MA. CRISELDA L.

GALAO

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1 .A solution is a mixture of one substance dissolved in another so the properties are the same throughout. A solution is composed of a solute and the solvent. The solute is the substance being dissolved and the solvent is the part of the solution that does the dissolving. The solute is of molecular size. Examples of Solutions:

Gas

Liquid

Solid

Gas

Oxygen and other gases in nitrogen (air)

Water vapor in air (humidity)

The odor of a solid -- molecules of that solid being dissolved in the air

Liquid

Carbon dioxide in water (carbonated water) Hydrogen dissolved to palladium

Ethanol (common alcohol) in water; various hydrocarbons in each other (petroleum) *

Sucrose (table sugar) in water; sodium chloride (table salt) in water

Solid

Water in activated charcoal

Steel, Brass, other metal alloys

2. A colloid is a substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout another substance.

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A colloidal system consists of two separate phases: a dispersed phase (or internal phase) and a continuous phase (or dispersion medium). A colloidal system may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. Many familiar substances are colloids, as shown in the chart below. In addition to these naturally occurring colloids, modern chemical process industries utilize high shear mixing technology to create novel colloids. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter of between approximately 5 and 200 nanometers. Such particles are normally invisible in an optical microscope, though their presence can be confirmed with the use of an ultra microscope or an electron microscope. Homogeneous mixtures with a dispersed phase in this size range may be called colloidal aerosols, colloidal emulsions, colloidal foams, colloidal dispersions, or hydrosols. The dispersed-phase particles or droplets are affected largely by the surface chemistry present in the colloid. Some colloids are translucent because of the Tyndall effect, which is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight color. Colloidal solutions (also called colloidal solutions or colloidal suspensions) are the subject of interface and colloid science. This field of study was introduced in 1861 by Scottish scientist Thomas.
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3. A suspension is a heterogeneous fluid containing solid particles that are sufficiently large for sedimentation. Usually they must be larger than 1 micrometer.[1] The internal phase (solid) is dispersed throughout the external phase (fluid) through mechanical agitation, with the use of certain excipients or suspending agents. Unlike colloids, suspensions will eventually settle. An example of a suspension would be sand in water. The suspended particles are visible under a microscope and will settle over time if left undisturbed. This distinguishes a suspension from a colloid, in which the suspended particles are smaller and do not settle.[2] Colloids and suspensions are different from solutions, in which the dissolved substance (solute) does not exist as a solid, and solvent and solute are homogeneously mixed. A suspension of liquid droplets or fine solid particles in a gas is called an aerosol or particulate. In the atmosphere these consist of fine dust and soot particles, sea salt, biogenic and volcanogenic sulfates, nitrates, and cloud droplets. Suspensions are classified on the basis of the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium, where the former is essentially solid while the latter may either be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. In modern chemical process industries, high shear mixing technology has been used to create many novel suspensions. Suspensions are unstable from the thermodynamic point of view; however, they can be kinetically stable over a large period of time, which determines their shelf life. This time span needs to be measured to ensure the best product quality to the final consumer. Dispersion stability refers to the ability of a dispersion to resist change in its properties over time. D.J. McClements.[3]

4. Molarity measures the strength of a solution. Remember, a solution is made up of two parts: the solvent (which does the dissolving) and the solute (the substance that is dissolved). The more solute there is, the higher the concentrate and therefore the higher the molarity of the solution. Conversely, the more solvent there is, the lower the concentration and the lower the molarity. To calculate molarity we use the equation: Molarity = moles of solute/Liters of solution. Therefore, the unit of concentration in molarity is moles/L, which can be also be called Molar (abbreviated as "M"). Molarity problems can be worded in many different ways. You must make sure that you have the correct units before plugging values into the molarity equation! Example: A 100 mL solution is made with 0.2 moles of NaCl. What is the molarity of the solution? The moles of solute is given in the problem (0.2 moles of NaCl), however, the problem gives us MILLILITERS of solution when the molarity equation calls for LITERS of solution. We therefore first have to convert the 100 mL to Liters by dividing by 1000 (since there are 1000 mL in 1 L). This gives us 0.1 L of solution. We can then plug both values into the molarity equation: Molarity = 0.2 moles / 0.1 L = 2 moles/L. The concentration of the solution in molarity is 2 Molar or 2 M.

5. Weight Percent Another similar way of expressing the concentration of a solution is to express it in weight percent (or mass percent, if you prefer).

Weight percent =

weight of solute weight of solution

x 100%

You've done this kind of calculation earlier - last term in the lesson on composition. You may already be prepared to answer the questions in exercise 2 in your workbook. If so, do that and check your answers at the bottom of the page. If not, read on. As an example, let's consider a 12% by weight sodium chloride solution. Such a solution would have 12 grams of sodium chloride for every 100 grams of solution. To make such a solution, you could weigh out 12 grams of sodium chloride, and then add 88 grams of water, so that the total mass for the solution is 100 grams. Since mass (unlike volume) is conserved, the masses of the components of the solution, the solute and the solvent, will add up to the total mass of the solution. 12 g NaCl 100 g solution

12 % NaCl solution =

12 g NaCl (12 g NaCl + 88 g water)

= 12% NaCl solution

To calculate the mass percent or weight percent of a solution, you must divide the mass of the solute by the mass of the solution (both the solute and the solvent together) and then multiply by 100 to change it into percent. Examples (Ex. 1) Your workbook has some examples of calculations involving weight percent in example 1. An explanation of those examples is given here. Example 1-a asks, "What is the weight percent of glucose in a solution made by dissolving 4.6 g of glucose in 145.2 g of water?" The way that I recommend you go about doing this is to look at what you need to find, look at what you are given, and determine what the relationship is. Let's start with what you are trying to find, the weight percent of glucose in the solution. What do we need in order to calculate that? We need to divide the weight of glucose by the weight of the solution. We have the weight of glucose, that is 4.6 g. What about the weight of the solution? That is not given, but we can figure it out by adding together the weight of glucose and water to get 149.8 g. Now we can calculate the weight percent of glucose as shown to get 3.1%.

Question: What is the weight percent of glucose in a solution made by dissolving 4.6 g of glucose in 145.2 g of water? Analysis: To get weight percent we need the weight of the solute and the total weight of the solution.

Determine total weight of solution: 4.6 g glucose + 145.2 g water

149.8 g solution Calculate percent: Weight % glucose = 4.6 g glucose x 100 = 3.1% glucose 149.8 g solution

Question: How would you prepare 400. g of a 2.50% solution of sodium chloride? Analysis: We need to find out how much salt is needed and how much water is needed. Determine weight of salt: 400. g x 2.50% salt = 10.0 g salt 400. g solution x 2.50 g salt 100 g solution = 10.0 g salt

The next question is a little bit different. You are asked how you would prepare 400 g of a 2.50% solution of salt. You are given 400. g of solution (that is total) and you know that 2.50% of that is going to be salt. You need to find out how much salt you need and how much water you need. You can simply multiply 400. g by 2.50% to find out how much salt there is (shown in the top line), or you can set up the calculation shown on the next line. Either way, you find that you need 10.0 g of salt. Since you need a total mass of 400. g and 10. g of that is salt, the remaining 390. g would have to be water. So, to prepare this solution you would have to mix 10.0 g of salt with 390.g of water.

Determine weight of water: total 400. g salt - 10. g water 390. g Answer: Dissolve 10.0 g salt in 390. g water.

5. Electrolysis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the chemical process. For the cosmetic procedure, see Electrology. hair removal

Illustration of an electrolysis apparatus used in a school laboratory. In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis (pronounced /i l k tr l s s/, from the Greek [lsis] "to separate" and [ lektron] "amber") is a method of using a direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially highly important as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using an electrolytic cell. 6. Electrolytes and Electrolysis Introduction In any chemical reaction, the existing chemical bonds are broken and new chemical bonds are formed. Hence, all chemical reactions are fundamentally electrical in nature since electrons are involved in some way or the other in all types of chemical bonding. Many chemical reactions utilize electrical energy, whereas others can be used to produce electrical energy. As electrical energy involves the flow of electrons, these reactions are concerned with the transfer of electrons from one substance to the other. Ionisation The process of conversion of a neutral atom into charged ions to complete its octet is known as ionization. Electrolytic Dissociation Electrovalent substances are made up of ions in the solid state. The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic (coulombic) force of attraction. Due to these forces the ions cannot move. Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation The ions carry an electric charge and also allow the flow of electric current through it. The flow of electricity is due to the flow of the ions. The strength of conductivity of these ions is proportional to the concentration of these ions. Electrolytes and Non-electrolytes An ionic or electrovalent compound that conducts electricity in molten (fused) or aqueous (solution) state can be classified as an electrolyte. However, if the compound is unable to ionise it does not conduct electricity it is called a non-electrolyte. In general, the extent to which an electrolyte can break up into ions categorises an electrolyte. This gives a measure of the degree of dissociation (a) of an electrolyte. Based on this degree the electrolytes can be classified as strong or weak electrolyte and non-electrolyte. Other Classes of Electrolytes (Acids, Bases and Salts) Acid, bases and their salts are all compounds that can undergo electrolytic dissociation. Hence these substances can also be classified as electrolytes. Introduction to Electrolysis "Electrolysis is the electrolytic dissociation and decomposition of an electrolyte (electrovalent substance), by the passage of a direct current or electricity through its aqueous or molten form." The process of electrolysis is not a simple chemical reaction of mix and match. As electricity is involved in this process, care is taken to understand and set up the apparatus as required. In view of this, basic requirements for theoretical, experimental understanding and set up procedures are to be studied. Important Terms Related with Electrolysis Conductors All metals possess a large number of free electrons. Under ordinary conditions, these electrons move randomly in such a way that the net flow of charge across any section of the metal conductor is zero. Thus a conductor is void of any charge as such. But when the free electrons are made to flow in one direction, the electric current is said to flow through the conductor. Simple Voltaic Cell In order to study the working of an electrolytic cell and the phenomena of electrolysis it is important to know the working of a galvanic or a voltaic cell that generates electrical energy from its chemical reaction. Mechanism of Electrolysis

The process of electrolysis is exactly opposite to one that takes place in a voltaic cell. A voltaic cell or a battery uses its chemical energy to produce electrical energy. While in electrolysis, electrical energy is used to bring about a chemical change. Humphrey Davy (1807) showed this in his experiments, when he isolated potassium by passing electricity through molten potassium hydroxide. The Process of Electrolysis According to the theory of electrolytic dissociation, electrolytes can be electrolysed only in the dissolved or molten state. These charged ions are directed towards the respective electrodes by the electricity supplied. Electrochemical Series of Metals Different metals get ionised at different rates. For e.g., metals like sodium when exposed to air combine almost instantly with the oxygen present therein (sodium atom gives up an electron almost as soon as it is in contact with oxygen). On the other hand, metals like gold if exposed to air even for a very long period, do not react with air. Even if gold is dropped into an acid, it remains unaffected. Selective Discharge of Ions Some electrolytes contain more than one type of cations or anions. When one type of ions is discharged in preference to the other, under certain conditions of electrolysis, it is known as selective discharge of ions. Characteristics of Electrolysis Following are the characteristics of the electrolysis process: 1) Electrolytic reactions involve the gain of electrons at the cathode and loss of electrons at anode. 2) The cathode reaction is a reduction reaction as the cations accept electrons, while the anode reaction is an oxidation reaction as the anions give up or lose electrons. Electrolysis of some common electrolytes Let us study various characteristics of electrolysis of some common electrolytes. Sodium Chloride (Fused)

Applications of Electrolysis Electrolysis has various applications. Some of them are mentioned below: a) Electroplating or coating of metals. b) Electrorefining or purification of metals. Electroplating Electroplating is a process of depositing a thin layer of a fine and superior metal (like chromium, zinc, nickel, gold etc.) over the article of a baser and cheaper metal (like iron, copper, brass), with the help of electric current.

Electro refining of Metals Electro refining of metals is a process of obtaining pure metal from the impure one by the process of electrolysis. Electrometallurgy The extraction of certain metals from their ores by the process of electrolysis is called electrometallurgy. Summary Passage of electricity through a metal or graphite is different from passage of electricity through aqueous solution of electrolyte in that during the process the metal does not decompose but the electrolyte decomposes. 7. Sole is a group of flatfish belonging to several families. Generally speaking, they are members of the family Soleidae, but, outside Europe, the name sole is also applied to various other similar flatfish, especially other members of the sole suborder Soleoidei as well as members of the flounder family. In European cookery, there are several species which may be considered true soles, but the [1] common or Dover sole Solea solea, often simply called the sole, is the most esteemed and most widely available. The name sole comes from its resemblance to a sandal, Latin solea. tongue, e.g. German Seezunge, Spanish lenguado, Turkish dil.
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In other languages, it is named for the

A complete list can be found using Fishbase's search function. They include:

In the sole suborder Soleoidei:  The true soles, Soleidae, including the common or Dover sole, Solea solea. These are the only fishes called soles in Europe.  The American soles, Achiridae, sometimes classified among the Soleidae.

 The tonguefishes or tongue soles, Cynoglossidae, whose common names usually include the word 'tongue'. Several species of righteye flounder in the family Pleuronectidae, including the lemon sole, the Pacific Dover sole, and the petrale sole

8. A gel (from the lat. gelufreezing, cold, ice or gelatusfrozen, immobile) is a solid, jelly-like material that can have properties ranging from soft and weak to hard and tough. Gels are defined as a substantially dilute cross-linked system, which exhibits no flow [1] when in the steady-state. By weight, gels are mostly liquid, yet they behave like solids due to a three-dimensional cross-linked network within the liquid. It is the crosslinks within the fluid that give a gel its structure (hardness) and contribute to stickiness (tack). In this way gels are a dispersion of molecules of a liquid within a solid in which the solid is the continuous phase and the liquid is the discontinuous phase. 9. Emulsion An emulsion ( / m l n/) is a mixture of two or more immiscible (un-blendable) liquids. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion tends to imply that both the dispersed and the continuous phase are liquid. In an emulsion, one liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase). Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, the photo-sensitive side of photographic film, milk, and cutting fluid for metal working. 10. A
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foam is a substance that is formed by trapping many gaseous bubbles in a liquid or solid. A foam is normally an extremely complex system consisting of polydisperse gas bubbles separated by draining films.[1]

The term foam may also refer to anything that is analogous to such a phenomenon, such as quantum foam, polyurethane foam (foam rubber), XPS foam, Polystyrene, phenolic, or many other manufactured foams. Fine foam can be considered a type of colloid.
11. Absorption Absorption, in chemistry, is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules, or ions enter some bulk phase - gas, liquid, or solid material. This is a different process from adsorption, since molecules undergoing absorption are taken up by the volume, not by the surface (as in the case for adsorption). A more general term is "sorption", which covers [1] absorption, adsorption, and ion exchange. Absorption is a condition in which something takes in another substance. If absorption is a physical process not accompanied by any other physical or chemical process, it usually follows the Nernst partition law:

"the ratio of concentrations of some solute species in two bulk phases in contact is constant for a given solute and bulk [citation needed] phases" :

The value of constant K N depends on temperature and is called partition coefficient. This equation is valid if concentrations are not too large and if the species "x" does not change its form in any of the two phases "1" or "2". If

such molecule undergoes association or dissociation then this equation still describes the equilibrium between "x" in both phases, but only for the same form - concentrations of all remaining forms must be calculated by taking into [1] account all the other equilibria. In the case of gas absorption, one may calculate its concentration by using, e.g., the Ideal gas law, c = p/RT. In alternative fashion, one may use partial pressures instead of concentrations. In many processes important in technology, the chemical absorption is used in place of the physical process, e.g., absorption of carbon dioxide by sodium hydroxide - such acid base processes do not follow the Nernst partition law. For some examples of this effect, see liquid-liquid extraction. It is possible to extract from one liquid phase to another [1] a solute without a chemical reaction. Examples of such solutes are noble gases and osmium tetroxide. [edit]Other examples An old method of gold mining involves the absorption of gold into mercury. A more current use of this word in is reference to spectrophotometry, wherein the amount of light absorbed by a [1] chemical bond is measured. [edit]References Viscosity is a scientific term describing the internal friction of a fluid or gas. Both have adjacent layers, and when pressure is applied, the friction between layers affects how much the substance will respond to external force. Viscosity, in its simplest form, can be evaluated by the thickness of a substance. A general rule is that gases are less viscous than liquids, and thicker liquids exhibit higher viscosity than thin liquids. Viscosity may also be described as resistance of a liquid to penetration. Some refer toviscosity as the density of a liquid or gas. The term fluidity is opposite to viscosity, as it measures lack of resistance instead of amount of resistance. Within each substance, the molecules reduce flow. They collide with each other, and also exhibit a degree of attraction. Molecular analysis can help determine specific viscosity measurements, thus helping to determine which substances will be of most use in a given application. Temperature also effects viscosity. Raising the temperature of a fluid tends to make it less viscous. If one takes a thick liquid like molasses, and heats it up to boiling, the result will be a thin, easy to pour liquid. Cooking oils that are refrigerated, in most cases become more viscous, or almost solid due to colder temperatures, rendering them useless.

12. A divisibility rule is a shorthand way of discovering whether a given number is divisible by a fixed divisor without performing the division, usually by examining its digits. Although there are divisibility tests for numbers in any radix, and they are all different, we present rules only for decimal numbers.

13. Acidity Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe chemicals, just like hot and cold are two extremes that describe temperature. Mixing acids and bases can cancel out their extreme effects; much like mixing hot and cold water can even out the water temperature. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral. The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic. Each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more acidic than the next higher value. For example, pH 4 is ten times more acidic than pH 5 and 100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than pH 6. The same holds true for pH values above 7, each of which is ten times more alkaline (another way to say basic) than the next lower whole value. For example, pH 10 is ten times more alkaline than pH 9 and 100 times (10 times 10) more alkaline than pH 8. Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture can become either acidic or basic. Examples of acidic substances are vinegar and lemon juice. Laundry detergents and ammonia are examples of basic substances. Chemicals that are very basic or very acidic are reactive. These chemicals can cause severe burns. Automobile battery acid is an acidic chemical that is reactive. Automobile batteries contain a stronger form of some of the same acid that is in acid rain. Household drain cleaners often contain lye, a very alkaline chemical that is reactive. pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25 C (77 F). Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 arebasic or alkaline. pH measurements are important in medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, forestry, food science, environmental science, oceanography, civil engineering and many other applications. In a solution pH approximates but is not equal to p[H], the negative logarithm (base 10) of the molar concentration of + dissolved hydronium ions (H3O ); a low pH indicates a high concentration of hydronium ions, while a high pH indicates a low concentration. This negative of the logarithm matches the number of places behind the decimal point, so, for example, 0.1 molar hydrochloric acid should be near pH 1 and 0.0001 molar HCl should be near pH 4 (the base 10 logarithms of 0.1 and 0.0001 being 1, and 4, respectively). Pure (de-ionized) water is neutral, and can be considered either a very weak acid or a very + [2] weak base (center of the 0 to 14 pH scale), giving it a pH of 7 (at 25 C (77 F)), or 0.0000001 M H . For anaqueous solution to have a higher pH, a base must be dissolved in it, which binds away many of these rare hydrogen ions. Hydrogen ions in water can + + + be written simply as H or as hydronium (H3O ) or higher species (e.g., H9O4 ) to account forsolvation, but all describe the same
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entity. Most of the Earth's freshwater bodies surface are slightly acidic due to the abundance and absorption of carbon dioxide; in fact, for millennia in the past, most fresh water bodies have long existed at a slightly acidic pH level. However, pH is not precisely p[H], but takes into account an activity factor. This represents the tendency of hydrogen ions to interact with other components of the solution, which affects among other things the electrical potential read using a pH meter. As a result, pH can be affected by the ionic strength of a solution for example, the pH of a 0.05 M potassium hydrogen phthalate solution can [4] vary by as much as 0.5 pH units as a function of added potassium chloride, even though the added salt is neither acidic nor basic. Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured directly by any thermodynamically sound method, so they are based on theoretical calculations. Therefore, the pH scale is defined in practice as traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is [5] established by international agreement. Primary pH standard values are determined by the Harned cell, a hydrogen gas electrode, using the BatesGuggenheim Convention. pH in its usual meaning is a measure of acidity of (dilute) aqueous solutions only. Recently the concept of "Unified pH scale" has been developed on the basis of the absolute chemical potential of the proton. This concept proposes the "Unified pH" as a measure of acidity that is applicable to any medium: liquids, gases and even solids. 15. Enzymes (pronounced / nza mz/) are proteins that catalyze (i.e., increase the rates of) chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and they are converted into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their substrates and speed up only a few reactions from among many possibilities, the set of enzymes made in a cell determines whichmetabolic pathways occur in that cell. Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the activation energy (Ea ) for a reaction, thus dramatically increasing the rate of the reaction. As a result, products are formed faster and reactions reach their equilibrium state more rapidly. Most enzyme reaction rates are millions of times faster than those of comparable un-catalyzed reactions. As with all catalysts, enzymes are not consumed by the reactions they catalyze, nor do they alter the equilibrium of these reactions. However, enzymes do differ from most other [3] catalysts by being much more specific. Enzymes are known to catalyze about 4,000 biochemical reactions. A few RNA molecules [4][5] called ribozymes also catalyze reactions, with an important example being some parts of the ribosome. Synthetic molecules [6] called artificial enzymes also display enzyme-like catalysis. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules. Inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity; activators are molecules that increase activity. Many drugs and poisonsare enzyme inhibitors. Activity is also affected by temperature, chemical environment (e.g., pH), and the concentration of substrate. Some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics. In addition, some household products use enzymes to speed up biochemical reactions (e.g., enzymes in biological washing powders break down protein or fat stains on clothes; enzymes in meat tenderizers break down proteins into smaller molecules, making the meat easier to chew). Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a selectively-permeable membrane into a region of [1][2][3] higher solute concentration, aiming to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides. It may also be used to describe a [4] physical process in which any solvent moves, without input of energy, across a semipermeable membrane (permeable to [5] the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations. Although osmosis does not create energy, it [6] [7] does release kinetic energy and can be made to do work, but is a passive process, like diffusion. Net movement of solvent is from the less-concentrated (hypotonic) to the more-concentrated (hypertonic) solution, which tends to reduce the difference in concentrations. This effect can be countered by increasing the pressure of the hypertonic solution, with respect to the hypotonic. The osmotic pressure is defined to be the pressure required to maintain an equilibrium, with no net movement of solvent. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but not on its identity. Osmosis is important in biological systems, as many biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to organic solutes with large molecules, such aspolysaccharides, while permeable to water and small, uncharged solutes. Permeability may depend on solubility properties, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma cell wall, tonoplast (vacuole) or protoplast in two ways, either by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer directly, or via aquaporins (small transmembrane proteins similar to those in facilitated diffusion and in creating ion channels). Osmosis provides the primary means by which water is transported into and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely [8] maintained by osmosis, across the cell membrane, between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment. The first recorded observation of osmosis was in 1748 by Jean-Antoine Nollet. The word "osmosis" descends from the words "endosmose" and "exosmose", which were coined by French physician Ren Joachim Henri Dutrochet (17761847) from the Greek [10][11][12][13] words (endon : within), (exo : outside), and (osmos : push, impulsion).
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INSTRUMENT

Analytical Balance

An analytical balance measures masses to within 0.0001 g. Use these balances when you need this high degree of precision. Move your cursor over the image for information about the instrument. Having trouble viewing the image? Help is here.

Using an Analytical Balance Turn the balance on by pressing the control bar. The display lights up for several seconds, then resets to 0.0000.

Place creased, small weighing paper on the balance pan.

Close the sliding glass doors. Wait for the green dot on the left to go out. This is the stability indicator light, indicating that the weight is stable.

Press the control bar to cancel out the weight of the container or paper. The display will again read 0.0000.

Carefully add the substance to be weighed up to the desired mass. Do not attempt to reach a particular mass exactly.

Before recording the mass, close the glass doors and wait until the stability detector lamp goes out. Record mass of solid.

Don't pick up tare containers with bare hands since your fingerprints add mass. Use Kimwipes or tongs to prevent this. Don't lean on the bench while weighing. Do record the mass of your container, if you will need it later. Do check the level indicator bubble before weighing. The two rear balance feet serve as leveling screws.

Use the brush provided to clean spills in the weighing chamber. Discard any disposable tare containers, weighing paper, or Kimwipes in the nearest wastebasket.

Desiccator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For dry boxes and cabinets, see dry box. Desiccators are sealable enclosures containing desiccants used for preserving moisture-sensitive items. A common use for desiccators is to protect chemicals which are hygroscopic or which react with water from humidity. The contents of desiccators are exposed to atmospheric moisture whenever the desiccators are opened. It also requires some time to achieve a low humidity. Hence they are not appropriate for storing chemicals which react quickly or violently with atmospheric moisture such as the alkali metals. A glovebox or Schlenk-type apparatus may be more suitable for these purposes. Desiccators are sometimes used to remove traces of water from an almost-dry sample. Where a desiccator alone is unsatisfactory, the sample may be dried at elevated temperature usingAbderhalden's drying pistol.

A traditional handheld refractometer is an analog instrument for measuring a liquid's refractive index. It works on the critical angle principle by which lenses and prisms project a shadow line onto a small glass reticle inside the instrument, which is then viewed by the user through a magnifying eyepiece. In use, a sample is placed between a measuring prism and a small cover plate. Light traveling through the sample is either passed through to the reticle or totally internally reflected. The net effect is that a shadow line forms between the illuminated area and the dark area. It is where this shadow line crosses the scale that a reading is taken. Because refractive index is very temperature dependent, it is important to use a refractometer

with automatic temperature compensation. Compensation is accomplished through the use of a small bimetallic stripthat moves a lens or prism in response to temperature changes.

Convection oven From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Although the word convection is usually used to describe the natural circulation of gas or liquid caused by temperature differences, the convection in "convection oven" has a more general definition: the transfer of heat via movement of gas or liquid. In a regular oven, convection occurs due to the temperature difference between air near the heating element and the cooler air near the food being warmed. A regular oven relies on a combination of radiation from the walls and, to a lesser extent, air convection to heat the [1] food. Convection ovens impart more convective heat than regular ovens by using fans to force air movement. By moving fast hot air past the food, convection ovens can operate at a lower temperature than a standard conventional oven and yet cook food more quickly. The air circulation, or convection, tends to eliminate "hot spots" and thus food may bake more evenly. A convection oven will have a reduction in cooking temperature, compared to a conventional oven. This comparison will vary, depending on factors including, for example, how much food is being cooked at once or if airflow is being restricted by using an over [citation needed] sized baking tray. This difference in cooking temperature is offset by the fact that circulating air transfers heat more quickly than still air of the same temperature; in order to transfer the same amount of heat in the same time, then, one must lower the temperature to reduce the rate of heat transfer to compensate. Many convection ovens also include a proofing capability using the same fan but at a much lower temperature. A residential double [citation needed] oven will often include the fan capability in only one of the two ovens. Convection microwave ovens combine a convection oven with a microwave oven to cook food with the speed of a microwave oven and the browning ability of a convection oven. Another form of a convection oven is the commercial impingement oven. This type of oven is often used to cook pizzas in restaurants. Impingement ovens have a high flow rate of hot air from both above and below the food. The air flow is directed onto food that usually passes through the oven on a conveyor belt. Air flow rates can range between 1 and 5 m/s. Impingement ovens can achieve a much higher heat transfer than a conventional oven. Like the "impingement oven", a convection oven usually has the radiant elements in view of the food, which improves heat transfer and speeds cooking from initial cold start. Some ovens have the heating elements placed in an outside enclosure and hidden from the food. This eliminates radiant heat from direct contact with the food.

pH meter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A pH meter is an electronic instrument used for measuring
the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid (though special probes are sometimes used to measure the pH of semi-solid substances). A typical pH meter consists of a special measuring probe (a glass electrode) connected to an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH reading.

Autoclave Test, or Pressure Cooker Test (PCT), or Pressure Pot Test (PPOT), is a reliability test performed to assess the ability of a product to withstand severe temperature and humidity conditions. It is used primarily to accelerate corrosion in the metal parts of the product, including the metallization areas on the surface of the die. It also subjects the samples to the high vapor pressure generated inside the autoclave chamber. Figure 1 shows examples of autoclave chambers.

Water Activity Meter Measuring water activity with a water activity meter gives an indication of how much water in a given sample resembles and behaves like pure water. Water activity values represent a scale that ranges from 0 (totally dry) to 1.0 (pure water). As water activity decreases, the water in a product decreases in energy and is less available. Water activity is the best index for microbial growth because it measures the amount of water that is actually freely available for biological growth processes. Water activity meters are helpful for improving food safety and quality.

Hydrometer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Not to be confused with Hygrometer. A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity (or relative density) of liquids; that is, the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water. A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright. The liquid to be tested is poured into a tall container, often a graduated cylinder, and the hydrometer is gently lowered

into the liquid until it floats freely. The point at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted. Hydrometers usually contain a scale inside the stem, so that the specific gravity can be read directly. A variety of scales exists, and is used depending on the context. Hydrometers may be calibrated for different uses, such as a lactometer for measuring the density (creaminess) of milk, a saccharometer for measuring the density of sugar in a liquid, or an alcoholometer for measuring higher levels of alcohol in spirits.

R 5000 WBPi Infrared Moisture Meter Analyzer

The IR 5000 WBPi consists of a non-contact measuring head and an operator interface for calibration and parameterization of the moisture analyzer. The operator interface is installed near the measuring head where it is used as an external display in the measuring position. This arrangement makes reading of the measured moisture values easy when taking samples for laboratory measurements. In an enclosed conveying system, a window pane adaptor is installed in the conveyors sidewall, this allows moisture measurement in flowing material. The measured values can be transferred to a higher-ranking process control system via a serial interface to display the values in the control station. Analog outputs and programmable alarm contacts are standard for additional control tasks. The measuring head and operator interface housings are dust and water resistant. Light from a QH lamp is split into sequential pulses of NIR Energy at wavelengths which are absorbed by the material being measured. The IR5000 WBPi diverts a portion of the beam onto the secondary detector, to form the reference signal, which the returning backscattered light will be compared. The light leaving the IR5000 WBPi interacts with the product and unabsorbed energy is reflected back into the instrument, Captured on a special 24-segment mirror and focused onto the primary detector. The detector signals are then processed to generate an output which is proportional and linear to the amount of material moisture. The patented optics reject ambient light, relative humidity and ambient temperature influences to provide a highly accurate and stable measurement, regardless of product height fluctuations. Infrared Moisture Meter Technical Info Microprocessor Control Console with industrial enclosure. Visualization PC for remote data display and printing. Windows operating system and software. Standard Net DDE interface (Wonderware). Aluminum, lacquered NEMA 12 enclosure. Optional Vortec air coolers, water cooling panels.

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Measuring accuracy: .5%. Moisture range: 0 - 95%. Coatings range: .1 gr/m - 200 gr/m. Operating temperature: 0 - 120 F. Sampling area: 2" standard, adjustable to ".

Infrared Moisture Meter Features

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Not affected by light or product height. Multiple measuring heads may be integrated into a single processor. Non-contact measurement prevents product damage. Automatic calibration function. Real-time monitoring for immediate adjustments to production. Eliminates rejects due to poor moisture content.

MWF 5000 Microwave Moisture Meter Analyzer

The Microwave Moisture Analyzer MWF 5000 with planar sensor is appropriate to measure wood chips and fibers. The sensor surface is resistive and not sensitive to industrial conditions. The deep penetration of the microwave field into the product allows for accurate measuring results. Due to the patented measuring principle, precise measurement of the moisture content is achieved, regardless of density, surface structure and color of the material measured. Microwave Moisture Meter Principle

The GreCon On-line Moisture Measuring System MWF 5000 works according to the microwave resonance method. This method uses the dipole properties of water molecules. A harmonic, electro magnetic resonance field (microwave field) is generated by means of the planar sensor. The water bound by the material now interacts with the resonance field. The resonance frequency of the microwave field is detuned and dampened depending on the water content of the material. The changes in the field are received by the sensor and evaluated by the processor. With the measurement of the above parameters and their evaluation, it is possible to determine moisture content and material density separately. Using the above principle, the MWF 5000 measures the moisture content independent of the density. Depending on the sensor type, the field has a penetration depth of 1 to 4 inches. The emitted microwaves do not cause heating or chemical reactions of the material. Microwave Moisture Meter Technical Info Measuring range: 0.1% to 85% in selectable sub-domains Repeating Accuracy: 0.05% (standard deviation for tenfold measurement)

Measuring time: Product Memory: Data Security: Sample Temperatures:

<1 second 20 products (optional 40 products) CMOS memory with backup batteries 0 to +70 C (automatic temperature compensation) 0 to + 110 C (with optional cooling)

Ambient Temperatures:

0 to 40 C

Microwave Moisture Meter Features Measurements independent of material density Not influenced by material surface texture, light or color Microwave penetration yields product core moisture content Immediate and precise measurement results Suitable for installation in enclosed conveying systems Laboratory measurement units available Data Security: CMOS memory with backup batteries Data Interfaces: RS 422 and RS 232 Analog Outputs: 0/4 mA to 20 mA (active, voltage-free) Analog Inputs: 0/4 mA to 20 mA Control Inputs: 4 Optoelectronic coupler inputs, 24 V Control Outputs: 6 voltage-free (24 V, 0.25 A DC)

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Infrared Moisture Meters Why Use Kett? A moisture meter that meets the needs of your company is essential. After all, it is not only your product quality at stake... Kett will be a vital asset of your company's reputation! Kett near infrared (NIR) moisture meters utilize the principle that water absorbs certain wave-lengths of light. Once your meter has been calibrated against your existing lab or production standard, the Kett NIR Moisture Meter provides instantaneous moisture measurements without contact or sample preparation! Obviously, the ability to provide instant measurements saves tremendous time for your staff, reduces production waste, expedites "just-in-time" principles, and allows audits in locations previously considered difficult or impossible to measure (suppliers, field audits, on trucks, in vats or vessels). Kett NIR moisture meters are simple, economical tools that will aid in the many applications of your company. Accurate, repeatable measurements will be obtained without extensive operator training. As all of our meters offer full digital communications capabilites, data storage and

Measuring Accuracy:

2% of the measuring range

host process control can be easily accomplished from a stand-alone PC, networked solutions, or PLC facilities. Our Process Models utilize "Smart" measurement heads. All calibration equations, and process control variables are stored within the head. This provides unlimited flexibility and protects your process against complete shutdown should a single component fail. KJT 130 - Portable, Handheld Model The KJT 130 is an innovative instrument that expands the concepts of instantaneous measurement and user-friendly operation. Ideal in a quality control setting where frequent, on-site spot checks are important, the 130's portability provides a distinct advantage over other moisture analyzing equipment. This is the New Standard for Quality Control! Total Flexibility Your product quality begins with the quality of raw materials coming from your suppliers. Camcorder-size allows this analyzer to test moisture in the laboratory as well as such nontraditional settings as your receiving dock, on trucks, in the field, at suppliers, in vessels, and on the production line. All are easily handled! Imagine the possibilities! Why Measure Moisture? The amount of moisture in a product can greatly affect perceived quality and is also very important when transactions are based on weight. Small errors in measurement can have significant repercussions. For these reasons it is crucial to have accurate moisture content readings when performing inspections and examinations which are used to maintain and adjust quality, and to ensure equitable transactions. Moisture content testers were developed to obtain accurate measurements of these subtle, yet important values. As a pioneer in the field of moisture content testers, Kett has developed a large variety of models for different materials and applications. Our measurement devices help our customers meet worldwid specifications and standards. Who Can Use A Moisture Meter? The vast number of products and applications affected by moisture content may be surprising. Applications include, but are not limited to: Food & Beverages Pulp & Paper Pharmaceuticals Textiles Minerals & Chemicals Cosmetics Plastics & Composites Paints & Coatings R&D Laboratories Regulatory Agencies The list is virtually endless. Does your business require accurate moisture readings? KJT 230 - Advanced Laboratory Model This unique instrument replaces conventional laboratory moisture analyzers. Extreme precision results from the 230's automatic rotating turntable which develops an average from the entire sample, rather than just a single spot reading. This is ideal in situations where whole (heterogeneous) samples such as wood chips or cookies are analyzed in addition to standard ground (homogeneous) samples such as powders and liquids. Which Kett Do I Need? Kett offers three models to address your specific applications. All offer a wide array of standard features such as:

User-Friendly Operation

Through the use of menu driven commands, the KJT Moisture Meters can be easily programmed and operated. Varied Moisture Applications KJT Meters measure slurries, pastes, films, and jellies (high moisture) as well as chemical raw materials and finished products (low moisture). No Preparation Necessary Unusual textures and particle size variation are not an issue as sample preparation is not required. Instantaneous Measurement Kett Moisture Meters not only take an average of the moisture samples, but also measure moisture instantaneously in order to achieve the most accurate results. Statistical sampling is a compromise of the past, as each batch can now be tested and results obtained instantly! Error-Free Measurement Through the use of molecular level absorption and easy to clean sample holders, results will be free of measurement errors that occur due to evaporation. Sample - Friendly Equipment While standard moisture measurements deform or destroy the sample, Kett NIR meters do not alter the sample in any way. This allows precious items to be returned to their batch, saving money and allowing more frequent testing. KJT 330 - Production Model Instantaneous In-line Use The KJT 330 provides instant moisture measurement on your production line, eliminating costly batch waste, while providing unsurpassed information to control your process. Simple Calibration Up to 100 product calibrations can be stored per Sensor Head. Additional calibrations may be downloaded from a PC, or Palm Top PDA. Menu-driven calibrations with Automatic Curve Generation allow each sensor head to be calibrated for your production line in less than an hour. Zero adjustment and other modifications are completed in seconds. Unsurpassed Precision and Accuracy Integrated humidity and temperature sensors on each head minimize calibration drift due to ambient changes within the plant. Constant monitoring of your facility provides you with the ability to modify production or environmental controls on demand. Field Proven Developed for manufacturers, by a manufacturer, over 500 KJT 330's were installed before the first unit was commercially offered. Today, thousands are used on production lines throughout a wide variety of industies. Replace your existing laboratory testers The storage of fifty on-line calibrations allows this unit to handle the jobs of numerous existing methods. Ovens, balances, and Karl Fischer titrators can be supplanted by the Kett KJT 230. Ease and efficiency of moisture measurement are increased, as each calibration can be accessed through a simple, one-touch command