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Sedimentological characterization, petrophysical properties and reservoir

quality assessment of the onshore Sandakan Formation, Borneo

Article  in  Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering · December 2019

DOI: 10.1016/j.petrol.2019.106771

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

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Sedimentological characterization, petrophysical properties and reservoir

quality assessment of the onshore Sandakan Formation, Borneo
Numair A. Siddiqui a, *, Manoj J. Mathew b, M. Ramkumar c, Benjamin Sautter a,
Muhammad Usman d, Abdul Hadi Abdul Rahman a, Mohamed A.K. El-Ghali e, David Menier f,
Zhang Shiqi d, Chow Weng Sum a
a
Department of Geosciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia
b
Shale Gas Research Group, Institute of Hydrocarbon Recovery, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia
c
Periyar University, Department of Geology, Salem, 636011, India
d
School of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum (Qingdao), 266580, PR China
e
Department of Earth Science, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
f
Laboratoire G�eosciences Oc�ean (LGO), Universit�e Bretagne Sud, UMR CNRS 6538, 56017, Vannes Cedex, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Sedimentological parameterization of rock heterogeneity and prediction of shallow-marine siliciclastic reservoir
Sedimentology quality remains a challenge globally to date, especially in regions with complex depositional histories, in that,
Petrography variations in petrographic and petrophysical properties can occur within the same sedimentary sequence of
Petrophysics
similar age and rock type. Because exploratory drilling strategies and reservoir models can significantly be
Reservoir quality
augmented through direct observation of outcrops that are representative of equivalent reservoir stratigraphic
Sandstone heterogeneity
Borneo intervals in the offshore zone, outcrop sedimentological characterization can help improve the understanding of
subsurface reservoirs of similar strata in surrounding petroliferous basins. To this end, we analyzed well-exposed
successions of the mid Mio–Pliocene shallow-marine sandstone deposits of the Sandakan Formation, Borneo,
through conventional field investigation, petrographic and petrophysical studies of different sandstone facies
types to predict reservoir quality and heterogeneity within different depositional settings. On the basis of these
evaluations, the studied sandstone was grouped into three qualitative reservoir rock classes: Class I (Ø ¼
18.10–43.60%; K ¼ 1265.20–5986.25 mD), Class II (Ø ¼ 17.60–37%; K ¼ 21.36–568 mD) and Class III (Ø ¼
3.4–15.7%; K ¼ 3.21–201.30 mD). The petrographic and petrophysical results reveals a consistent rise in both
gamma ray and permeability values due to a change in depositional environment from proximal lower shoreface
to upper shoreface of some successions within the sequence. The change in depositional setting for each sand­
stone type establishes certain variation in classes within the same facies type. For instance, the permeability may
indicate low values due to the presence of bioturbation and increased mud content owing to the burrows with
bimodal grain classification, regardless of change in gamma ray readings. This phenomenon signifies that there
exists no strict correlation between gamma ray and permeability profile despite containing good quality reservoir
rocks and appropriate classification. Our study is of paramount significance to the development of initial
exploration strategies in regions where similar siliciclastic strata can be potential reservoirs because it serves as
analogs to offshore hydrocarbon bearing packages.

1. Introduction as subsurface, for the predication of reservoir properties (Bryant and

A thorough understanding of sedimentary facies architecture and
reservoir quality prediction of shallow-marine sandstones can be ach­
ieved by studying rock outcrops (Siddiqui et al., 2018). These, can be
utilized for the recognition of applicable analogs at regional scale as well
Flint, 1993; Dreyer et al., 1993; Aigner et al., 1996; Meyer and Krause,
2006; Liu et al., 1996; Dalrymple, 2001; Pranter et al., 2007; Howell
et al., 2008; Ramkumar 2004; Ramkumar et al., 2012; Siddiqui et al.,
2014, 2015a,b, 2018). However, characterization of depositional ar­
chitecture for reservoir quality is challenging due to the inherent

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: numairpng@gmail.com (N.A. Siddiqui).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.106771
Received 7 June 2019; Received in revised form 30 October 2019; Accepted 2 December 2019
Available online 3 December 2019
0920-4105/© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
N.A. Siddiqui et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771

heterogeneities within and between sandstone facies types and a myriad
varieties of depositional structures (Alpay, 1972; Kjønsvik et al., 1994;
Jackson et al., 2003, 2005; Biranvand, 2006; Meyer and Krause, 2006;
Pranter et al., 2007; Morad et al., 2010). In addition, variations in
shallow-marine reservoir qualities are dependent on the hierarchy of
sedimentary structural design, sand body stacking patterns and associ­
ated petrographic alterations (Molenaar et al., 1988; O’Byrne and Flint,
1993; Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2009; Higgs et al., 2010;
Weissmann et al., 2015; Mehrabi and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2014; Mehrabi
et al., 2015, 2019).

Fig. 1. a) Geographical location of the studied zone positioned in northeast Borneo b) Stratigraphic succession from Paleogene – Quaternary sedimentation and
Sandakan formation consisting of Middle Miocene – Pliocene fluvio-deltaic to estuarine. c) Outcrops location map of the Sandakan formation (red circles), Sabah,
East Malaysia; occupied near Sandakan with Later Neogene clastic deposits (Modified from Tjia et al., 1990 in Siddiqui et al., 2018). (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

2
N.A. Siddiqui et al.
The study of Tertiary sedimentary rocks of Borneo is important for
subsurface reservoir exploration, especially since, Neogene shallow-
marine clastic reservoirs have been producing offshore Borneo (Sar­
awak Basin) for many years (Mazlan, 1999). Several researches have
presented sedimentological data from exposed strata in Sabah, but only
few studies have being undertaken in detail (Lee, 1970; Graves and
Swauger, 1997; Hutchison, 2005; Futalan et al., 2012, Menier et al.,
2017), yet did not provide avenues for detailed reservoir quality pre­
diction. In northeast Sabah (Fig. 1a), several exploration wells drilled in
the Sandakan Sub-basin revealed sand intervals containing minor gas
seeps to recordable volumes flowing to the surface (Meng and Anuar,
1999). These sequences of sand crop out onshore in the vicinity of
Sandakan, thus providing remarkable exposures of prominent sedi­
mentological variations that can be studied as analogs to the offshore
hydrocarbon-bearing packages. In this study, we conduct a detailed
sandstone reservoir quality assessment and prediction from well
exposed successions of the shallow-marine Sandakan Formation Borneo
(Fig. 1b), which was formerly described as consisting of Middle
Miocene- Pliocene fluvio-deltaic to estuarine (Hutchison, 1989) or
shallow-marine and deltaic sediments (Fig. 1c) (Lee, 1970; Siddiqui
et al., 2018_ENREF_36).
2. Geological setting and general stratigraphy
The offshore Sabah Basin lies within the continental margin off
western Sabah and formed during the Middle Miocene. The tectonic
evolution of the Sabah Basin is complex and has been discussed by many
workers (Hutchison, 1989, Hutchison, 2005, Tongkul, 1992, Tongkul,
1994, Mathew et al., 2016). Towards east Sabah, two significant rifting
events, namely, NE trending Sandakan Rift and the SE trending Tarakan
Rift initiated the depositional setting for the Sandakan and Tarakan
formations (Hall and Morley, 2004; Futalan et al., 2012). The Sandakan
rift basin opened in the Early–Middle Miocene in response to the Sulu
Sea opening, which served as a new and large depocenter (Tongkul,
1992). The spreading of the Sulu Sea ceased during Late-Miocene due to
the collision of the Philippines mobile belt (Pubellier and Morley, 2014).
This major inversion caused the uplift of the Sandakan Peninsula
(Graves and Swauger, 1997; Futalan et al., 2012) and heavy erosion of
the strata. Follow-up episodes of compression closed the newly opened
Sulu Sea and resulted in the formation of several NE trending arches that
reactivated the deltaic growth fault and created long faulted anticlines.
The Sandakan Formation covers approximately 70 square kilometers
in East Sabah and is bounded by longitudes 117� 900 E and 118� 100 E
and latitudes 5� 750 N and 6� 00’ N in the Sandakan Peninsula (Fig. 1c).
The Upper Miocene sedimentary rocks of the Sandakan Formation
consists of more than 2500 m thick amalgamated sandstone, mudstone
with carbonaceous content and siltstone (Futalan et al., 2012). The
exposed rocks of the Sandakan Formation are presumed to be deposited
by the filling of a series of isolated circular “basins” stretching across
eastern Sabah, few with diameters of up to 60 km (Hutchison, 2005).
The recent (Quaternary) deposits consist of thick layers of carbonaceous
clay, silt, sand and pebbles in the present river valleys, deltas and coastal
plains (Lee, 1970). The Sandakan Formation comprises of plenty of
primary sedimentary structures showing varying depositional environ­
ments (Lee, 1970; Corbeanu et al., 2001; Siddiqui et al., 2018; Usman
et al., 2019). The deposition of the Sandakan sediments is interpreted to
be in a shoreface wave-dominated deltaic setting within a shallow ma­
rine depositional environment or inter-distributary bay setting, in a
relatively sheltered region, protected from open marine conditions.
Three (3) well developed outcrops at different locations, as indicated in
(Fig. 1c) were chosen for the present study.
3
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771
3. Material and methods
3.1. Sedimentological methods
From outcrops, 90 m, 112 m and 180 m thick stratigraphic sections
respectively were conducted (Fig. 2a, b, 3a, 3b, 4a and 4b). The field site
logs were constructed in meter scale in a log sheet with specific legends
and abbreviations including details such as structures, fossils and facies.
It was followed by laboratory measurements on hand specimens, such as
photography and petrophysical analysis of different facies types recog­
nized in the field.
3.2. Grain size analysis
After petrographic visual estimation of grain sizes, the sizes of the
sediment particles were quantified for 38 samples by using the assembly
of sieves and classification according to Folk and Ward (Folk and Ward
1957). The resultant frequency data of weight percentage was then
shifted into cumulative weight percentage, with which cumulative curve
and statistical parameters (Bridge and Bennett 1992) were computed.
The graphic and statistical methods for data presentation were
attempted with the help of GRADISTAT v. 8. package (Blott and Pye,
2001)., for the analysis of unconsolidated sediments. The equations used
to calculate the other parameters, for instance; mode, median, mean,
standard deviation and skewness are according to Folk and Ward
(1957). The average values of the samples, which represent the six
sandstone facies types, were evaluated. The representation of the grain
size distribution by sieving analysis were gained in the form of an his­
togram and a cumulative frequency curve, to obtain the statistical pa­
rameters for all sandstone types (Table 1).
3.3. Sandstone petrography
Petrographic data play a vital role in determining reservoir proper­
ties (Kupecz et al., 1997) and thus, 34 (2.2 cm � 4.5 cm) thin sections of
sandstone samples representing diverse textures, grain sizes, sorting,
porosity and permeability were analyzed. The porosity and framework
grain analysis were based on 300 counts per slide with the help of
“JMicro Vision®“. A mercury porosimeter was used for the quantitative
measurements of permeability and porosity.
3.4. Gamma ray (GR) and permeability logging
A digital total count GR detector device was used to note the total
counts/sec emission from the studied outcrops. We converted the
readings that were initially recorded in counts/sec to API units using the
standard calibration of 1 CPS ¼ 1.19 API unit (Parkinson, 1996). The GR
measurements were taken from each outcrop at different intervals
depending on the lithology, with 0.3–0.5 m interval as the general rate
used. A 0.5–1 m interval was selected for large units without lithological
variations while a 1–2 m m interval was selected for shale dominant
sections. Replicate measurements were made whenever the count rates
exceeded the permissible limit (12cps).
Mercury injection method was followed for permeability and
porosity measurements of the same 34 samples that were studied for
petrography. A portable handheld TinyPerm II air permeameter was
used to estimate matrix permeability of the rock (Rosvoll, 2012)
Recorded results of Tiny Perm II were measured in counts, which was
calibrated for obtaining absolute permeability in mD by using the
equation in Engineering (2011).
Tiny perm value ¼ - 0.8386 x log10 (kair) þ 12.967.
N.A. Siddiqui et al.
Fig. 2. a) Stratigraphic log of outcrop 1 and four characteristically different facies successions (FS I–IV) with a total thickness of 112 m and sample location of
different sandstone facies; b) vertical and lateral extent of outcrop 1 with distribution of sand and mud lithologies; c) Massive sandstone with thin lamination of mud
d) trough cross-bedded sandstone with low angle cross bedding; e) thick section of mud with wavy-flaser bedded sandstone thin layers f) transition of massive
sandstone and hummocky cross-bedded sandstone represent on FS IV.
4. Field observations and sedimentological characteristics of the
Sandakan outcrops
4.1. Sedimentary facies and facies successions
Based on lithology, geometry, internal structures, contact relation­
ships and sandstone distribution, the studied outcrops of the Sandakan
Formation were categorized into six major sandstone facies types and
corresponding facies successions that are described below.
4.1.1. Outcrop 1
The logged section of Sandakan Formation at this outcrop is mainly
dominated by sandstone and mudstone with rare carbonaceous sand­
stone beds. Four characteristically different facies successions (FS I–IV)
were recognized with a total thickness of 112 m (Fig. 2a and b). FS I
represent 36.6 m thick sandstone with brownish to yellowish gray color,
very fine-to medium-grained very well-sorted sand showing primary
sedimentary of low angle hummocky cross-stratification, trough cross-
stratification with mixed mud-clasts and mud-drapes and massive
sandstone. The FS II shows a 32 m thick light black mudstone dominated
by thinly bedded light-yellow, very fine-to fine-grained well sorted
sandstone. The sandstone and mudstone thin bedding is bounded by a
faulted segment at the bottom with very thin lenses of carbonaceous
material at the top. FS III is a 12 m thick mudstone with 2 m whitish to
light-yellow color well-sorted sandstone with sharp base and top con­
tacts. Whereas, the FS IV represents a 23 m thickly interbedded (sand­
stone and mudstone) whitish to light-yellow color, very fine-grained
well-sorted sandstone.
4
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771
4.1.2. Outcrop 2
The logged section at this outcrop of the Sandakan Formation is
characterized with three different facies successions (FS I–III) with a
total of 89 m stratigraphic succession (Fig. 3a and b). FS I represents a
15 m thick amalgamated interbedded, yellowish color, very fine-grained
well-sorted sandstone with dominated principal sedimentary structures
of hummocky cross-stratifications representing no internal structures
and bedding. FS II shows a 35 m of thick yellowish gray, very-fine to
fine-grained well-sorted amalgamated sandstone and mudstone that
have dominated sedimentary structures of hummocky cross-
stratification and trough cross-stratification with some an erosive
base. Whereas, FS III represents a 39 m thick very fine-grained well
sorted interbedded sandstone with mudstone, hummocky cross-
stratification, trough cross-stratification and cross-bedding with
massive sandstone type.
4.1.3. Outcrop 3
This outcrop 3 is divided into three major facies succession (FS I – III)
with total thickness of 180 m (Fig. 4a and b). FS I is a 22 m thick
interbedded sandstone and mudstone with gray-yellowish color, very
fine-grained sandstone with bioturbated hummocky cross-stratified
sandstone. FS II is a mostly clean sandstone with some thin layers of
mudstone representing a 100 m thick succession comprising yellowish
gray, very-fine to fine-grained moderately sorted sandstone character­
ized by bioturbated hummocky cross-stratified features. FS III is an
interbedded sandstone-mudstone (bottom) with thick massive sand­
stone (top) representing the total of 58 m very-fine to fine-grained
sandstone. The primary sedimentary structures are hummocky cross-
stratified, wavy-flaser bedding, massive sandstone, bioturbated and
trough cross-bedding (Fig. 4a).
N.A. Siddiqui et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771

Fig. 3. a) Stratigraphic log of outcrop 2 with three characteristically different facies successions (FS I–III) represents a total thickness of 180 m with sample location
of different sandstone facies; b) vertical and lateral extent of outcrop 2 with major distribution of sandstone and mudstone packages; c) hummocky cross-bedded
sandstone with sharp top and erosive base of FS I; d) hummocky cross-bedded sandstone with clear low angle cross-beds of FS II; e) interbedded sandstone-
mudstone of FS III and thick hummocky cross-bedded sandstone at the top section of FSIII with sharp erosive base.

4.2. Depositional settings from the interpreted facies
Freshly deposited sandstones contain a variety of minerals compo­
sitions that varies with changes in depositional environment and the
parent rock source. During the time of deposition, the sand particles
develop a self-supporting framework forming a detrital matrix with pore
spaces, which results in porosity and permeability (Ali et al., 2010).
Permeability, in turn, is controlled by factors such as effective porosity,
grain size, composition and structure of the rock and textural properties
such as sphericity and sorting (Al-laboun et al., 2014). Furthermore,
these controlling factors can be altered due to changes in depositional
environments; thus, implying that a prudent interpretation of the
depositional setting plays a vital role in assessing reservoir properties
and the overall quality.
The Sandakan Formation consists of several lithofacies, among
which, six different sandstone facies (hummocky cross-stratification
sandstone, trough cross-bedded sandstone, wavy-flaser bedded sand­
stone, cross-bedded sandstone, bioturbated sandstone and massive
sandstone) are interpreted in terms of their environment of deposition
based on sedimentary features and lithological variations within the
facies successions.
The six facies description and interpretations combine into four
facies associations, which are linked to four distinct depositional sub-
environments. Note that boundaries between these different deposi­
tional sub-environments are transitional.
4.2.1. Outcrop 1
The sandstone types of FS I vary from very-fine to medium grained
revealing a transition from a low hydrodynamic setting represented by
massive sandstone (Fig. 2c) and interpreted as inner shelf deposits to a
shallower regressive upper shoreface environment manifesting medium-
grained trough cross-beds (Fig. 2d) that formed under high energy
conditions (Fig. 2a). FS II sequence is characterized by thick mudstone
interbedded with wavy-flaser (Fig. 2e) featured sand with carbonaceous
material that indicate a low energy setting such as mixed to muddy tidal
environment. This facies gradually increases in grain size to a massive
sand sequence representing a change from a distal to proximal foreshore
setting within the intertidal zone. FS III and FS IV represents a

5
N.A. Siddiqui et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771

Fig. 4. a) Stratigraphic log of outcrop 3 and three characteristically different facies successions (FS I–III) with a total thickness of 180 m and sample location of
different sandstone facies; b) vertical and lateral extent of outcrop 3 with major distribution of sandstone and mudstone packages; c) bioturbated cross-bedded
sandstone with carbonaceous material of FS I; d) interbedded sandstone-mudstone of FS II and thick hummocky cross-bedded sandstone at top section; e) contin­
uation of hummocky cross-bedded sandstone in FS II with massive sandstone facies at top section; f) clean massive sandstone facies of FS III with leaner
cross beddings.

Table 1
Grain-size distribution, statistical data of different sandstone facies of the Sandakan Formation.
Method Outcomes Hummocky Trough Bioturbated Cross-beds Massive Wavy-flaser

Sieving Sieving error 5.0% 6.0% 3.0% 5.0% 5.0% 4.0%

Sample type Bimodal, poorly Bimodal, poorly Bimodal, poorly Unimodal, poorly Unimodal, poorly Bimodal, poorly
sorted sorted sorted sorted sorted sorted
Textural group Muddy sand Sandy Muddy sand Muddy sand Sandy Muddy sand
Sediment Moderately sorted Poorly sorted fine Silty to very fine Silty to very fine Poorly sorted very Poorly sorted
name: very fine sand sand sand sand fine sand fine sand
Folk and Ward method Mean 2.644 2.050 3.018 3.258 3.050 1.908
(φ) Standard 0.752 0.845 1.909 1.188 0.495 1.034
Deviation:
Skewness: 0.243 0.084 0.053 0.032 0.073 0.135
Folk and Ward method Mean Fine sand Fine sand Very fine sand Very fine sand Very fine sand Medium sand
(Description) Standard Poorly Sorted Poorly Sorted Poorly Sorted Poorly Sorted Poorly Sorted Poorly sorted
deviation
Skewness Coarse skewed Symmetrical Symmetrical Symmetrical Symmetrical Coarse skewed
mode 1 (φ) 3.363 2.237 3.363 3.363 3.363 2.237
% gravel 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
% sand 85.6% 93.9% 80.9% 86.0% 90.3% 70.0%
% mud 14.4% 6.1% 19.1% 14.0% 9.7% 30.0%

6
N.A. Siddiqui et al.
transgressive phase showing a shift in environment from the proximal
foreshore setting (FS II) to a distal lower shoreface (FS III) followed by a
proximal lower shoreface environment (FS IV). These successions show
very-fine lithology of mudstone intercalated with thin parallel lami­
nated sand with the upper sequences of FS IV demonstrating low angle
hummocky cross-stratification (Fig. 2f) thus, indicating a change in
energy.
4.2.2. Outcrop 2
Based on sedimentary structures and lithological variations, the
depositional environment of FS I is interpreted as proximal middle
shoreface at its base, to distal lower shoreface setting in the upper units,
due to the increase of mud influx and a reduction in size of sand pack­
ages. This succession shows very fine sand hummocky cross-
stratification to thin-laminated sand (Fig. 3c) which suggest a depos­
ited during a period of normal regression phase. Following FS I, a period
of transgression is evidenced by a succession of thick mudstone beds
with thin lenses of very-fine sand to thick sequences of fine-grained sand
displaying hummocky cross-stratification testifying of an initial regres­
sive phase that is cumulatively interpreted as FS II (Fig. 3d) and in­
dicates a change from distal lower shoreface to upper shoreface. FS III
facies, with thick to thin interbedded sand-mud packages (Fig. 3e), thus,
interpreted as proximal middle shoreface to inner shelf with tempestite
deposits (hummocky cross-stratified sand) under stormy conditions
occurring above the storm wave base and below the fair-weather wave
base.
4.2.3. Outcrop 3
The outcrop reveals three facies successions representing four sub-
environmental settings, The base of FS I shows a higher ratio of mud
to sand indicative of a very low energy setting with thin-laminated cross-
bedded sand within 5 m thick mudstone beds that gradually increases to
larger packages of bioturbated hummocky cross-stratified sandstone
(Fig. 4c) interpreted as distal lower shoreface environment. FS II is
consistent with the same environment, which progressively shifts
midway of the succession to a proximal lower shoreface indicated by an
increase in grain size from very-fine to fine bioturbated sandstone with
internal primary sedimentary structure of hummocky cross-
stratification (Fig. 4d). The proximal lower shoreface sandstone pack­
age measures a total of 56 m (Fig. 4a and e) showing a regressive period
marked by an increase in sediment supply. FS III contains three sub-
environments commencing with a hetrolithic lithology of distal lower
shoreface to thick massive and bioturbated sandstone devoid of any
primary sedimentary structures, hence representing an upper shoreface
environment (Fig. 4f). Following the above-mentioned phase of eustatic
change, a rise in sea-level is noticed in the upper segments of this suc­
cession whereby the ratio of mud increases as compared to the ratio of
sand which is interpreted as an inner shelf sub-environment.
5. Petrographic properties of sandstone samples
5.1. Grain size analysis
5.1.1. Frequency curve and histogram
Unimodal and bimodal histograms show that the sediments range
from coarse to silty sand-grains. However, Fig. 5 shows that some per­
centages of very fine-to medium-sand is present in most of the samples.
A low percentage of coarse-grained sand is present only in few samples.
The φ value ranges from -1φ to 4φ. Most of the curves show an almost
similar trend of very fine to fine sand size (Fig. 5). Only the HCSS, TCBS
and BS samples show variations in the curves which reveals that low
percentage of coarse to very coarse sand sized particles.
7
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771
5.1.2. Statistical parameters
5.1.2.1. Graphic mean. The values range from 2.050φ to 3.258φ with an
average of 2.804φ in graphs, denoting fine grained sand-size. However,
the facies types BS, CB and MS contain higher proportion of very fine
sand (Fig. 6a) with high values >3φ.
5.1.2.2. Graphic standard deviation. It ranges from 1.188φ to 1.909φ
(Fig. 6b), with an average of 1.5φ, suggestive of poorly sorted nature of
the sediments. There was no significant variation of sorting character­
istics among the six facies types recognized.
5.1.2.3. Graphic skewness. The ranging varies from 0.243φ to 0.032φ,
which represent the symmetrical to very coarse-skewed categories, with
a dominance curve of symmetrical skewed (Fig. 6c). However, the HCSS
and WFBS shows very coarse-skewed nature with a skewness value of
0.243 and 0.135. Overall, the sediments show a tendency of having
more materials in the coarse end (very-fine grained).
5.1.2.4. Graphic mode. The point of maximum steepness on the cumu­
lative curve and the tallest bar in a histogram shows graphic mode
(Fig. 6d). The HCSS, BS, CB and MS have a mode of 3.363φ that is very
fine sand and the TCBS and WFBS has a mode of 2.237φ that is fine sand.
The dominant value of the mode is from the HCSS, BS, CB and MS, i. e,
3.363φ with fine grain (Fig. 6d).
5.2. Thin-section analysis
5.2.1. Hummocky cross-stratified sandstone (HCSS)
The maximum framework grain is quartz arenite, very-fine to
medium-grained, moderately-sorted with sub-angular to sub-rounded
compacted grains. This HCSS facie is monocrystalline with a domi­
nance of quartz and 16% of intergranular porosity with some compac­
tion with good connectivity of the pores. In terms of sand maturity, it
contains 8.97% clay and 7.69% silt, hence classified as immature
sandstone. The total composition of this facies is Q ¼ 97.71%, F ¼ 0%
and RF ¼ 3.39% and the grain average size is 100 μm (Fig. 7a and b).
5.2.2. Trough cross-bedded sandstone (TCBS)
TCBS is composed of quartz arenite, very fine to medium-grain
sandstone, poorly sorted and grain supported. The total composition
of this facie is Q ¼ 93.80%, F ¼ 0.78% and RF ¼ 5.43%. Grains are
highly compacted with suture grain boundaries which result in reduced
porosity and connectivity. Due to compaction, the pores appear isolated.
The sandstone is immature with 10.93% clay and 3.83% silt with some
minor carbonaceous material. The grains are also coated with clay
minerals (mostly illite) which contribute to a reduction in porosity.
Some of the grains show that porosity is reduced due to clay minerals,
which forms pore bridging between the grains. The total porosity of this
facies is 6.08% and average grain size is 220 μm (Fig. 7b and c).
5.2.3. Bioturbated sandstone (BS)
BS is composed of quartz, silty sand to fine-grained, poorly-sorted
with matrix supported grains. The total composition consists of Q ¼
94.44%, F and RF ¼ 5.56%. The BS facies has a scattered distribution of
grains with mostly quartz arenite and monocrystalline quartz. The
grains are matrix supported with reworking of the sediments by or­
ganisms. The sandstone is immature (poorly sorted) with 28.44% clay
and 38.86% silt, which resulting in reduced porosity, i.e., 1.86% with an
average grain size of 80 μm (Fig. 7e and f).
5.2.4. Cross-bedded (CB) sandstone
CB sandstone is a dominantly quartz arenite, monocrystalline, silty
to fine-grained sand and moderately-sorted sand. The total composition
consists of Q ¼ 87.80%, F ¼ 0% and RF ¼ 12.20%. This facie has a high
N.A. Siddiqui et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771

Fig. 5. The left side histograms represents

each facies, which have a width proportional
to the size range of grains (expressed using
the phi scale). The tallest column indicates
the mode of the grain size distribution and
only hummocky cross-bedded sandstone,
cross-bedded sandstone, trough cross-bedded
sandstone and bioturbated sandstone are
bimodal in distribution with phi range of 3 to
1 phi. The unimodal and a bimodal histo­
gram show sediments range from coarse to
silty sand-grains. The right-side cumulative
frequency % curve for different sandstone
facies are used for mean, median and mode
calculation by using the values of φ at 16%,
50% and 84%, according to Folk & Ward
method. The curve profile low percentage of
coarse to very-coarse sand sized particles.

8
N.A. Siddiqui et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771

Fig. 6. Comparative histograms of different sandstone type; a) mean values shows that bioturbated, cross-bedded and massive sandstone contain higher proportion
of very-fine sand; b) standard deviation shows the nature of the sandstone types with respect to sorting; c) represents skewness ranging from symmetrical to very-
coarse skewed categories skewness, the degree of symmetry or asymmetry of the grain-size distribution, with overall the facies type shows the tendency of having
more materials in the coarse end (very-fine grained); d) represent the most frequent type of grain sizes in each types of sandstone facies.

degree of mud and clay (26.26%) content and the sandstone is classified
as immature sandstone. The porosity reduction is caused by clay min­
erals, forming pore bridging (Fig. 8a and b). Some dissolution occurred
at the early stage of diagenesis. The total porosity of this facies is 16%
with an average grain size of 108 μm.
5.2.5. Massive sandstone (MS)
Dominantly quartz arenite, silty sand to fine-grained, moderately-
sorted sand and matrix supported. The total composition of this facie is
Q ¼ 95.45%, F ¼ 0% and RF ¼ 4.55%. The sandstone is a quartz arenite
and has monocrystalline grains with few inclusions and no undulosity.
The porosity is very high, i. e, 39.25% of clean sand (Fig. 8c and d). The
connectivity is good with wide opening as compared to other types of
sandstone facies. The grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded with total of
39.25% porosity and of 200 μm in size.
5.2.6. Wavy-flaser bedded sandstone (WFBS)
This type of facies is dominated by matrix supported grains of
monocrystalline quartz. The total composition of this facies is Q ¼
98.17%, F þ RF ¼ 1.83%. The porosity is low as compared to other facies
(7.60% intergranular primary porosity), due to a high percentage of clay
(37.40%) which infills the pore spaces. The pores are isolated and dead
end connected (poor in terms of permeability) with an early stage of
compaction (Fig. 8e and f).
6. Sandstone composition
6.1. Quartz
The quartz grains have been recognized in all samples to be the main
framework grain type. Their content ranges from 40 to 98% of the total
rock with an average abundance of 90–95%. Most of the quartz grains
are monocrystalline grains with an even extinction although grains with
undulose extinction are also observed in few samples (Fig. 9a). The
abundance of quartz follows a decreasing trend from HCSS, TCBS, MS,
CB, BS and WFBS, while BS and WFBS have the highest proportion of silt
and clay.
Quartz overgrowth cement was not noticed in most of the samples,
although it was observed that it developed in sandy lamina which
contain clay minerals, as in TCBS sandstone. However, it has been
demonstrated that in fine-grained sandstones, the amount of quartz
overgrowth depends on the abundance of the clay-coated quartz grain,
which in turn inhibits the formation of quartz overgrowth (Wilson and
Stanton, 1994; Kupecz et al., 1997; Morad et al., 2000, 2010). In clay
rich samples, initial stage of quartz overgrowth with grain suturing in
the presence of authigenic clay losses the pore size (Fig. 9b).
6.2. Feldspar
Feldspar were not abundantly recognized in detrital grains in all the
samples. Its content ranges from <0.4 to 1.2%, with an average of 0.6%.
In addition, feldspars are altered either completely or partially, and
replaced by clay (Fig. 9b). It is also observed that the alteration of
feldspar results in secondary porosity by dissolution (Eslinger and
Pevear 1988) (Fig. 9c and d).
6.3. Rock fragments
Rock (lithic) fragments are common in samples, ranging from <1 to
12.2%, with an average of 3.9%. Sandstone facies of CB, MS, BS and
WFBS were recorded to have the highest percentage of rock-fragment
respectively and to be of the sub-litharenite rock type.
Overall, the compositional characteristics in term of percentage of
quartz, feldspar and rock fragments are well correlated with the

9
N.A. Siddiqui et al.
abundance of quartz as a good indicator of the origin and maturity of the
sandstone.
6.4. Effect of sorting or dispersion coefficient (σ )
In the reported outcrops facies, most of the sandstone were analyzed
as moderately-well-sorted by visual textural comparators with a stan­
dard deviation or dispersion coefficient (σ) of 0.35–1 φ. This error is
reduced by using the sieve method for grain-size distribution, the most
common method which is widely used both for quantitative and quali­
tative analysis. With this method, the quality of the textural composition
varies according to the type of sandstone facies composition. Absence of
significant sorting variations between the facies types, together with the
inferences of environments of deposition, suggest an absence of signif­
icant change in sediment influx, rate of deposition and environmental
setting. Most of the sandstones which are of moderately-to poorly-sorted
types (Table 1) have a dispersion coefficient which are from 1.1 to 1.9 φ.
Therefore, the dispersion coefficient reflects the variations in grain-size
that makes up sediment. Here the calculated value that relates to the
distribution mean, e.g., if the distribution mean is 1.45 φ and the sorting
coefficient is 0.30 φ, then 68% of the sample lies in the size that ranges
from 1.15 to 1.75 φ, as in the case of BS and TCBS facies. The well-sorted
grains have small size value with large value of porosity and perme­
ability as compare to poorly-sorted sandstones.
10
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771
Fig. 7. a) and b) sample of hummocky cross-
bedded sandstone at 500 μm and 200 μm
under plain polarize light shows the frame­
work grain is quartz arenite, very-fine to
medium-grained, moderately sorted with sub-
angular to sub-rounded compacted grains
having 16% intergranular porosity; c) and d)
sample of trough cross-bedded sandstone at
500 μm with very-fine to medium-grain
sandstone, some of the grains show that
porosity is reduced due to clay minerals,
which forms pore bridging in between the
grains; e) and f) represent sample from bio­
turbated sandstone with silty sand to fine-
grained, poorly sorted, with average grain
size of 80 μm.
6.5. Effect of grain shape
Most of the sandstone facies contain sub-angular to angular grains.
As the shape of the pores in sandstones is strongly dependent upon the
shapes of the grains, a closer grain arrangement and tight packing of
highly spherical grains may reduce the porosity and permeability of the
sandstone. In the studied sandstones, the shapes of grains that are sub-
angular to angular often show high porosity count (regardless of sort­
ing). These shapes of grains are mostly present in the HCSS, MS, CB and
TCBS and they contribute to good reservoir quality.
6.6. Effect of grain sizes
In the case of unconsolidated sand of uniform grain sizes, it has been
shown empirically that pore space decreases generally with decreasing
grain sizes. This may be caused by finer sand that is more susceptible to
compaction and cementation. (Bridge and Bennett, 1992) noted that
transported sediments of average coarse-grained sandstone exhibit a
large variety of sizes. Thus, finer-grained sediments generally have
higher porosities than coarser-grained sediments. To assess the quality
of a reservoir for the studied sandstone facies types, the degree of sort­
ing, which is a proxy for the lack of cementation, hence probably the
more important controlling factor.
N.A. Siddiqui et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771

Fig. 8. a) and b) sample of cross-bedded sandstone at 500 μm and 200 μm under plain polarize light with monocrystalline, silty to fine-grained, moderately-sorted
sand with average grain size of 108 μm; c) and d) thin-section of massive sandstone type with silty sand to fine-grained, moderately-sorted sand and matrix sup­
ported; e) and f) wavy-flaser bedded sandstone type, dominated with matrix supported grains with monocrystalline quartz.

7. Reservoir quality
Analogue studies of reservoirs, e.g., (Liu et al., 1996; Jackson et al.,
2003; Beaubouef, 2004; Evans et al., 2007), that attempted to charac­
terize outcrops for a reservoir architectural understanding and the rock
properties of different depositional environments, were limited to facies
types, as defined, based on field interpretations, granulometry and
petrography. Enumeration of gamma ray (GR) trends as demarcated by
individual facies types may provide a ready reference when core-plug
and cutting samples are to be examined. Hence, in the study we pre­
sent the results from the new well exposed outcrops of the Sandakan
Formation in east Sabah, to analyze the GR trends and permeability
profiles in different sandstone facies types for reservoir heterogeneity.
in TCBS facies affects the permeability with low value and this is due to
mud clasts which reduce the quality of the sandstone (Fig. 10a). The GR
changes to high value within the thick sandstone, due to the contami­
nation of thin layers of mudstone, which also reduces the reservoir
quality as evidenced by a decrease in permeability value < 90 mD.
In FS II and FS III (38–86 m), the thick mudstone shows high GR API
with some internal variations in trend due to the occurrence of thin
laminated sandstone, whereas the permeability profile shows a straight
line with low permeability which ranges from 0 to 20 mD. At the top of
FS II and FS III, the MS and HCSS indicate the low GR with a high
permeability profile with sharp boundaries, representing the good
quality reservoir. FS IV (86–112 m) is mostly of clean MS and HCSS
marked with sharp peaks which are due to the occurrences of interlayers
of thin mudstone (Fig. 10a).

7.1. Gamma ray and permeability profile of outcrop 1

The GR profile at this outcrop is marked by transitions from
decreasing to increasing API unit, whereas, the permeability profile
shows transitions from high to low or low to high ‘mD’ unit. At the base
of FS I (0–38 m) GR increases in API (5–17 API) from MS to HCSS facies
(Fig. 10a). The increase in GR with the decrease in permeability profile
7.2. Gamma ray and permeability profile of outcrop 2
This outcrop is mostly of HCSS facies with amalgamated sandstone
and mudstone within the successions. It has been identified that there
are no significant variations in GR within the sandstones, but its
permeability varies according to heterogeneities in the sandstone

11
N.A. Siddiqui et al.
Fig. 9. a) Plain-polarization image showing monocrystalline grains with an undulose extinction; b) clay rich trough cross-bedded sandstone with initial stage of
quartz overgrowth. In clay rich samples, grain suturing can be noticed along with the presence of authigenic clay which decreases pore sizes; c). alteration of
feldspars either completely or partially to replace clay; d) alteration of feldspar (feldspar degradation) results in secondary porosity by dissolution.
quality. In most of the sandstone, the GR ranges from 4.5 to 10 API unit
with permeability >400mD (Fig. 10b).
7.3. Gamma ray and permeability profile of outcrop 3
The Outcrop 3, with a total thickness of 180 m was divided into three
facies successions. The GR and permeability profile show an unexpected
decrease or increase in profile within the sandstone (Fig. 10c).
In FS I (0–22 m), the stratigraphic log predominantly shows constant
grain-size with in the sandstone which is also observed in GR with a liner
profile but in some cases the GR is low with low permeability within the
sandstone (e.g. at 10–14 m), which is the effect of bioturbation in
sandstone. In FS II (22–122 m) there is coarsening upward succession
with almost constant grain-size although in some places (e.g. 76–80 m)
it shows high GR with low permeability, as in case of HCSS which
similarly is also at 92–98 m and 119–122 m. In FS III, there is a
correlative trend between GR and permeability profile, which shows low
GR and high permeability with slight internal variation.
Overall, in the outcrops, there is no universal general relationship
between permeability values and gamma ray trend in contrast with
sedimentary facies. Generally, in the outcrops, an increase in GR values
is associated with grain size decrease and increase in clay content.
Similarly, in permeability (K) measurements, an increase in grain sizes is
associated with an increase in ‘K’ value, which is not always the case.
The general trends in GR log and permeability profile with stratigraphic
log are well represented.
It has been identified that in most of the cases where the sandstone
facies were deposited with mud interclasts and bioturbation (e.g. TCBS,
MS and HCSS facies), there is a GR trend with higher values (14–18API)
and low ‘k’ values (4–20 mD), compared to clean sandstone facies
(Fig. 10c). Similarly, in some of the sandstone facies, where very fine to
fine-grained sandstone which is water wet or water saturated there is a
higher value of GR and ‘K’. The overall limits of GR log API unit and
permeability (mD) by tiny perm II, in different sandstone facies types
12
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771
and mudstone are summarized in Table 2.
7.4. Distribution of porosity and permeability
The measured rock sample porosity by mercury prosiometer ranges
from 3.40 to 43.60% and the permeability ranges from 3.21 to 5986.25
mD are usually higher than those from the point-count and tiny perm II
method. The logarithmic cross-plots of porosity versus permeability
derived from data sets of each sandstone facies with different grain sizes
from three different outcrops were analyzed in terms of reservoir quality
sandstone (Fig. 11). The logarithmic cross-plot that is color coded by
facies type and grain size class, does not exactly separate the sandstone
facies, but it gives an idea in terms of reservoir quality. Based on these
values, the studied sandstone types were grouped into three qualitative
reservoir rock class; high quality, moderate quality and low-quality
reservoir sandstone facies.
7.4.1. Class I
It is a high-quality reservoir rock type with porosity and permeability
ranges of 18.10–43.60% and 1265.20–5986.25 mD (Fig. 11). This type
of high-quality reservoir rock includes fine to medium-grained mature
sandstone, moderately to well-sorted quartz arenite with a very low
percentage of clay and silt. The MS facies show good reservoir quality
when the grain size is > 3 φ (blue dash) indicative of small grain size and
good sorting, and lacks distinct variation in depositional environments,
in that, this facies type in all three (3) studied outcrops reveals a
shoreface setting. Whereas, most of the facies type of HCSS shows good
reservoir quality when the grain size is from 2–3φ representing low
percentage of clay contents. It is interesting to note that, due to the
presence of clean intergranular porosity, all samples of the cross-bedded
(CS) facies elucidates very high-quality sandstone reservoirs.
7.4.2. Class II
It is a moderate quality reservoir rock with porosity and permeability
N.A. Siddiqui et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771

Fig. 10. Sedimentary logs, gamma ray and permeability profiles of the Sandakan formations. a) the cross plots of gamma ray and permeability profile of outcrop 1
marked by transitions from decreasing to increasing values (5–18 API unit) and permeability ranges from 180 to 750 mD which represents the permeability tran­
sitions in between the sandstone and mudstone packages; b) the GR ranges of outcrop 2 varies from 4.5 to 17 API unit and permeability > 400 mD in most of the
sandstone packages; c) The Outcrop 3 gamma ray ranges from 5 to 18 API unit with permeability 147–720 mD with in different sandstone facies. In most of the cases
where the sandstone facies were deposited with mud interclasts and bioturbation the gamma value become higher and permeability reduces in sandstone as
compared to clean sandstone facies.

proximal setting. They have good porosity value but with their miner­
Table 2
alogy and grain-size variations the permeability is low as compared to
Average Limits of GR log and permeability values with handheld tool mea­
rock type I.
surements in different sandstone facies.
Facies type GR value (API) Permeability (mD)
7.4.3. Class III
Hummocky cross-bedded 4–6 592–329 It is a low-quality reservoir rock with porosity and permeability
Bioturbated sand 8–12.5 11–80 ranges of 3.4–15.7% and 3.21–201.30 mD (Fig. 17). It includes the
Trough cross-bedded 5–8.5 450–188
Cross-bedded 5–10 500–330
sandstone type of WFBS and BS which is silty to very fine-grained,
Massive 4–8 360–650 poorly sorted, immature sandstone with a clay percentage >10% and
Wavy-flaser bedded 7–11.5 75–110 highly bioturbated. These types of sandstone facies show porosity trend
Mudstone - 16 0–5 within a constant range while permeability demonstrates an inverse
relationship with grain size, in that, an increase in grain size decreases
permeability (Fig. 11). This trend can be explained through the poor
ranging from 17.60–37% to 21.36–568 mD (Fig. 11). This type of
grain sorting and well-graded features of sandstones containing wavy-
reservoir rock is mostly very fine to fined-grained, moderately sorted
flaser bedded and bioturbated successions. Permeability within a rock
with low clay content and has some coal laminations. The main facies
can decrease when the sediments are poorly sorted and can obstruct free
that constitutes this class is trough cross bedded sandstone (TCBS) with a
flow of fluid irrespective of the grain size (McKinley et al., 2011).
bulk of the samples showing φ values of 2–3 (red triangles in Fig. 11).
While permeability of this facies remains within a constant range,
8. Conclusion
porosity varies from low to high. The samples showing low porosity are
from an inner shelf setting and those with high porosity are from an
A comprehensive assessment from three major sand-rich exposures
upper shoreface environment containing HCSS and MS. The low
of shallow marine origin that serve as analogs to subsurface siliciclastic
porosity could be indicative of an influence of silt-sized particles in the
reservoirs in NE Borneo was conducted in terms of sandstone quality and
deeper zones that could impede connectivity as compared to their
reservoir architecture. While Neogene shallow-marine clastic reservoirs
shallower counterparts of the TCBS facies. We attribute this variation in
have been producing offshore Borneo (Sarawak Basin) for many years
porosity to the change in depositional environment from a distal to

13
N.A. Siddiqui et al.
Fig. 11. The logarithmic cross-plots of porosity versus permeability with the data sets of each sandstone facies and different grain sizes from three different outcrops.
The cross-plot shows the color-coded facies type and grain size class, three e reservoir rock class; high quality (Class I), moderate quality (ClassII) and low-quality
(Class III) reservoir sandstone facies. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
and because the Sandakan sub-basin bears similar stratigraphic age and
sedimentological characteristics, and substantial data pertaining to
reservoir potentiality is sparse, our work provides a detailed view on
petrographic and petrophysical parameters of onshore exposures that
can aid in future exploration strategies. The logged sections reveal
changes in depositional settings and appears to have developed a self-
supporting framework of detrital matrix during the time of deposition,
which affects reservoir quality in terms of porosity and permeability.
Even if there exists variation in sandstone types within thick packages of
a succession, it is generally perceived that gamma ray and permeability
log profiles would show opposing trends. However, our results show that
in some outcrops, a congruent increase in both gamma ray and perme­
ability values can be observed due to a change in depositional envi­
ronment from proximal lower shoreface to upper shoreface (e.g.,
outcrop 3), grain size variations and intergranular spaces filled with
mud-rich deposits and dissolutions. For example, in some of the in­
tervals, sandstone deposited with thin-laminated muddy layers with
bioturbation and representing high quality (class I) reservoir rock type
(e.g., massive sandstone or hummocky cross-bedded sandstone), shows
high gamma ray with high porosity and permeability within the fine-
grained sandstone. This reveals that a change in depositional setting
for each sandstone type may demonstrate variation in class within the
same facies type. On the other hand, in the class III sandstone facie type
(e.g., bioturbated sandstone and wavy-flaser sandstone), a change in
depositional setting does not have much effect on porosity, but perme­
ability values vary from as low as 3 mD to as high as 100 mD, reflecting
high picks in gamma ray and permeability profile, with very fine-to fine-
grained sediments. Whereas, the petrography results in class III sand­
stone types shows that these sandstone facies are immature (poorly
sorted) with isolated or dead-end connectivity. Within certain thick se­
quences of sand containing Class I type reservoir rock, we observe that
permeability can reach low values due to the presence of bioturbation
14
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 186 (2020) 106771
and increased mud content owing to burrows with bimodal grain clas­
sification, regardless of change in gamma ray readings. This phenome­
non signifies that there exists no strict correlation between gamma ray
and permeability profile despite containing good quality reservoir rocks
and appropriate classification. While the Sandakan Formation is
currently not producing and remains as one of the potential hydrocarbon
prospects in NE Borneo, considerable amounts of hydrocarbon were
discovered in the offshore Miri Formation (southwest of offshore north
Sabah) that is of similar age and depositional setting with lithofacies
types as the Sandakan Formation. The Miri formation had produced
about 80 million barrels of oil and many of the petroliferous formations
around Borneo are of shallow marine origin of Middle to Late Miocene
age. Thus, our study is of paramount importance because it serves as
analogs to offshore hydrocarbon bearing packages and can be of sig­
nificant value to the oil and gas sector in terms of exploration strategies.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the YUTP grant (0153AA-E79),
Malaysia and Petroleum Research Fund (PRF- 0153AB-A33), Malaysia,
for funding this research project. There is no conflict of interest
including any financial, personal or others.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.106771.
The class I quality shows porosity and permeability ranges of
18.10–43.60% and 1265.20–5986.25 mD which includes fine to
medium-grained mature sandstone, moderately to well-sorted quartz
arenite with a very low percentage of clay and silt. The class II represents
the porosity and permeability ranging from 17.60–37% to 21.36–568
N.A. Siddiqui et al.
mD with mostly very fine to fined-grained, moderately sorted with low
clay content and has some coal laminations. The class III shows porosity
and permeability ranges of 3.4–15.7% and 3.21–201.30 mD which in­
cludes the sandstone type of WFBS and BS which is silty to very fine-
grained, poorly sorted, immature sandstone with a clay percentage
>10% and highly bioturbated.
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