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Science
Science
Ions form when electrons move from one atom to another. A + (positive) charge states
that (an) electron(s) have been lost, while a - (negative) charge shows that electrons
have been gained.
Bohr-Rutherford Diagrams:
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Compounds:
1. Ionic: An ionic bond between a non-metal and a metal, the metal being positive
while the non-metal being negatively charged.
2. Polyatomic: An ion made up of more than one atom that acts as a single particle. A
polyatomic compound is similar to an ionic compound, only different being the
polyatomic ion acting as the non-metal.
3. Molecular: A substance formed from two or more non-metals.
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
In any given chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of
the products.
Balancing:
WORD EQUATIONS
An equation that uses words to describe the reactants and products but keeps the +
symbol and arrow.
1. Write the reactants, separate them with a +
2. Draw an arrow
3. Write the products
For example: iron + sulphur —> iron(II) sulphide
SKELETON EQUATIONS
A skeleton equation replaces the names of the elements/compounds with their formulas.
For example: Fe + S —> FeS
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
BALANCING
1. Make an element inventory: count the number of atoms of each element on each
side of the equation and record the count for the reactants and the products.
2. Multiply each chemical formula by the appropriate coefficient until the inventory for
each element is equal on both sides of the arrow.
• When you change a coefficient, update the inventory
• Never change the chemical formulas, only the coefficients
• When the inventory is balanced, the equation is balanced.
Types of Reactions:
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
An exothermic reaction is one that releases energy (heat and/or light) out into the
surroundings.
For example: complete combustion of gasoline, gasoline + oxygen —> carbon dioxide +
water + energy
An endothermic reaction is one that absorbs energy (heat) from the surroundings.
For example: water (s) + energy —> water
Acids:
• Sour tasting
• Others are corrosive
• Good conductors
• Very reactive
• H+ ion present
Bases:
• Bitter-tasting
• Corrosive
• Good conductors
• Slippery when rubbed between fingers
• OH- ion present
Acids and bases are formed when certain elements react with oxygen to form oxides,
which then react with water to form acids or bases.
pH Scale:
The pH of a solution is how strong/weak an acid or base is. It ranges from 0-14, 7 being
neutral. Indicators include: litmus paper, phenolphthalein
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Luminosity:
Something is luminous when it produces its own light. For example: the sun, stars, fire,
sparks.
Something is non-luminous when it does not produce its own light. For example: a rock,
wood, aluminium
Sources of Light:
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Something is transparent when it allows light to pass through it, objects in front/behind it
can be seen distinctly.
Something is translucent when it allows some light to pass through it, objects in front/
behind it can be seen, but not detailed.
Something is opaque when no light passes through it, nothing can be seen through it.
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
A wavelength is the
distance between two
crests (highest point in a
wave).
Plane Mirror:
The angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Law of Reflection:
Refraction is the bending of light as it enters a different medium. This occurs because
light travels in a straight line and changes its speed and direction when it enters a
different medium.
Index of Refraction:
The measure of the slowing of the speed of light is called the index of refraction. The
index of refraction is a ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the
medium.
The speed of light is 3.0x108m/s
Calculation example:
Calculate the index of refraction for water (v =
2.25x108m/s)
n=c/v
n = 3.0x108m/s / 2.25x108m/s
n = 1.33
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
CONCAVE MIRRORS
CONVEX MIRRORS
CONVERGING LENS
DIVERGING LENS
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
The critical angle is the angle of incidence that results in an angle of refraction of 90°.
Total internal reflection is the situation when the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle. This occurs when:
1. Light is travelling slower in the first medium than in the second.
2. The angle of incidence is large enough that no refraction occurs in the second
medium. Instead, the ray is reflected back into the first medium.
Total internal reflection is applied with: fibre optics (internet), optical devices
(periscopes, binoculars), triangular prism, cutting diamonds
TERMINOLOGY
do is the distance from the object to the optical center.
di is the distance from the image to the optical center.
ho is the height of the object.
hi is the height of the image.
f is the focal length of the lens, distance from the optical center to the principal focus (f).
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Parts of Cells:
Nucleus
• The brain of the cell
• It holds genetic information [in the
form of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), packed as chromosomes],
that controls all cell activities
Cell Membrane
• Flexible, double layered
• Supports the cell, allows only
certain substances to pass through
while keeping others out (semi-
permeable)
Cytoplasm
• Suspends all organelles
• Mostly water but also stores other
stuff until it is needed
• Can change from jelly-like to liquid,
allowing organelles to move around
Mitochondria
• Carriers out cellular respiration
which converts stored energy to
usable energy
• The more active the cell, the more
mitochondria
Ribosome
• Small and granular structure located on rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Involved in the manufacture of proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• A folded membrane that forms a system of canals
• Transports material to different parts of the cell
Vacuole
• Fluid-filled structure
• Stores water, food, wastes, and other material
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Golgi Body
• Stacks of membranes
• Packages and moves materials out of the cell
Cell Wall
• Fibrous; rigid structure surrounding the cell membrane of plants and bacteria
• Protects and supports the cell
Chloroplast
• Structure that contains chlorophyll
• Helps make carbohydrates through out the process of photosynthesis
Lysosome
• Sac-like structure filled with digestive enzymes
• Breaks down food and digests wastes and worn out cell parts
Phases of Mitosis:
1. Prophase
• Chromatin condenses into double-stranded chromosomes
that are now visible
• A chromosome is made of two identical strands of DNA,
called sister chromatids, held together by a centromere.
• The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
• Spindle fibres begin to form and stretch across the cell from
centrioles that have moved to opposite ends of the cell.
2. Metaphase
• Tugging action of the spindle fibres pull the double-stranded
chromosomes into a line across the equator (middle of the
cell).
3. Anaphase
• Spindle fibres contract and shorten causing the
centromeres to be pulled apart.
• Each single-stranded, daughter chromosome
moves to opposite poles (ends of the cell).
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
4. Telophase
• One complete set of chromosomes is now at each
pole of the cell.
• Spindle fibres begin to disappear.
• Nuclear membranes begin to form around each set
of chromosomes.
• Nucleolus appears within each new nucleus.
• Single-stranded chromosomes start to uncoil into thin
strands of chromatin.
• Now there are two identical nuclei in one cell and the cell itself is ready to divide.
Tissues:
Muscle
• Made of cells that contract to allow movement
• 3 types:
1. Skeletal: voluntary, striated (you control movement)
2. Smooth: involuntary, smooth (you don’t need to control movement)
3. Cardiac: involuntary, striated
• Heart, stomach, biceps
Epithelial
• Made of tightly packed cells that cover body surfaces and line internal organs
• Can be many layers thick or a single layer of cells
• Single layer allows materials to pass through
• Skin cells, stomach lining
Connective
• Made of both specialized cells and non-living substances
• Blood connects body systems by bringing and removing substances
• Bone is made of living bone cells surrounded by hard non-living material, provides
support
• Cartilage forms the cushions between bones, provides protection
• Blood, bone, cartilage
Nervous
• Most complex tissue
• Transmits electrical signals throughout the body
• 3 types:
1. Sensory neurons: carry info from the body to the brain
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
2. Motor neurons: carry info from the brain, spinal cord, and nerves to the brain to
the body
3. Interneurons: connects sensory and motor neurons
• Brain, spinal cord, nerves
A benign tumour does not affect surrounding tissues other than by physically crowding
them, while a malignant tumour does. Malignant tumours break away from the original
tumour and establish other tumours elsewhere in the body.
1. Surgery: Open the patient’s body and physically remove the cancer cells.
2. Radiation: Radiating the cancer cells.
3. Chemotherapy: Injecting drugs in one’s bloodstream that kill cancer cells.
Body Systems:
1. Respiratory system: Responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide.
2. Circulatory system: Transports substances throughout the body including gasses,
nutrients, and wastes.
3. Digestive system: Digestion and absorption.
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
PATH
mouth—> esophagus —> stomach —>
small intestine —> large intestine —>
rectum —> anus
PATH
mouth/nostrils —> pharynx —>
trachea —> bronchus —>
bronchioles —> alveoli
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Gas Exchange:
• The bronchi continue to divide into smaller and smaller branches inside the lungs
called bronchioles
• There are tiny air sacs at the end of the branches called alveoli
• Each sac is surrounded by capillaries (circulatory system) to allow for diffusion of
gasses across the thin membranes
• The oxygen we breathe in moves from the alveoli into the capillary and then into red
blood cells
• Red blood cells take the O2 to other body parts and it diffuses into the tissues
1. Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart; thicker; higher pressure
2. Veins: Carry blood back to the heart; less thick; lower pressure
3. Capillaries: Where arteries and veins are linked; supplies every body part; has very
thin walls to allow for the exchange of gas, nutrients and wastes between the blood
and body tissues
• Vessels that are larger are closer to the heart
Why People are Against Organ Donations and Stem Cell Use:
• Misconception that doctors will put less effort in saving their lives and instead rather
harvest their organs
• Religious reasons
• Don't want their organs in people who “don't deserve them”
• Those against embryonic stem cell use believe that is it immoral and unethical to
destroy one life to save another
PROS
• Saves lives
• Opportunities for medical research
CONS
• Long waiting time
• Potential transplant rejection
• Can be unethical
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Climate is the average weather in a region over a long period of time, usually 30 years.
For example:
• Typically rainfall in June will be under 1 inch
• This winter should be colder than normal
• It has never gone above 50oC in the month of May
Climate System:
Greenhouse Effect:
A natural process where gasses and clouds absorb infrared radiation emitted from the
Earth’s atmosphere and Earth’s surface. The process is needed for Earth to be
habitable.
Greenhouse Gas:
Any gas in the atmosphere (such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, or methane) that
absorbs lower energy infrared radiation.
The most effective greenhouse gas is nitrous oxide while the least effective is ozone.
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Ice Cores
• Scientists drill deep into ice that is thousands of centuries old
• They extract long cylinders of ice called ice cores
• They then cut the bottom of the core in very thin slices and test the air bubbles for
various gasses
• The tests establish how much carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide were in the
air when the bubbles formed
• To find the temperature hundreds of thousands of years ago, scientists test the ice
cores for oxygen
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
Tree Rings
• Trees create one growth ring per year
• The thicker the ring, the better the growing condition
• Scientists gather both living and dead trees and collect records of climate by looking
at the rings
• Can go as far as 10,000 years ago
CHEMISTRY
Atoms versus Ions (including Bohr-Rutherford Diagrams)
p. 216 #4, 7, 14
Ionic, Molecular and Polyatomic Compounds (Identifying, Naming, Writing Formulas)
p. 216 #6, 8, 11
Balancing Equations & Identifying Types of Reactions
p. 258 #3, 7, 9
*p. 302 to 305, choose which types of questions you require more help with!
OPTICS
Index of Refraction (n) Calculations
p. 542 #15-20
Ray Diagrams for Mirrors and Lenses
p. 582 #13, 23
Thin Lens Equation Calculations
p. 582 #17, 21
Magnification Equation Calculations
p. 582 #18-20
*p.590 to 594, choose which types of questions you require more help with!
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Grade 10 Science — Exam Notes Andrew Abosh
I do not take full credit for the work, the information comes from various sources.
Use the notes at your own risk. I am not to blame if anything is incorrect or missing.
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