Agricultural Engineering Board

Review Materials

Farm Power and Energy

Prepared by

Delfin C. Suministrado, Ph. D.

Professor
Agricultural Machinery Division
Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
University of the Philippines Los Baños
College, Laguna

(Reproduction with Permission Only)

PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials II - 1

Farm Power and Energy

Delfin C. Suministrado, Ph. D.

Professor
Agricultural Machinery Division
Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
University of the Philippines Los Baños
College, Laguna

I. Introduction

 Agricultural mechanization requires power and energy inputs.

 Agricultural mechanization aims to increase agricultural productivity and lessen drudgery
of farm work
II. Classification of agricultural operation

A. Tractive work
1. Land preparation: plowing, harrowing, land leveling
2. Cultivation 3. Harvesting 4. Transport
B. Stationary work:
1. Threshing 2. Water pumping 3. Milling

III. Common sources of power and energy for agro-industrial operations

1. Human power

A mature human being can continuously develop an output of 0.10 hp if he is in good

physical condition, well-fed and working in a favorable environment. As a poor source of
mechanical power, he is most suited to operations which require judgment and skill.

2. Animal power

Draft or work animals can develop an output of 0.7-1.3 horsepower.

James Watt of Scotland, to determine the power performance of his steam engines, ran
a series of tests with average horses 1 and found that a horse could lift 366 lb of coal out of a
mine at the rate of 1 ft/s (22,000 ft-lb/min). He arbitrarily increased this value by 50% to
deliberately underrate his engines. The resulting figure is 33,000 ft-lb/min or 550 ft-lb/s. It is
approximately equivalent to 0.746 kW 2.

The table below shows the results of experiments conducted to determine the power
outputs of carabao3 and cattle4 as affected by load.

Performance of carabao and cattle under varying pulling loads

Load (kg) Draft (kg) Speed (kph) Hp

1
Equus caballus
2
The French horsepower, also referred to as metric hp or PS, is equal to 0.7355 kW, 0.9863 hp and 75 kg-
m/s. Japan is using metric hp as their industrial standard.
3
Bubalus bubalis; (Tamaraw = Bubalus mindorensis)
4
Bos taurus (Europe), Bos indicus (India)
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Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle
50 24 20 4.0 4.4 0.42 0.32
100 55 40 4.6 4.0 0.92 0.58
150 75 62 4.3 3.6 1.18 0.82
200 101 88 4.3 3.2 1.58 1.03
250 146 118 3.9 2.4 2.08 1.03
300 The test draft animals could not pull the load of 300 kg and beyond.
Source: Test data of the National Carabao Research Center, Institute of Animal Science, UPLB,
1990.

3. Electricity

Electricity supplies power for lighting buildings, for heating and for operating water
pumps and refrigeration equipment. Electric motors provide stationary power for various
agricultural operations.

4. Solar energy Scattered to Total solar radiation

space 1,353 w/m2
Reflected to
Solar energy has been in 80 w/m2
space
use throughout the world mainly for 383 w/m2
drying and heating. Very recently, 365 w/m2
new dimensions of solar energy
applications have been developed 28 w/m2
Absorbed by Clouds
like electricity generation, space
atmosphere
cooling, refrigeration and water 190 w/m2
pumping. However, due to high Direct radiation
investment costs, the commercial 460 w/m2
use of these modern technologies Diffuse
radiation
has yet been limited.
230 w/m2

The energy received from

the sun, per unit of time, on a
Total radiation absorbed by earth
normal surface at the average 690 w/m2
distance between the sun and earth
outside the earth’s atmosphere is Simplified paths of solar radiation
equal to 1,353 w/m2. The radiation
absorbed by the earth is about 690 w/m 2. The figure shows the paths of the other portion of
solar energy received by earth.

Classification of solar energy applications

a. Thermal or heat based applications. These rely on heat energy coming from the sun. The heat
energy can be used directly to heat or cool systems or be transformed to other forms of energy
such as mechanical or electrical.

b. Photovoltaic applications. These rely on the illumination-spectrum intensity coming from the
sun. With the aid of semi-conductor materials, e.g. solar cells, the illumination is transformed
directly into electricity.

5.Wind energy

Wind was another early source of power used to multiply the productive capacity of the
human muscle. On the seas, it has been used to propel ships, and on land, it has served a
variety of purposes like pumping water, grinding grains and generating electricity.

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The theoretical power from wind can be given by the formula:

Theoretical power = ( ρ A V 3 ) / 2 where: ρ = air density, 1.25 kg/m 3

A = rotor area, m2
V = wind speed, m/s

However, using the Froude momentum theory, the maximum energy or power
recoverable from wind is only 16/27 or 0.593 5 times the kinetic energy. Of this available energy,
the amount that is actually utilized depends upon the aerodynamic efficiency of the blades, the
friction losses in gearing, power transmission, wind velocity gradient due to ground effects,
vibration dampening and other factors. For estimation purposes, the following formulas can be
used:

Available power = 0.245 A V 3 (for mechanical energy conversion, e. g. pumping)

Available power = 0.10 A V 3 (for electric energy conversion)

D. 4-bladed, curved
B. Multiblade
steel plate E 1. 3-bladed,
A. Savonius
airfoil

C. Cretan F. 2-bladed,
airfoil
E 2. Darrieus,
Theoretical maximum, 0.593 airfoil
0.6

0.5
Power Coefficient, Cp

0.4
B E
0.3 D F

0.2

0.1
C
A
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Tip Speed Ratio
The power coefficient, Cp, of different types of windrotors as
function of tip speed ratio.

The power coefficient, Cp, of a windmill is the ratio of actual power delivered to the
theoretical wind power determined. The values given are the maximum values which occur at
certain tip speed ratios, (blade tip speed/wind speed). The figure shows the power coefficients of
various windrotors.

5
Betz coefficient
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6. Water power

The movement of masses of water is a form of kinetic energy which can be converted
into mechanical energy through the use of water wheels or water turbines. In general, two types
of water masses movement can be used: (a) the falling/flowing of streams of water through the
force of gravity, and, (b) the rise and fall of tides through lunar (and solar) gravity.

In hp, the theoretical power available from flowing water is:

Theoretical power = ( Q × H ) / 33,000 where: H – head, ft

Q – mass flow rate, lbs/min
The mass flow rate Q can be expressed as:

Q=VAρ where: V – velocity of water, ft/min

A – cross sectional area of water stream, ft 2
ρ – density of water, 62.4 lbs/ft3

In kW, the theoretical power available is:

Theoretical power = ( Q × H ) / 102 where: H – head, m

Q – mass flow rate, kg/sec
The mass flow rate Q can be expressed as:

Q=VAρ where: V – velocity of water, m/sec

A – cross sectional area of water stream, m 2
ρ – density of water, 1000 kg/m3

Inefficiencies of various elements in the hydropower generation include:

a. hydraulic losses in conduits and turbines

b. mechanical losses in bearings and power transmission system
c. electrical losses in generator, station use and transmission

The overall effect is to reduce the theoretical power by a factor of 0.6-0.8.

Classification of water power generating devices:

a. Hydraulic rotating prime movers

1. Waterwheel includes overshot wheel, breast wheel and undershot wheel
2. Tubwheel
3. Water turbine includes Francis, Pelton, Nagler, Kaplan, Michell or Banki, and Plata turbines

b. Hydraulic rams
c. Hydraulic air compressors

7. Biomass energy

Biomass refers to all organic materials that originate from living organisms such as wood,
agricultural residues, animal wastes and others. Large proportion of biomass, mainly fuelwood, is
being used in developing countries.

A. Sources of biomass available for energy

1. Livestock manure (cattle, pigs 6, poultry, etc.)
2. Crop residues (rice straws and hulls, corn stalks and cobs, sugarcane bagasse0

6
Sus scrofa, Sus domesticus; (Southeast Asian wild swine = Sus vittatus)
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3. Fuelwood (ipil-ipil, hardwoods)
4. Sugar crops (for ethanol production)
5. Rural and municipal wastes
6. Aquatic plants (water hyacinth)
7. Energy farms (fast growing trees, oil and hydrocarbon crops, etc.)

B. Biomass conversion processes

1. Thermochemical conversion
a. Gasification (downdraft gasifiers, updraft and fluidized bed)
b. Pyrolysis and carbonization
c. Combustion (cook stoves)

2. Biochemical conversion
a. Ethanol production
b. Biogas production (anaerobic digestion)

8. Heat engines

Engines are mechanical devices that convert heat energy of fuels into mechanical energy.

In external combustion engines (ECE), the fuel is ignited and burned outside a cylinder
and the heat energy is applied indirectly to a piston by an intermediate medium, usually water
vapor. A steam engine is an external combustion engine.

In internal combustion engines (ICE), the fuel is ignited and burned inside a cylinder and
the resulting explosion causes an instantaneous application of pressure to a piston. Internal
combustion engines have completely replaced the steam engine for all types of agricultural
power applications.

a. They are used as stationary power sources for milling, grinding, water pumping,
generation of electricity, etc.
b. They are used as power units of (1) portable farm equipment such as sprayers, and
threshers, and (2) self-propelled machines such as tractors, combines and harvesters.

A great number of them are mounted on tractors. Exhaust valve

Tractors can classified into: Spark plug Intake valve
a. 2-wheel tractor (hand tractor)
b. compact 4-wheel tractor
Combustion
c. combination wheel type and track type chamber
d. tract type or crawler
e. combination wheel type and tract type Piston rings

Piston
Main engine components
a. cylinder h. piston rings Connecting
b. cylinder block i. piston pin rod
c. cylinder head j. flywheel
d. valves k. crankcase
Crankshaft
e. piston l. intake manifold
f. connecting rod m. exhaust manifold
g. crankshaft
Main components of an SI engine
Physical nomenclature
a. bore (d) – the diameter of the engine cylinder
b. stroke (l) – distance the piston travels in one direction
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c. piston displacement (Pd) – volume displaced by the piston in one stroke

Pd = ( π × bore2 / 4 ) × stroke

d. clearance volume ( Cv ) – the space inside the cylinder when the piston is at top dead
center position
e. cylinder volume – the sum of piston displacement and clearance volume, Pd + Cv
f. compression ratio ( Cr ) – ratio of cylinder volume to the clearance volume

c. r. = ( Pd + Cv ) / Cv

g. engine efficiency – a measure of the ability of an engine to convert fuel into useful work

Engine cycles and principles of operation

In the operation of internal combustion engines, four events repeatedly takes place
inside the combustion chamber one after the other in a definite order. These cycle of events are
the following:

1. Intake (suction) – This event is D

characterized by the taking in of Constant volume
combustible materials.
2. Compression – The air or air-fuel
mixture which have entered during
Pressure

the intake event is trapped into a

small combustion chamber.
3. Power – The air-fuel mixture is C
E
ignited resulting to a very rapid
expansion of the burning mixture. G F
A
4. Exhaust – The burned gases are
B
removed from the combustion
chamber.
Volume
Classification of engines: Ideal PV diagram for a 4-stroke-cycle
spark-ignition engine.
b. Based on the manner of igniting the
fuel:
C D
1. Electric (spark) ignition engine.
This engine utilizes an electric spark
produced by a spark plug located inside
the combustion chamber to ignite the Constant pressure
Pressure

compressed air and fuel mixture. Fuel

used is gasoline, and metering is done
by a device called carburetor.

In the figure showing ideal E

conditions, ignition begins at C. It is A G
assumed that combustion is F
B
instantaneous and that the rise in
pressure CD occurs at constant volume
V2. Volume
Ideal PV diagram for a 4-stroke-cycle
compression-ignition engine.

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Thermal efficiency is given by:
k-1
e = 1- ( VC / VB )

2. Compression (injection) ignition engine. This engine utilizes the heat of compressed air
to ignite the fuel as it is being injected inside the combustion chamber. Fuel used is diesel and
metering is accomplished by the fuel injection system.

In the figure showing ideal conditions, combustion takes place during the interval CD
which occurs at constant pressure.

Thermal efficiency is given by:

k-1
e = 1 – ( VC / VB ) [{( VD / VC )k -1} / k (VD / VC -1)]
70
Otto
The figure shows the comparative efficiency cycle
values of ideal Otto and Diesel cycles. At first, the

Thermal efficiency, %
60
efficiency increases rapidly with compression ratio but
the rate of increase decreases as compression ratio
50
becomes high. Otto cycle gives a higher theoretical
Diesel
efficiency than Diesel cycle. cycle
40
In actual practice, it is not higher, because
the compression ratio of Otto-cycle engine is limited
by the fuel characteristics. Diesel engine normally 30
0 4 8 12 16
uses higher compression pressures than Otto-cycle
Compression ratio
engine and, therefore, higher fuel-utilization
efficiency. Theoretical relationship of compression ratio
and thermal efficiency.

The table below summarizes the differences between spark-ignition and compression-
ignition engines.

Comparison of diesel and gasoline engines

Characteristics CI SI
Ignition heat of compression spark
Compression ratio 14-22 to 1 5-8 to 1
Thermal efficiency 30-36% 25-30%
Fuel induction injector carburetor
Fuel used diesel gasoline
Air-fuel ratio 15-100 to 1 12-15 to 1
Fuel consumption low high
Exhaust gas temperature 900˚F 1300˚F
Starting characteristic hard easy
Engine wt/hp high low
Initial cost high low

c. Based on the number of strokes to complete the engine cycle, engines can be classified as:

1. Four-stroke cycle engines require four movements of the piston to complete the cycle.
2. Two-stroke cycle engines require two movements of the piston to complete the cycle.

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The table below gives a comparison between four- and two-stroke cycle engines.

Comparison of 4-stroke cycle and 2-stroke cycle engines

Characteristics 4-stroke 2-stroke
Number of power strokes 1 per 2 rev. of crankshaft 1 per 1 rev. of crankshaft
Power small Large (1.5 times)
Valve mechanism required absent
Construction/design complicated simple
Fuel consumption less more (15% more)
Durability good good
Stability of rpm high with large flywheel low with small flywheel
Lubrication independent of oil circuit mixed with fuel
Oil consumption little much
Carbon deposit inside cylinder little much
and contamination of spark plug
Self-weight and size heavy and large light and small
Market price expensive cheap

From the above classification, there are four different types of engines:
Four-stroke cycle spark ignition engine
Four-stroke cycle compression ignition engine
Two-stroke cycle spark ignition engine
Two-stroke cycle compression ignition engine

Auxiliary systems

A. Fuel systems

1) Functions of the fuel system of compression ignition engines

 To meter the correct amount of fuel as demanded by the load
 To accurately time the beginning and ending of the fuel injection
 To inject fuel against very high pressure in the cylinder

Major parts of diesel fuel-injection Fuel injectors

system: (1) fuel tank, (2) fuel transfer pump, (3)
primary fuel filter, (4) two-stage secondary
Fuel tank
filter, (5) injection pump, (6) injection nozzles,
and (7) governing mechanism.

Three major types of direct-injection

systems: (1) single-unit, with pump and
injection nozzle built together in a sing-unit
Injection
mechanism; (2) two-unit with individual pumps pump
and injectors for each cylinder; and (3) two-unit, Fuel
filter
with one master injector pump but with
distribution valves and injectors for each
cylinder. A simplified diagram of a two-unit injection system

2) Functions of the fuel system of spark ignition engines

 To assist in properly vaporizing the fuel
 To mix the vaporized fuel in the correct proportions with air

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 To supply the engine with the proper quantity of mixture

Essential components are: (1) fuel-supply container or tank, (2) a carburetor, (3)
connecting lines, pump, filter, etc., and (4) intake manifold to conduct the mixture from the
carburetor to the cylinder.
Mixture to engine
Usual systems are: (1)
Fuel
suction system, as used on some Float Throttle
single-cylinder engines; (2) butterfly
Valve
gravity feed with float type
carburetor and elevated fuel tank, Venturi
as used on both single and multi- Float Fuel jet
chamber nozzle
cylinder stationary and
Choke
automotive-type engines; and (3) valve
force-feed with float-type
carburetor, as used on both single
Air
and multi-cylinder stationary and
automotive-type engines. Operation of a simple jet-nozzle type carburetor

Regardless of type, size,

speed, number of cylinders and other engine characteristics, all carburetors operate on the same
basic principles, as illustrated in the figure above.

Fuel-Injection system for

gasoline engines.

In the 1980s, the

fuel-injection system
replaces the carburetor in
most new vehicles.
Modern, computer-
operated fuel injection
produces more power,
lower exhaust emissions,
improved fuel economy,
and smoother operation
than a carburetor system.
Fuel injection is now the
fuel-delivery system for
virtually all new
automobiles.
Fuel-injection system for gasoline engines.
B. Electrical system (Gasoline engines only)

The essential functions of any electric ignition system are (1) the generation of a large,
hot spark in the cylinder, and, (2) the production of this spark at the right instant in the travel of
the piston.

Electric sparking continues to be the ignition method used in modern gasoline engines,
but the manner of producing and regulating the spark has changed with new technology.
Computers control the ignition systems in modern automobiles, although many older vehicles still
rely on mechanically operated and controlled ignition systems.

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Two kinds of ignition systems:
(1) Battery-ignition system, and
(2) Magneto-ignition system.

The peculiar relationship or

interaction of electricity and magnetism,
known as electromagnetic induction or
induction, is well utilized in ignition
systems. It has been established that if
current flows through a conductor,
magnetic field exists around it. In the
same manner, if a magnetic field is
suddenly set up about an electric
conductor, electric current will flow just
at the instant the field builds up.

The two schematic diagrams

show the basic components of battery- A battery ignition system
and magneto-ignition systems.

Spark plug
Distributor The breaker points are opened
when the primary voltage is
Laminated iron
Spark plug
coil core
maximum. The opening of the
primary circuit causes the collapse
Secondary circuit of the magnetic lines of force in
Rotor the primary winding. This
Coil
collapse induces a very high
N S
Ignition Primary voltage in the secondary winding
switch circuit which is sufficient to discharge a
Condenser Cam
Condenser spark at theMagnetic
spark plug gap. The
rotor
Battery condenser is used again to rapidly Point
Cam
collapse the magnetic field and to
prevent Common
arcingground
at the breaker
Point
points.
Schematic diagram of a conventional breaker-point Schematic diagram of a conventional breaker-point
battery ignition system magneto ignition system
Laminated iron
Cells or batteries. coil core Spark plug

Cells or batteries are chemical devices for

generating electric current. A cell is a single unit while
a battery consists of two or more cells connected N S

together. Fundamental parts are: (1) positive terminal, Condenser Cam

(2) negative terminal, (3) electrolyte, and, (4) the Magnetic
rotor
container. Point

Common ground
A primary cell is one in which the chemical
action changes one or more of the active materials in Schematic diagram of a conventional breaker-point
such a way that the cell is completely discharged or magneto ignition system

‘dead’. A secondary cell can be restored to its original condition by sending an electric current
through it in a direction opposite to that of discharge.

The lead-acid battery, shown in the figure, is used in automobiles, trucks, aircraft, and
other vehicles. The negative electrode consists of sponge lead (Pb), and the positive electrode of

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lead peroxide (PbO2). The electrolyte solution consists of about 2 parts sulfuric acid (H 2SO4) and
5 parts distilled water. The concentrated acid has a specific gravity of 1.835, but the diluted
mixture will be about 1.300.

The chemical reaction during the discharging and charging process is as follows:

2Pb + 2 PbO2 + 7 H2SO4 + 16 H2O ↔

Negative Positive Electrolyte
plate plate

Pb + PbSO4 + PbO2 + PbSO4 + 5 H2SO4 + 18 H2O

Negative plate Positive plate Electrolyte

Lead-acid storage battery

‘Maintenance free’ batteries are new generation batteries

which were developed incorporating changes in chemistry,
manufacturing process, and materials of construction. For one, the
antimony used in the grids has been replaced by other metals such
as calcium, cadmium and strontium.

C. Valve system (Four stroke cycle engines only)

The operation of an internal combustion engine necessitates

the admission, trapping, and exhausting of the working medium.
These functions are accomplished by means of the valves.

D. Cooling system

Without the cooling system, at least three major troubles

could arise:

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 The piston and cylinder would expand such that the piston would seize in the cylinder;
 Lubricating properties of the oil will be destroyed by the temperature;
 Pre-ignition of the fuel will take place resulting in knocking and loss of power.

Function of cooling systems:

 To maintain engine temperature within optimum levels;
 To assists in rapid engine warm up.

Classification of cooling methods and systems:

1. Air cooling. This is usually applied to small cylinder engines. Multiple cylinder engines are
cast individually to maximize cooling effect. It is difficult to maintain proper cooling under all
conditions and almost impossible to fully control cylinder temperature.
2. Liquid cooling.
3. Combination of liquid and air cooling.
a) Thermosiphon b) Forced-circulation system

E. Lubrication system

Functions:
 reduces friction and wear by separating rubbing parts
 assists in cooling the engine by absorbing heat from parts
 acts as the final seal between the piston and cylinder walls
 assists in cleaning the engine

Classification of lubrication systems:

a. Splash system. The lubrication of all the principal engine parts depends directly on the
splashing of the oil by a dipper on the bottom side of the connecting rod cap that dips into the
crankcase oil each time the piston reaches the bottom dead center.

b. Pressure-feed and splash system. Oil is forces directly to the main crankshaft, connecting rod,
and camshaft bearings. Drilled passages in the crankshaft carry the oil from the main bearings to
the connecting-rod bearings. The oil oozing out of these bearings creates a spray that lubricates
the cylinder walls, pistons and piston pins. The valve mechanism is oiled by the pressure from
the crankcase.

c. Full-pressure system. Oil is forces not only in the crankshaft, connecting rod, and camshaft
bearings but also to the piston pin bearings through passages. Cylinders and pistons receive oil
from the piston pins and from the mist creates by the oil issuing from various bearings. The
valve mechanism is also oiled by pressure.

F. Governing system

A governor is a device that automatically regulates the speed of an engine. In general,

governors are of centrifugal spring-loaded type.

For electric ignition engines, the governing mechanism is connected to the throttle
butterfly of the carburetor in such a manner that it controls and varies the throttle opening
according to the amount of fuel mixture needed to maintain the desired engine speed and power
output.

The control of the diesel engine speed and load involves the control of the charge of fuel
injected. The mechanism is connected and becomes a part of the injection pump. No attempt is
made to vary the air charge, and it remains constant at all loads.

Engine power
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a. Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP). It is the average net pressure on the piston during
the power stroke. It is expressed either in kPa or lb/in 2.

b. Indicated horsepower (IHP). It is the total horsepower generated in the cylinder and received
by piston.

IHP = ( P × L × A × N × n ) × ½ × C for 4-stroke-cycle engine

or IHP = ( P × L × A × N × n ) × C for 2-stroke-cycle engine

where, P – indicated mean effective pressure

L – piston stroke
A – piston area
N – number of revolutions per minute
n - number of cylinders
C - a suitable conversion constant

c. Brake horsepower (BHP). It is the power available at the crankshaft. It is measured using a
suitable dynamometer.

d. Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP). It is calculated from the brake horsepower of the
engine.

BMEP = BHP / ( L × A × N × n ) × C

BMEP can not be measured. It is merely a value for comparing the mean pressures in the
engine cylinders.

e. Mechanical efficiency. It is the ratio of the brake horsepower to the indicated horsepower.

Mechanical efficiency = ( BHP / IHP ) × 100 %

f. Volumetric efficiency. It is the ratio of the actual weight of air inducted by the engine during
the intake stroke, to the theoretical weight of air that should have been inducted by filling
the piston displacement volume with air at atmospheric temperature and pressure.

g. Specific fuel consumption. It is the quantity of fuel consumed by an engine on the basis of its
horsepower-hour performance.

h. Thermal efficiency. It is the ratio of the horsepower output of an engine to the fuel
horsepower.

Example 1. A 4-cylinder,100 mm × 100 mm [4 in × 4 in] engine turns 1600 rpm. (a) What is the
total engine displacement? (b) If the instantaneous piston head pressure is 690 kPa [100 psi]
when the shaft has rotated 90º after top dead center position, what is the torque on the
crankshaft? (c) If the mean effective pressure per power stroke is 550 kPa [80 psi], what is the
indicated power of the engine? (d) If the individual cylinder’s clearance volume is 130 cm 3 [8 in3],
what is the engine’s compression ratio?

a. Area of the piston = π ( 10 cm ) 2 / 4 = 78.54 cm2 = 0.007854 m2

Length of stroke = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Piston displacement of each cylinder = Area of piston × Stroke
= 785.40 cm3 = 0.0007854 m3
Total piston displacement = Number of cylinders × Piston displacement
= 3,142 cm3 = 0.003142 m3
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b. Force = Pressure × Area = 690 kPa × 0.007854 m 2 = 5,419 N

Torque = Force × Moment arm = 5419 N × 0.05 m = 271 N-m

c. IHP = ( P × L × A × N × n × ½ ) × C
= 550,000 Pa × 0.1 m × 0.007854 m 2 × 1,600 rpm × 4 cylinders × ½
× [ (1 min/60 sec) ( 1 hp/ 746 watts ) ]
= 30.88 hp ( 23.04 kW )

d. c. r. = ( Pd + Cv ) / Cv = ( 785.40 cm3 + 130 cm3 ) / 130 cm3

= 7.04 : 1

9. Fuels and combustion

Burning of fuels is a chemical reaction, expressed ideally for gasoline as:

2 C8 H18 + 25 O2 → 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

The masses involved are: 2 ( 96 + 18 ) + 25 ( 32 ) → 16 ( 12 + 32 ) + 18 ( 18 )

228 units C8 H18 + 800 units O2 → 704 units CO2 + 324 units H2O

Since air is about 23.2% oxygen by mass, the correct air-fuel ratio is 3448 units air to 228 units
gasoline or 15.1:1.

Fuel characteristics

For carbureted engines, volatility, the ability to vaporize, is an important fuel property
because liquids will not burn. Octane rating is related to the ability of a fuel to burn in an engine.
It is determined by comparing engine test with two base fuels, normal heptane and 2,2,4
trimethyl pentane (isooctane) which are rated 0 and 100 octane, respectively. Cracked gasoline
has better antiknock characteristics than straight-run gasoline, and any gasoline can be further
improved by the addition of substances such as tetraethyl or tetramethyl lead.

In diesel engines, accumulated fuel explodes (detonates) rather than burns as it is

injected. The cetane rating is the rating given to diesel fuels for their ability to burn without
detonating as compared with the performance of reference fuels consisting of given blends of
cetane and alpha-methylnaphthalene. Diesel fuel is less expensive to produce than gasoline and
safer to handle. Due to lower volatility (tendency to vaporize) and a higher flash point (the
temperature at which diesel fuel ignites), it is less likely to catch fire during an accident.

Fuels for ICE:

Gasoline. This can be produced in three distinct ways and classified as natural, raw and cracked.
Ordinary distillation produces raw or straight-run gasoline. Cracked gasoline is manufactured
from heavier distillation fractions, particularly gas oil. The process consists in breaking up the
heavy molecules into lighter ones that make up gasoline. Natural gasoline is manufactured from
the gas that issues from oil wells or is obtained in the distillation of crude oil. The gasoline now
found in the market known as blended gasoline, in many cases, consists of all three types as
mixed together in the refining process.

Diesel. Fuels for diesel engines are largely straight-run rather than cracked products.

Natural gas. It can be used directly as it comes from the well without being subjected to any
complex refining or purifying action. It is colorless and odorless and consists largely of methane
(CH4) and other simple hydrocarbon gases and small amounts of CO 2 and nitrogen. Its use must
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PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials II - 15
be confined to stationary power units. A suitable pressure regulator or control and a mixing
device similar to a carburetor are needed.

Propane and butane or LPG. Both are hydrocarbons of the paraffin series and become gases at
normal atmospheric pressure and temperature. They are more or less by-products of petroleum
refining process.

Producer gas. This fuel is a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, nitrogen and
carbon dioxide. It is made by the partial combustion of carbonaceous substances, like coal,
wood, charcoal, sawdust, or similar materials, in an atmosphere of air and steam. It is lower
heating value than other gaseous but can be manufactured by relatively simple equipment.

Alcohol and alcohol blends. Two kinds of alcohol might be used as fuel for SI engines, namely,
ethanol, C2H6O, and methanol, CH4O. Ethanol can be produced from grains crops, sugar crops,
starches, or crop residuals. Methanol can be produced from coal, natural gas, petroleum, or
wood. It is commonly known as ‘wood alcohol’. (A blend of 90% unleaded gasoline and 10%
alcohol is used to some extent as fuel for SI tractors and automobile engines and is known as
gasohol.)

Properties of common tractor fuels

Fuel API Mass/vol, Energy/mass, Energy/vol, Rating Practical
Gravity kg/L MJ/kg MJ/m3 compression
ratio
Propane 146 0.51 50.31 25,719 100* 10.0:1
Premium gasoline 62 0.73 47.15 34,330 95* 8.5:1
Regular gasoline 60 0.74 47.06 34,636 89* 8.0:1
Diesel fuel 35 0.85 45.46 38,676 55** 20.0:1
*Octane rating **Cetane rating

Engine compression ratios for different fuels

Fuel Compression ratio
Minimum Maximum
Gasoline, regular 7.0 to 1 8.5 to 1
Gasoline, premium 9.0 to 1 10.5 to 1
Gasoline, no lead 7.5 to 1 8.5 to 1
LPG 8.0 to 1 9.0 to 1
Diesel fuel 15.0 to 1 18.0 to 1

Colors of exhaust flame

Air-fuel ratio Color of exhaust flame Condition of mixture
8.5 to 1 Bright yellowish-orange-black smoke Very rich
9.5 to 1 Bright yellow Rich
9.7 to 1 Bluish-white with faint yellow tinge Rich
10 to 1 Light blue with trace of yellow Rich
11.3 to 1 Light blue Slightly rich
13.6 to 1 Intense light blue Approaching ideal
15 to 1 Light blue of maximum intensity Ideal
17.3 to 1 Whitish-blue of less intensity Lean

10. Essential conditions for efficient engine operation

The following conditions must exist if the engine is to operate efficiently:

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PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials II - 16

a. The cylinder should have good compression. To ensure good compression:

1. valves must sit properly on the valve seat;
2. good fit must exist between piston rings and cylinder wall;
3. use of recommended oil to enable it to seal minute gaps between the piston rings and
cylinder wall;
4. cylinder head gasket must be tightly secured.

b. The valves must be correctly timed. Engine manufacturers fix the opening and closing points
of the valves with respect to the position and direction of motion of the piston. It is fixed by:
1. providing timing marks between the crankshaft and camshaft timing gears;
2. fixing the clearance between the valve and tappet.

c. The correct air-fuel mixture must be supplied to the cylinder. A 15:1 air-fuel ratio can be
provided by an efficiently air cleaner and properly adjusted carburetor. In general, there are
two carburetor adjustments, the high speed and the low speed adjustments, neither of which
should affect the other. Carburetor adjustments should always be made on hot engine and
operating and generally, the low speed is made first.

d. The occurrence of the spark must be correctly timed. The combustible mixture must be
ignited at the right moment so that its maximum effect would be felt when the piston is at
TDC. If the maximum effect of ignition occurs before TDC, there will be knocking and
appreciable loss of power. The piston needs to reach TDC but the expanding gases is
resisting it. If the maximum expansion occurs after TDC, the maximum effect will not be felt
resulting in considerable power loss.

There is definite time, though short, between the ignition of the charge with maximum
expansion. If the engine is at low speed, the spark may occur at TDC. However, as engine
speed increases, the spark must occur before TDC so that maximum expansion will be felt at
TDC. The higher the speed, the earlier the spark should occur before TDC. This is referred to
as spark advance and designated in degrees rotation of the crankshaft.

e. The moving parts must be properly lubricated. Lubricating oil does not only reduce friction by
separating rubbing parts but also assists in cleaning the engine of carbon and dirt. This is
one reason why there is a need for periodic oil changes.

f. The temperature of the engine must be maintained at optimum level. The main bulk of the
heat rejected by the engine is dissipated through the cooling system. For air-cooled engines,
it is necessary that the passages are free from dirt for most efficient heat transfer. For
liquid-cooled engines, there should be sufficient amount of water available in the cooling
system to carry away or dissipate the unwanted heat.

11. Servicing of engines

Servicing is a term which includes both the essential daily and periodic maintenance
work. Daily maintenance involves the simple activities such as checking the levels of fuel and oil,
condition of the cooling system and transmission belt, and the tightness of the bolts, nuts and
screws. Periodic maintenance on the other hand, involves the scheduled cleaning, replacement or
adjustment of parts related to the valve, ignition, fuel, lubrication and cooling systems.

Small engines are primarily air cooled, and the servicing of the cooling system is critical
but often neglected. Overheating of the engine occurs when the cooling fins and shrouds
become clogged with debris. The fins, shrouds and fan screen must be cleaned at least every 25
hours of operation.

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PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials II - 17
When breaking-in a new four-cycle engine, change the oil at the end of the first 2 to 5
hours of operation and then every 25 hours. Follow the manufacturer's recommendation for
each engine. Service the air cleaner when the oil is changed. Drain the oil when the engine is
warm. After the oil is well drained, fill with the correct quantity and weight of oil. The engine
manufacturer will usually recommend SAE 30, SAE 40, SAE 10W-30 or SAE 10W-40 for ambient
temperature above 40°F. Recommendations for temperature below 40°F do not apply to us.

Keeping enough oil in the engine is as important as changing the oil at regular intervals.
Check the oil level each day before starting it. Have the engine on a level surface when checking
the oil. Fill the engine to the full mark on the dipstick. Check the oil level every 5 hours of
continuous operation.

The servicing of the valve, fuel and ignition systems are not as simple as the cooling and
lubrication systems. These are usually referred to mechanics who have the necessary skill and
tools to perform the job.

12. Troubleshooting small engines

Small Gasoline Engine

When trouble shooting a small engine, first check the three things any engine must have
to start and run: (1) Compression; (2) Ignition (spark at the plug); (3) Carburetion (fuel and air
into the cylinder)

Check the compression by cranking the engine to the point of strongest resistance, and
note whether the engine snaps back. If there seems to be no resistance, check to see if the
spark plug is tight and its gasket is in place. There are other reasons for lack of compression
but the checking of these are beyond the capability of the ordinary user.

Check the ignition by removing the cable from the spark plug, holding the cable about
3/16 inch away from some metal surface on the engine and cranking the engine. If a bluish
spark will jump a 3/16-inch gap, the trouble is not in the ignition but may be in the spark plug.

Remove the spark plug and reconnect it with the cable. Place the threaded portion of
the plug in contact with some metal surface of the engine and crank the engine. If a bluish
spark is produced at the spark plug gap, the trouble is not in the spark plug.

Check the carburetion by holding a thumb over the spark plug hole while cranking the
engine a few turns. Your thumb should be moist with gas if fuel is reaching the cylinder. If
there is no gas getting to the cylinder, check the vent in the gas tank cap, check for fuel in the
tank and check the fuel lines to see that the fuel is getting to the carburetor.

Small Diesel Engine

When trouble shooting a small diesel engine, first check the two things a diesel engine
must have to start and run: (1) Compression; (2) Fuel injection.

Check the compression by following the procedure for checking compression of small
gasoline engines.

Check the flow of fuel by opening the bleeder located at the low pressure side of the
fuel injector. If no fuel flows out of the bleeder, the fuel filter is probably clogged assuming that
there is fuel in the tank and the fuel shut-off valve (fuel cock) is turned on. If air and fuel flow
out of the bleeder, continue bleeding the system. This occurs when the engine runs out of fuel
during operation. Tighten the bleeder and the engine should now start. If the engine still does

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PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials II - 18
not start, there is probably something wrong with the injector nozzle. However, a competent
mechanic is required to perform the repair.

13. Power transmission system

a. clutch
 transmits power from flywheel
 absorbs impact load
 allows for gradual application of load to engine
 permits shifting of gears without stopping the engine

b. gear box
 supplies different speeds of travel
 supplies necessary torque at different loads
 used for idling

c. differential
 allows different speeds of ground wheel when turning
 acts as second speed reduction point in the power train

d. brake system
 used to slow down or stop the vehicle
Power efficiencies for tractor on concrete
14. Tractor power
Net engine power
Tractors deliver power in several ways. Pulled or 0.96-0.98
towed implements are powered through the traction of 0.75-0.81
0.87-0.90 Transmission
drive wheels and the pull or draft from the drawbar.
Rotary power is obtained from the power-take-off (PTO) 0.90-0.92 0.85-0.89
shaft of from a belt pulley. Both linear and rotary power
can be produced by a tractor’s hydraulic system. Some Axle
Power take 0.94-0.96
implements require electric power from tractors. The off
figure shows the mechanical transmission efficiency for Drawbar
0.86-0.89
a tractor on a concrete surface.

Some tractor power equations:

Drawbar power (DBP) = F S / c where: DBP – drawbar power, kW or HP

F – force, kN or lb
S – forward speed, km/hr or MPH
C – suitable constant, 3.6 or 375

PTO power (PTOP) = 2 π F R N / c = 2 π T N / c

where: PTOP – PTO power, kW or HP

F – tangential force, kN or lb
R – radius of force rotation, m or ft
N – revolutions per minute
T – Torque, N-m or lb-ft
C – suitable constant, 60 or 33,000

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PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials II - 19
15. Tractor size determination

The primary tillage operations demand the highest draft requirements such that the
process of determining tractor size is based on them.

Methods of estimating tractor size:

a. Use of specific draft. Unit draft is the specific resistance of a given type of soil at a given
moisture content to allow the passage of a tillage implement. Table below shows the unit
draft of different soil types.

Unit draft of different soils

Type of soil Unit draft (psi) Type of soil Unit draft (psi)
1. Sandy soil 3 5. Silt loam, dry 6-7
2. Sandy loan, moist 3-4 6. Clay loam, moist 6-7
3. Sandy loam, dry 4-6 7. Clay loam, dry 7-8
4. Silt loam, moist 5-6 8. Heavy clay 10-11

Example 2. Determine the draft requirement, drawbar horsepower and the tractor size for an
operation using a four bottom 28” disc plow with a furrow width of 12”. The soil type is dry
clay loam. Use an average speed of 3.5 mph and 10” depth of cut.

Solution: From the table, the unit draft is 8 psi. Therefore, the draft is:

Draft = Area × unit draft = ( width × depth of cut × no. of bottoms ) × unit draft

= 12” × 10” × 4 bottoms × 8 psi = 3,840 lbs

Drawbar horsepower (dhp) = ( D × S ) / 375 = 35.84 hp

Tractor size = Drawbar horsepower × T. F

= 35.84 × 1.25 = 44.80 hp

b. Use of specific resistance of implements

Data on the specific resistance of selected implements can be found in some handbooks
and literatures on agricultural engineering. Using the same procedure as above, power
requirements of operations and approximate sizes of power units can be calculated. The table
below gives a partial list of these data.

Specific resistance offered by various farm machines

Operation Machine Specific resistance
Tillage Chisel plow 200-800 lb/ft
Subsoiler 70-160 lb/in depth/bottom
Rotary tiller 5-10 PTOhp/ft
Cultivation Rotary hoe 30-100 lb/ft
Shallow row crop cultivator 40-80 lb/ft
Chemical application Anhydrous ammonia applicator 420 lb/knife
Planting Corn planter 80-120 lb/row
Corn, soybeans, or cotton-drilling, 250-450 lb/row
all attachment
Harvesting Mower only 1 dhp/ft; 0.5 PTOhp/ft

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PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials II - 20
Sample questions

A. Easy level questions

1. How much oxygen does air have?

a. 23.2% by volume b. 23.2% by weight c. 15.3% by weight d. 15.3% by volume

e. none of the above.

2. For complete combustion of gasoline, how much air is needed?

a. 11.1 kg/kg of fuel b. 12.5 kg/kg of fuel c. 15.1 kg/kg of fuel d. 8.2 kg/kg of fuel

e. none of the above

3. The bore of an engine is 8 cm and the stroke is 11 cm. Find the piston displacement.

a. 55.23 cm3 b. 155.35 cm3 c. 789.30 cm3 d. 552.92 cm3 e. none of the above

4. A prony brake test of a 4-stroke cycle 7.5-cm × 10-cm engine was conducted. The lever arm
was 75 cm at a net force of 60 N and speed of 1000 rpm. Determine the bhp of the engine.

a. 4.7 b. 60 c. 7.6 d. 6.3 e. none of the above

5. It is a special shaft that extends to the rear of the tractor and is designed to provide power to
integral mounted or trailing implements such as mowers, balers, and rotavators.

a. PTO b. drawbar c. differential d. hitch e. none of the above

6. It is a mixture of butane and propane and may be used to a considerable extent as engine
fuel.

a. biogas b. LPG c. producer gas d. natural gas e. none of the above

7. It is an instrument used for testing specific gravity of a liquid.

a. hydrometer b. hygrometer c. viscosimeter d. density meter

e. none of the above

8. It is a special arrangement of gears so constructed and located in the transmission system of

an automotive machine that it will permit one driving member to rotate slower or faster than
the other and at the same time propel its share of the load.

a. gear box b. automatic transmission c. differential d. PTO

e. none of the above

9. It refers to the driving force developed by a wheel or any other traction device.

a. rolling resistance b. traction c. inertia d. pull e. none of the above

10. It is engine part whose primary function is to maintain uniform engine speed by absorbing
some energy during the power strokes and providing power during the idle strokes.
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PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials II - 21

a. governor b. accelerator c. flywheel d. crankshaft e. none of the above

11. It is the theoretical maximum percentage of the kinetic energy of air which a windrotor can
convert into mechanical energy.

a. 82.5% b. 50.5% c. 59.3% d. 10.0% e. none of the above

12. The clutch is normally in this position.

a. running b. engaged c. idling d. disengaged e. none of the above

13. In a spark ignition engine, fresh supply of fuel and air mixture enters the cylinder as the
piston moves downward and the intake valve opens during this event.

a. exhaust b. intake c. power d. compression e. none of the above

14. In order to properly stop the forward motion of the 4-wheel tractor, the operator has to step
on the:

a. brake pedal b. clutch pedal c. brake and clutch pedals d. accelerator

e. none of the above

15. The compression ignition engine is also known as:

a. gasoline engine b. diesel engine c. stirling engine d. spark ignition engine

e. none of the above

Answers:

1.b 2. c 3. d. 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. a 8. c 9. b 10. c 11. c 12. b

13. b 14. c 15. b

B. Medium and difficult level questions

1. An ordinary gasoline engine uses about 0.4 kg of fuel/kW-hr. What is the approximate
thermal efficiency?

a. 20% b. 19% c. 30% d. 35% e. none of the above

2. A diesel engine burns 0.25 kg of fuel/kW-hr. What is the approximate thermal efficiency?

a. 40% b. 35% c. 32% d. 25% e. none of the above

3. Determine the drawbar power required to pull a plow with a 3-14 in bottom at a rate of 3.5
mph if the unit draft is 8 psi of furrow section and depth of cut is 7 in.

a. 21.95 b. 22.35 c. 44.75d. 52.87 e. none of the above

4. What is the piston displacement for a 10 cm × 15 cm engine with 4 cylinders?

a. 2,459 cm3 b. 4,567 cm3 c. 4,712 cm3

d. 1,283 cm3 e. none of the above

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PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials II - 22

5. How much power can a horse deliver if it is continuously pulling 120 lb load for several hours
and walking at a rate of 2.5 mph?

a. 1 hp b. 0.8 hp e. 0.75 hp d. 1.2 hp e. none of the above

6. It is the ratio of the volume of distilled water to the volume of chemically pure, concentrated
sulfuric acid in a lead-acid cell.

a. 3:1 b. 4:1 c. 5:2 d. 1:2 e. none of the above

7. Calculate the theoretical power available from a stream using the following data: average
width – 12 ft; average depth- 2 ft; speed – 15 ft/min; height of drop- 4 ft.

a. 2.7 hp b. 1.5 hp c. 4.2 kW d. 5.4 kW e. none of the above

8. What is the compression ratio of a 2-stroke cycle 3” × 4” engine if the clearance volume is 5
in3. The speed of operation is 1000 rpm.

a. 6.1 b. 7.1 c. 6.7 d.9.1 e. none of the above

9. Calculate the location of the center of gravity of 7800 lb-tractor with respect to the rear axle if
the wheelbase is 90 in. The static weight on the front wheels is 2300 lb.

a. 30” b. 26.5”c. 60.5” d. 45.5”e. none of the above

10. A tractor with a 9-in pulley is belted to a prony brake having a 24-in pulley. If the tractor
engine pulley speed is 950 rpm, the brake arm is 54 in, and the net load is 60 lb., what is the
hp developed?

a. 25 b. 18.3 c. 34 d. 52 e. none of the above

Answers:

1. b 2. c 3. a 4. c 5. b 6. c 7. a 8. c 9. b 10. b

Farm Power and Energy