. Ineachofthefollowingexamples,identifyboththeHypothesisand
theConclusion.
1. Ifyouhaveacoupon,thenyouwillreceiveafreedrinkwithyourpizza.
 Hypothesis:
 Conclusion:
2. Ifthereisnoschool,thenitistheweekend.
 Hypothesis:
 Conclusion:
Noteverycause-effectrelationshipispresentedinIf-thenorconditionalform.
Sometimes,youhave tointerpretthe statementtodeterminethe hypothesisand
conclusionbeforeyoucanwritethestatementinconditionalform.
3. Youarenotinschoolduringthesummer.
 Hypothesis:
 Conclusion:
 Conditional Statement:
4. TheBeermenwillplayinthefinalsafterwinningthisgame.
 Hypothesis:
 Conclusion:
 Conditional Statement:
B. Fillintheblanks.
Conditional statement: If it is an acutetriangle, then all three interior angles have a
measure less than 90°.
1. The hypothesis or p is: .
2. Thenegationof
the hypothesis orp is: .
3. The conclusionor q is: .
4. Thenegationof
the conclusionorq is: .
5. TheContrapositivestatementis: .
73
74
Lesson3.2 InductiveandDeductiveReasoning
Inductiveanddeductivereasoningaretwofundamentalformsof
reasoningformathematicians.Inductivereasoninginvolveslookingfor
patternsandmakinggeneralizations.Forexample,studentsusethistypeofreaso
ningwhentheylookatmanydifferentquadrilaterals,andtrytolist
thecharacteristicstheyhaveincommon.Thereasoningprocessis
enhancedbyalsoconsideringfiguresthatarenotquadrilateralsand discussing
how they are different.
QUADRILATERALSNOTQUADRILATERALS
Anexampleofinductivereasoningis,forexample,whenyounotice
thatallthedogsyouseearoundyouareblackandwhitesoyoumakethe
conclusionthatalldogsintheworldareblackandwhite.Canyousayfor certain
that this conclusion is correct? No, because it is based on just a few
observations.However,thisisthebeginningofformingacorrect
conclusion,oracorrectproof.Whatthisobservationhasgivenyouisa starting
hypothesis to test out.
Inductiveordeductivereasoningcanbeusedwhensolving
problems.Thetypeofreasoningthatformsaconclusionbasedonthe
examinationofspecificexamplesiscalledinductivereasoning.The
conclusionformedbyusinginductivereasoningisoftencalledaconjecture,
since it may or may not be correct.
75
1. Considerthefollowingprocedure:
a. Pickanumber.
b. Multiplythenumberby8,
c. Add6totheproduct
d. Dividethesumby2,and
e. Subtract3.
Completetheaboveprocedureforseveraldifferentnumbers.Use
inductivereasoningtomakeaconjectureabouttherelationshipbetween
thesizeoftheresultingnumberandthesizeoftheoriginalnumber.
a. Pickanumber.
b. Multiplythenumberby9,
c. Add15totheproduct,
d. Dividethesumby3,and
e. Subtract5.
Completetheaboveprocedureforseveraldifferentnumbers.Use
inductivereasoningtomakeaconjectureabouttherelationshipbetween
thesizeoftheresultingnumberandthesizeoftheoriginalnumber.
a. List1asthefirstoddnumber
b. Addthenextoddnumber to1.
c. Addthenextoddnumber tothesum.
d. Repeataddingthenextoddnumbertotheprevioussum.
Anothertypeofreasoningiscalleddeductivereasoning.Deductive
reasoningisdistinguishedfrominductivereasoninginthatitistheprocess
ofreachingaconclusionbyapplyinggeneralprinciplesandprocedures.
Deductivereasoninginvolvesmakingalogicalargument,drawing
conclusions,andapplyinggeneralizationstospecificsituations.Forexample, once
students have developed an understanding of "triangle," they
applythatgeneralizationtonewfigurestodecidewhetherornoteachisa
triangle.Theconclusionsreachedbythistypeofreasoningarevalidand can be
relied on.
76
1. If anumber is divisibleby 2, then it must be even.12
is divisible by 2.
Therefore,12isanevennumber.
2. AllMathematics teachers know how to play Sudoku.

Resty is a Math teacher.
Therefore,RestyknowshowtoplaySudoku.
3. IfastudentisaDOSTscholar,hereceivesamonthlyallowance.
Ifastudentreceivesamonthlyallowance,hisparentswillbe happy.
Therefore,ifastudentisaDOSTscholar,hisparentswillbehappy.
4. If∠Aand∠Baresupplementaryangles,theirsumis180º.If m∠A = 100º,

then m∠B = 80º
LogicPuzzlescanbesolvedbydeductivereasoning.Achartthatenables
ustodisplaythegiveninformationinavisualmannerhelpsinthesolution.
1. Eachoffourneighbors,Mark,Zen,Linda,andRoy,hasadifferentoccupation
(teacher,banker, chef, or broker).
Fromthefollowingclues,determinetheoccupationofeachneighbor. CLUES
1. Zengetshomefromworkafterthebankerbutbeforethebroker.
2. Linda, whoisthelasttogethomefromwork,isnottheteacher.
3. ThedentistandLindaleaveforworkatthesametime.
4. ThebankerlivesnextdoortoRoy.
Solution:
From clue 1, Zen is neither the banker nor the broker.
From clue 2, Linda is not the teacher.
77
We know from clue 1 that thebanker is not the last to get home, and
weknowfromclue2thatLindaisthelasttogethome;therefore,Lindais not the
banker
From clue 3, Linda is not the broker.
As a result, Linda is the Chef.
Since Linda is the Chef, it could not be Zen.
Zen, therefore, is the Teacher.
Fromclue4,Royisnotthebanker.
And since Linda is the Chef and Zen is the Teacher, Roy must be the
Broker.
MarkistheBanker,theonlyoccupationnotfilledup.
Teacher Banker Chef Broker

Mark x / x x
Zen / x x x
Linda x x / x
Roy x x x /
2. Daisy,Karen,James,andRudy wererecently
electedasthenewclassofficers(president,vicepresident,secretary,treasurer)ofth
esophomoreclass at Sunbeam College.
Fromthefollowingclues,determinewhichpositioneachholds:
1. Rudyisyoungerthanthepresidentbutolderthanthetreasurer.
2. Daisy and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.
3. Jamesandthesecretaryarenext-doorneighbors.
Vice
President President Secretary Treasurer
Daisy
Karen
James
Rudy
78
Answer:
President--
Vice –President –
Secretary -
Treasurer –
EinsteinPuzzle:
Watch―CanyousolveEinstein’sRiddle–DanVanderVieren.mp4”
EinsteinPuzzleClues
1. The Britlivesinthehousewiththeredwalls.
2. TheSwedehasadog.
3. TheDanedrinkstea.
4. The house with green walls is directly to the left of the house
withwhite walls.
5. Theownerofthehousewithgreenwallsdrinkscoffee.
6. ThepersonwhosmokesPallMallcigarsownsabird.
7. TheownerofthehousewithyellowwallssmokesDunhill.
8. Theman livinginthecenter housedrinksmilk.
9. TheNorwegianlivesinthefirsthouse.
10. ThemanwhosmokesBlends livesnexttothecatowner.
11. Thehorse‘sownerlivesnexttothemanwhosmokesDunhill.
12. ThemanwhosmokesBlueMasterdrinksrootbeer.
13. TheGermansmokesPrince.
14. TheNorwegianlivesnexttothehousewithbluewalls.
15. The man who smokes Blends has a next-door neighbor
whodrinks water.
Whostolethefish?
House
Owner Animal Drink Cigar Wallcolor
Number
1
2
4
5
79
Answer:
80
NAME: SCORE:
SCHEDULE: DATE:
Exercise3.2
A.ClassifythereasoningemployedinthefollowingargumentsasINDUCTIVE
orDEDUCTIVE.
1. Allevennumbersaredivisibleby2.Twenty-eightiseven.Therefore,28is divisibleby
2.
(1)
2. 3,6,9,12,15, .Thenexttermisgoingtobe18.
(2)
3. Sinceallsquaresarerectangles,andallrectangleshavefoursides,allsquares
have four sides.
3.
4. Foranyrighttriangle,thePythagoreanTheoremholds.2)ABCisarighttriangle,
therefore for ABC the Pythagorean Theorem holds.
4.
5. ThepopulationofBaguioCityhasrisensteadilyforthepast40years.
ItislogicaltopredictthatthepopulationofBaguioCitywillalsorisenextyear.
5.
6. Twofiguresaresaidtobecongruentiftheyhavethesameshapeandsizeor
ifonehasthesameshapeandsizeasthemirrorimageoftheother.Myfigure
isthemirrorimageofmymirrorimage,thereforemyfigureandmymirror image are
congruent.
6.
7. Ifx =
4Andify=1
Then2x+y=9
7.
8. Basedonasurveyof3300randomlyselectedregisteredvoters,56.2%
indicatethattheywillvotefortheincumbentofficialsintheupcomingelection.
Therefore,approximately56%ofthevotesintheupcomingelectionwillbefor the
incumbent.
8.
81
9. JackistallerthanJill.JillistallerthanJoey.Therefore,Jackistallerthan Joey.
9.
10. Itusuallytakes2–
3daysforadeliverytoshipfromthewarehousetoyourdoorviamostmajorshippingservi
ces.YouorderedonTuesdaymorning,soit‘s
safetoassumeyourpackagewillarriveThursdayorFriday.
10.
82
TowerofHanoi
InductiveandDeductiveReasoning:TheTowerofHanoi
TheTowerofHanoiis―alogicalpuzzle,frequentlystudiedin
cognitivepsychologyandusedasatestofproblem-solvingability,
consistingofthreepegs,ononeofwhichareplacedanumberofdiscsof
varyingdiameter,thelargestatthebottomandthesmallestatthetop (Oxford
Reference).
ThepuzzlewaspopularizedbyFrenchmathematicianEdouardLucas(18
4291)andmarketedasatoyin1883.Alegendthatcomeswithit
says,―ThereisatempleinthevicinityoftheKashiVishwanathshrine
(famouspilgrimagecenterofLordShivaandtheriverGoddessGang)in
Varanasi,India,wheretherearethreelong-timewornpostslocatedina
largeroom insidethetemple. Theposts aresurrounded by 64 golden disks,
whichhavetobemovedbyBrahminpriestsasperthecommandofan
ancientprophecyservingtheincontrovertiblerulesofLordBrahma.The
legendfurthersaysthat whenthelastmoveofthispuzzlewouldbe
completed,theworldshallcometoanend.‖(From,DeParville,LaNature,
1884,partI,pp.285-286;astranslatedinW.W.RouseBallandH.S.M.
Coxeter,MathematicalRecreationsandEssays,13thedition,Dover,NY, 1987, p.
317.)
―Wewillsayimmediatelythatitwouldbenecessarytoperform
successivelyanumberofmovesequalto18446744073709551615
whichwouldrequiremorethanfivebillioncenturies!‖(Lucas,ascitedin
Stockmeyer, 1998).
EXPLORATION
AFamousPuzzle,TheTowerofHanoiisapuzzleinventedby
EdouardLucasin1883.Thepuzzleconsistsofthreepegsandanumberof
disksofdistinctdiametersstackedononeofthepegssuchthatthelargest
diskisonthebottom,thenextlargestisplacedonthelargestdisk,andso
onasshowninthenextfigure. Theobjectofthepuzzleistotransferthe
towertooneoftheotherpegs.Therulesrequirethatonlyonediskbemovedat
atimeandthata largerdiskmaynotbeplacedona
smallerdisk.Allpegsmaybeused.Determinetheminimumnumberofmovesrequ
iredto transfer all of the disks to another peg for each of the following
situations.
83
a. Youstartwithonlyonedisk.
b. Youstartwithtwodisks.
c. Youstartwiththreedisks.(Note:Youcanuseastackofvarioussize coins to
simulate thepuzzle, or you can use one of themany websites that
provide a simulation of the puzzle.)
d. Youstartwithfourdisks.
e. Youstartwithfivedisks.
f. Youstartwithndisks.
Completethetablebelowbasedfromtheresultoftheactivity.
NUMBEROF CUMULATIVESUMOF
NUMBEROFDISK(S)
MOVES MOVES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
n
Writedownanyobservationorconjecturefromtheactivity.
84
Lesson3.3Polya’s ProblemSolving
TheNationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics(NCTM)positsthat
problemsolvingplaysanimportantroleinmathematicsandshouldhavea
prominentroleinthemathematicseducationofK-12students.Theterm
"problemsolving"referstomathematicaltasksthathavethepotentialto
provideintellectualchallengesforenhancing students'mathematical
understandinganddevelopment.NCTMpointedoutthatpeoplewhocan
reasonandthinkanalyticallytendto:(a)notepatterns, structure,or
regularitiesinbothreal-worldsituationsandsymbolicobjects;(b)askif
thosepatternsareaccidentaloriftheyoccurforareason;(c)conjecture and
prove
Problem-solvingisanimportantskillnotonlyindealingwith
Mathematics,butalsoinmakingdecisionsinlife.Decision-makingisa
significantpartofproblem-solving.Studentsshouldbetaughthowtosolve
problemslogicallyandaccurately;andintheprocess,theydiscoverthat there
are various ways to solve a problem.
GeorgePolya,aHungarianmathematician,describedthemethods of
problemsolvinginhisbookHowtoSolveIt(1945).Thissystematicprocess for
solving problemsis now referred toasthePolya4-StepProblem-
SolvingProcess. Thisprocessisdiscussedinthislessontohelpstudents develop
an action plan for addressing problems.
Polya‘sfourstepsinProblem-Solvingareasfollows:
1. UnderstandingtheProblem.
Beforeanythingelse,understandtheproblem-haveafullgraspof
whatareknownandnotknown.Tohelpyouunderstandthe problem,
consider the following:
(a) restatetheprobleminyourownwords
(b) determineexactlywhatisaskedfor
(c) identifyorlistthegivendata,conditions,andinformation
(d) identifytheunknown(s)
2. DeviseaPlan–strategize.
Pó lyamentionsthattherearemanyreasonablewaystosolveproblems.Thes
killatchoosinganappropriatestrategyisbest
learnedbysolvingvariousproblems.Applyingstrategiestodevisea
planrequiresskillandownjudgment.Somestrategiesareasfollows:
85
(a) Makeanorganizedlist,atable,achart,oradiagramillustrating the

given and the unknown parts
(b) Formulateanequationoramodelshowingtherelationship between
the given data and the unknown
(c) Lookforapattern;guessandcheck
(d) Examine related problems and determine if the
sametechnique can be applied
(e) Work backwards
3. Carry outthe plan

Afterdevisingaplan,thenextlogicalstepistocarryoutthatplan.
(a) ImplementthestrategyinStep2andperformanynecessary
actions or computations.
(b) Checkeachstepoftheplanasyouproceed;thismaybe
intuitivechecking oraformalproofofeachstep.
(c) Keepanaccuraterecordofyourstepsasyouimplementyour devised
plan.
(d) Persistwiththeplanthatyouhavechosen,andifitcontinues not to
work, discard it and choose another.
4. Lookback
Pó lyamentionsthatmuchcanbegainedbytakingthetimetoreflect,exami
ne, andlook backatwhatyouhavedone-
whatworkedandwhatdidn't;doingthiswillenableyoutopredictwhat
strategytousetosolvefutureproblems,iftheserelatetotheoriginal
problem.
Ensurethatthesolutionisconsistentwiththefactsoftheproblem.
 Interpretthesolutioninthecontextoftheproblem.
 Askyourselfwhethertherearegeneralizationsofthesolution that could
apply to other problems.
(a) Examinethesolutionobtained.Checktheresultsinthe original
problem (in some cases, this will require a proof).
(b) Interpretthesolutionintermsoftheoriginalproblem.Find
outifyouranswermakessenseorisreasonable.Ensurethat the
solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
(c) Determinewhetherthereisanothermethodoffindingthe solution.
(d) Ifpossible,determineotherrelatedormoregeneralproblemsforwhi
chthetechniqueswillwork;findoutifthereare
86
generalizationsofthesolutionthatcouldapplytoother problems
1. Onenumberis7morethananother.Twicethelargerisequaltofourtimes the
smaller decreased by 2. Find the numbers.
Step1:UnderstandtheProblem
Wearelookingfortwonumberswhereinoneis7morethananother,
andtwicethelargerisequaltofourtimesthesmallerdecreasedby2.
Step2:Deviseaplan
We can use the ―Formulatean equation‖ strategyx

= smaller number
x + 7= larger number
Equation: 2(x+7)=4x–2
Step3:Carryouttheplan
2(x+7)=4x–2
2x+14=4x–2
Subtract4xandsubtract14fromthebothsidesoftheequation 2x–
4x+14–14=4x–4x–2–14
– 2x = – 16 then divide both sides by–
2x=8andx+7=8+7=15
Step4:Lookback
15is7morethan8;twice15,whichis30,isfourtimes8less2.
Thus,thefinalansweris:Thesmallernumberis8andthelarger number is
15.
87
2. Anneis 2yearsolderthanBetty.LastyearAnnewas 2 timesasoldasBetty.

How old is Anne?
WearelookingfortheageofAnneatpresent.Sheisnow2years older than
Betty, and last year she was twice as old as Betty.
Step2:Deviseaplan
x=ageofBettynow x–1=ageofBettylastyear
x + 2 = age of Anne now x + 2 – 1 = x + 1 = age of Betty last
yearWecanalsouseatablesuchasthis:
Agenow Agelastyear
Betty x x-1
Anne x+2 x+1
Last year, Anne was twice as old as

BettyThus,theequationis:x–1=2(x+1)
Step 3: Carry out the plan

x – 1 = 2(x + 1)
x–1=2x+2
x=3andx+2=5
Step4: Lookback
IfAnneis5yearsoldnow,Bettyis3yearsold.Lastyear,Annewas 4 and
Bettywas 2, that is, Anne was twice as old as Betty.
Finalanswer:Anneis5yearsoldatpresent.
3. Jerryis7 yearsolderthanJan.InthreeyearsJerrywillbetwiceasoldas Jan.

Find their present ages.
WearelookingforthepresentagesofJerryandJan.Atpresent,
Jerryis7yearsolderthanJan.Threeyearsfromnow,Jerrywillbetwice as old
as Jan.
88
Step2:Deviseaplan
Ageatpresent Age3yearsfromnow
Jan
Jerry
Three years from now, Jerry will be twice as old as Jan

Thus, the equation is:
Step4:Lookback
Thus,thefinalansweris:
4. TonioandMaoleftat8A.M.fromthesamepoint,Toniotravelingeastatanaverag
espeedof50mphandtheMaotravellingsouthatanaveragespeedat60mph.Atwha
ttimetothenearestminutewilltheybe300miles apart?
TonioandMaostartatthesametime,fromthesamepointin
differentdirections(ToniototheeastandMaotothesouth)anddroveat
differentaveragespeeds.Wearelookingforthetimespentaftertheyare
300milesapart,assumingthattheydrovecontinuously.
Step2:Deviseaplan
Makea diagram showing their directions. Recall that distance
equalstheproductofspeed/rateandtime,thatis,d=ratextime.Thetwocars
aretravelingindirectionsthatareatrightangles,sothePythagoreanTheoremholds:
thesquareofthehypotenuseisequaltothesumofthesquaresofthetwolegsofthetria
ngle.Lettingxandybethedistances traveled by the two cars in t hours.
89
EAST
y
D
SOUTH UsingPythagoras‘theorem,D2=x2+y2
Step4:Lookback
Finalanswer:
5. Hereare thefirstfiveterms ofanumber sequence: 2,7,12,17,22.

a) Writedownthenextterminthesequence.
b) 45isnotaterminthisnumbersequence.Explainwhy
Wearelookingforapatterninthegivenfivenumbers,andthen determine the
next number.
Step2:Deviseaplan
90
Step4:Lookback
Finalanswer:
Generalization:
Wecanmakeageneralizationtofindthenthterminthesequence: Let a = the first number in the sequ
n=thenumberofterms; an= the nthterm;
d=commondifference(thetermwhichisaddedtotheprecedingterm
togetthenextterm)
So,if27=2+5(5),thenan =a+d(n–1)
Toanswerthesecondpart―45isnotaterminthisnumbersequence‖, use the
equationan =a+d(n–1)
If45isaterminthesequence,whichtermisit?
45=2+5n–5 48=5n n=9.6

Sincenisnotacountingnumber,then45isnotaterminthesequence.
91
Lesson3.4MathematicalProblemsinvolvingPatterns
Anordered listofnumbers such as
–3,1,5,9,13...
Iscalledasequence.Thenumbersinasequencethatareseparated
bycommasarethetermsofthesequence. Theabovesequenceis calledan
arithmeticsequence.Sometimesthewords‗series’or‗progression’areusedinpl
aceofsequence.Intheabovesequence,–3isthefirstterm
representedbya1,1isthesecondtermrepresentedbya 2,5isthethird
termrepresentedbya3,9isthefourthterm,and13isthefifthterm.The
threedots―...‖indicatethatthesequencecontinuesbeyond13,whichis
thelastwrittenterm.Itiscustomarytousethesubscriptnotationanto
designatethenthtermofasequence.Inexample5above,itwasshown
thatan=a+d(n–1).
1.Micdecidedtosavemoney for oneweek from

hisallowance.Eachdayhesaves12pesosmorethanthepreviousday.Ifhestart
edsaving8 pesos in the first day, how much will he set aside in the 5 thday?
After a week, how much would he have saved?
Solution:
Thesequencestartswith8thenadd12 untilthefifthday.Thus,the
sequence consists of:
3.Findthe7thterminthesequence5,14,27,44,65...
14–5=9
27–14=13
44–27=17
65–44=21
92
Notethatthepatternisadding4morethanthenumberaddedin
thepreviousnumber.Sothenexttobeaddedis25,andthen29
Thus,65+25=90 Then,90+29=119
Answer:The 7thtermis119.
Anordered listofnumbers such as

3,-3/2,3/4,-3/8,3/16...
Iscalledageometricsequence.Sequences ofnumbersthatfollow a
patternofmultiplyingafixednumber,r,fromonetermtothenextare
calledgeometricsequences.Thefollowingsequencesaregeometricsequences:
SequenceA: 1,2,4,8,16,... r=2
SequenceB: 0.01,0.06,0.36,2.16,12.96,... r=6
SequenceC: 16,-8,4,-2,1,... r=–1/2
Ther-valuecanbecalculatedbydividinganytwoconsecutiveterms in a
geometric sequence. The formula for calculatingr is...
an
r =
n an−1
...wherenisanypositiveintegergreaterthan1.
Intheaboveexamples,
n SequenceA SequenceB SequenceC
nth
term
Ingeneral,tofindthenthtermofageometricsequence,theformula an= a1n –

1is used.
93
Lesson3.5 RecreationalProblemsusingMathematics
Sudoku
ThepopularJapanesepuzzlegameSudokuisbasedonthelogical
placementofnumbers.ASudokupuzzleisdefinedasalogic-based,number-
placementpuzzle. Theobjectiveistofilla9×9 gridwithdigitsin
suchawaythateachcolumn,eachrow,andeachofthenine3×3grids thatmakeup
thelarger 9×9 grid contains all ofthedigits from1 to9.Each
Sudokupuzzlebeginswithsomecellsfilledin.Theplayerusestheseseed
numbers as a launching point toward finding the unique solution.
Itisimportanttostressthefactthatnonumberfrom1to9canbe
repeatedinanyroworcolumn(although,thecanberepeatedalongthe diagonals).
SudokutipsthatyoucanusetoimproveyourSudokuskills:
 Tip1:Lookforrows,columns of3×3sectionsthatcontain5ormore
numbers.Workthroughtheremainingemptycells,tryingthe
numbersthathavenotbeenused.Inmanycases,youwillfind
numbersthatcanonlybeplacedinonepositionconsideringthe
othernumbersthatarealreadyinitsrow,column,and3×3grid.
 Tip2:Breakthegridupvisuallyinto3columnsand3rows.Each
largecolumnwillhave3,3×3gridsandeachrowwillhave3,3×3
grids.Now,lookforcolumnsorgridsthathave2ofthesame
number.Logically,theremustbea3rdcopyofthesamenumberin
theonlyremaining9-cellsection.Lookateachoftheremaining9
positionsandseeifyoucanfindthelocationofthemissingnumber.
TotryplayingSudoku,visithttps://www.funbrain.com/games/sudoku
https://www.miniclip.com/games/sudoku/en/
2 9 8 5
4 7 1 3
3 9 6 4 7
2 5 6 4
8 4 3 2 1
9 7 1 8 6
6 7 5 1 3
9 1 4 5
2 3 6 8
94
Solution:
2 9 8 5
4 7 1 3
3 9 6 4 7
2 5 6 4
8 4 3 2 1
9 7 1 8 6
6 7 5 1 3
9 1 4 5
2 3 6 8
MagicSquares
Amagicsquareofordern isanarrangementofnumbersinasquare
suchthatthesumofthennumbersineachrow,column,anddiagonalis the same
number. (from TIMSS 2011)
Pathasredtilesandblacktiles.Patusesthetilestomakesquare shapes.
The3x3shapehas1blacktile and The4x4shapehas4black tiles

8 red tiles.
and 12 red tiles
R R R R R R R
R B R R B B R
R R R R B B R
R R R R
B -Blacktile
R -Red tile
95
KenKenPuzzles
KenKenisanarithmetic-basedlogicpuzzlethatwasinventedbythe
JapanesemathematicsteacherTetsuyaMiyamotoin2004.Thenoun―ken‖has―kn
owledge‖and―awareness‖assynonyms.Hence,KenKentranslatesas
knowledgesquared, or awareness squared.
KenKenpuzzlesaresimilartoSudokupuzzles,buttheyalsorequireyou to
perform arithmetic to solve the puzzle.
RulesforsolvingaKenKenpuzzle:
Fora3x3puzzle,filleachbox(square)ofthegridwithoneofthenumbers 1, 2, or 3.
Fora4x 4puzzle,filleach box (square)ofthe gridwithone ofthe numbers 1, 2,

3, or 4.
Foranxnpuzzle,filleachbox(square)ofthegridwithoneofthenumbers 1, 2, 3…
n.
 Donotrepeatanumberinanyroworcolumn.
 Thenumbersineach heavilyoutlinedsetof squares, calledcages,
mustcombine(insomeorder)toproducethetargetnumberinthe
toplestcornerofthecageusingthemathematicaloperation indicated.
 Cageswithjustonesquareshouldbefilledinwiththetargetnumber.
 Anumbercanberepeatedwithinacageaslongasitisnotinthe same row or
column.
96
Example:A4x4KenKenpuzzlewith8cages
Solution
6x 7+
2 8x
4x 12x -1
Otherexamples:
97
98

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MATHEMATICSINTHEMODERNWORLD

patterns that can be analyzed in a mathematical way. Mathematics is the

Traditionally,mathematics ispresenteddeductivelyat school. And is

Example 1. In a polygon, a diagonal connects two vertices that are

OneofthemostinterestingNumber Patterns is Pascal's Triangle

In the problem,fourthtermis missing and the next termofthe given

A geometricpattern isakindof pattern formedof sequencesof

Example 1: Determine what shape, figure, or series of figure

1. Findthe missing term inthe following sequence:8, ,16, ,24,28,32.

8. Find the next number: 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 9, 8,

Mathematics is everywhere, it is seen anywhere in the universe. With

Parallellines. Inmathematics, parallellinesstretchto

One is bilateralsymmetry in which an object has twosidesthat are

Apine cone (leftmost figure)exhibits

Mathematicsdeals withharmony.Harmony isthebalanceand order

The language of mathematics has a specialist mathematical

debtisnegative. If 2:15isthescheduledtimeof lift-off, 2:10is"minus5

Theemptyset, or nullset, is the set that contains no elements. The

SetA,A={ Ø},isnotanemptysetsinceithasoneelement.Theset with only

SetA isequaltosetB,denotedbyA =B,ifandonlyifA andB have exactly the

SetA isequivalenttosetB,denotedbyA~ B,ifandonly ifA and

are equivalent, but not vice versa.

SetAisasubsetof setBdenotedbyA⊂B, if everyelementofA belongs to B.

Theoperationsonsetsbehaveinamannersomewhatsimilarto the basic

2. Theproductoftwofunctions fand gis thefunctiondefined by

Sinceyisintermsofx,thenitsinverseshouldbeintermsofy.We look for x

We usethesymbol * to denotearbitrary binary operation on a setA.

Computation is associated with operations. It is themanipulation of

square𝐴 =𝑠2,sisa constantfora particularsquare,henceanarbitrary

A.Foreachof thefollowing functions, find

Logic is a tool for workingwith complicated compound statements.

Name Connective(KeyWord) Symbol

P Q PVQ PVQ P→𝑸 P⫘Q

AssigningP as the antecedent orhypothesis and Qas

Symbolic logic symbolizesargumentsfor simple, efficientassessment

WritinganArgument inSymbolic Form

p q ~p ~q (p→~q) ((p→~q)∧~p) ((p→~q)∧~p)→q

Itwillbe sunnyorcloudytoday. S∨C

What is the Negations of the Statement “There is anHonest

¬∀𝑥,𝑃(𝑥) ∃𝑥,¬𝑃(𝑥) Thereisanxforwhich P(x) P(x)istruefor

2. If the number ends in 0 or 2, it is divisible by 2.

3. If two triangles are congruent, then their corresponding parts

4. All vegetarians eat vegetables.

5. He who is lazy shall not eat.

Proof:Assumethat√2 isarationalnumber.Then,itcanbeexpressedasa fraction.

As bothaand b are even numbers then theycannot be relatively

2. If the number ends in 0 or 2, it is divisible by 2.

3. If two triangles are congruent, then their corresponding parts

Hypothesis: If the corresponding parts of two triangles are

5. He who is lazy shall not eat.

When we interchange the hypothesis and the conclusion of a

2. If the number ends in 0 or 2, it is divisible by 2.

3. If two triangles are congruent, then their corresponding parts

4. All vegetarians eat vegetables.

5. He who is lazy shall not eat.

1. Iftwo angles are complementary,then theirsumis 90˚.

2. If the number ends in 0 or 2, it is divisible by 2.