2022 CELCHB2 Prac Manual

BEng Tech
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY B2
CELCHB2
PRACTICAL MANUAL
2022
Table of Contents
1
1. Preliminary Note____________________________________________________________
2. General Instructions__________________________________________________________
3. Laboratory Safety____________________________________________________________
4. Guidelines for Technical Report Writing__________________________________________
5. Lab Assignments___________________________________________________________13
5.1 Refrigeration_________________________________________________________________
Laboratory Assignment Report Format and Marking Rubric___________________________16
5.2 Single Stage Compression_______________________________________________________
Laboratory Report Format and Marking Rubric (Air compression)______________________26
5.3 Steam Plant__________________________________________________________________
Experiment 1: Separating and Throttling Calorimeter___________________________27
Experiment 2: Separating Calorimeter and Throttle_____________________________32
Laboratory Assignment Report Format and Marking Rubric___________________________34
6. Lab Practicals______________________________________________________________35
6.1 Gas Absorption_______________________________________________________________
Laboratory Report Format and Marking Rubric (NEW RUBRIC)_______________________42
6.2 Fluid dynamics_______________________________________________________________
Laboratory Report Format and Marking Rubric (Fluid dynamics)_______________________52
6.3 Cooling Tower________________________________________________________________
Laboratory Report Format and Marking Rubri (cooling tower )_________________________58
Course Information and Laboratory Schedule_______________________________________61
1. Preliminary Note
 You MUST arrive for your Practical on time. Please ensure that you study the Lab
rooster carefully.
2
 Before entering the lab, please make sure that you have read and understood the
Laboratory Safety rules.
 Please do not place your bags in the walkway. There are designated areas in the lab
where you must place your bags.
 All Practicals will be conducted according to the Lab rooster. Please follow the
schedule as per Lab rooster.
 If you have missed a Practical, please provide a doctor’s note or valid reason
(according to UJ’s policy) to the respective Laboratory Assistant, so that you could be
given an opportunity to perform the Practical.
 Any misbehavior in the lab will mean that you will be asked to leave the lab with
immediate effect, and you will get zero for the practical.
 You are to listen to your Laboratory Assistant at ALL times. Failure to do so will
mean expulsion from the lab.
 If you do not submit your lab report to your Laboratory Assistant within 2 weeks/10
working days of each practical, 5 % will be deducted for each day of late submission.
You will obtain zero for the practical if this exceeds 5 days. Please submit your lab
report on/before the deadline.
 Lab assignments need to be submitted within 5 working days. Late submissions will
be considered invalid, and you will obtain a zero mark that assignment

2. General Instructions
A. Clothing requirements
 Closed shoes.
 Long sleeves (not loose fitting).
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 Unless it is hot, long pants to be worn.
 No dangling items of clothing or jewelry.
B. General Laboratory checks
 Always do a visual check on the area in which you are working. Look for a fault that
stands out.
 Is there any water on the floor? Wipe before you start.
 Are your shoes slipping on the floor? Make sure you walk carefully.
 Are you working with dangerous chemicals? If so, make sure that you are provided
with the necessary safety gear (gloves, respirators for volatile gases and safety
goggles for corrosive substances and other volatile substances).
 If you are working with flammable substances, ask the Laboratory Assistant where
the nearest fire extinguisher can be located.
Be aware of the other practical in progress in the laboratory. If there is an accident anywhere
in the lab it will affect you and your peers.
C. Specific equipment used
 Think of what emergencies you could encounter while using this piece of equipment.
What could go wrong? Then decide on the quickest and safest way of dealing with it.
Keep that in the back of your mind just in case.
 You need to obtain a good idea of what needs to be done and what the aim of the
practical is before you start.
 Do not touch the equipment until the Laboratory Assistant has explained to you on
how to use it.
 Do not fiddle with any equipment settings unless you are instructed to do so.
 Make sure that you know if any part of the equipment is going to be hot. Do not touch
it with your bare hands!
Report any breaks or damage done to the equipment to the Laboratory Assistant. PLEASE do
not hide the damage. It may result in someone from another group being severely injured.
D. Behavior in the laboratory

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 No cell phones on!! The Staff members may have theirs on for employment reasons.
 No loud talking or yelling.
 No manhandling of each other.
 No touching any equipment that is not directly involved in your practical.
3. Laboratory Safety
The University of Johannesburg is committed to providing a safe laboratory environment for

its staff, students, and visitors. All laboratory workers should be aware of the properties and
potential hazards of chemicals they use in the laboratory. Chemical manufacturers or
distributors perform an assessment of the physical and health hazards of each chemical they
produce. This information is included in a material safety data sheet (MSDS) and, in part, on
container labels. A copy of the MSDS sheets is available on file in the laboratory for easy
reference.
Safe laboratory practices attempt to limit the exposure of chemical hazards to the laboratory
user. In devising procedures, the user should be aware of what is a safe exposure, and proper
handling techniques. The following criteria are used to determine and implement control
measures to reduce exposures to hazardous chemicals.
3.1 CONTROL MEASURES TO REDUCE EXPOSURE
 Exposure Monitoring
Exposure monitoring is conducted upon request if there is reason to believe that exposure
levels for a particular substance may routinely exceed either the action level or the
permissible exposure limit set forth by Occupational Safety and Health Act 85 of 1993
(OSHA).
 Control Measures
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Engineering controls are the primary means of control for exposure to hazardous chemicals.
Local ventilation, including fume hoods, ducted bio-safety cabinets, glove boxes, vented
storage cabinets, and vented canopies are the most common types of engineering controls.
Protective equipment, including gloves, face shields, safety glasses, safety goggles, lab coats
and aprons, are used when engineering controls are not sufficient to adequately control
exposure. Specifically, this equipment is used to prevent exposure to the skin or eyes.
Personal protective equipment is carefully selected to ensure that it is compatible with the
chemicals used. Information about selection of appropriate protective equipment is available
from the laboratory supervisor
 Administrative Controls
It may be necessary to supplement engineering controls and protective equipment with

administrative controls, such as restricting access to an area, restricting use of particular
chemicals to a limited group of people, or limiting the length of exposure. Laboratory and
office space should be separated as much as possible to minimize inadvertent chemical
exposure. Chemicals should only be stored and used in the laboratory. Food and beverages
should NEVER be brought into or consumed in the laboratory.
 Particularly Hazardous Substances
Particularly hazardous substances are defined to include select carcinogens, reproductive

toxins and substances that have a high degree of acute toxicity (such as cyanides and
dimethyl mercury).
 Reproductive toxin includes any chemical that may affect the reproductive
capabilities including chromosomal damage (mutations) and effects on fetuses
(teratogenesis).
 High acute toxicity includes any chemical that falls within any of the following
categories:
A chemical with a median lethal dose (LD 50) of 50 mg or less per kg of body weight when
administered orally to certain test populations. A chemical with an LD 50 of 200 mg or less per
kg of body weight when administered by continuous contact for 24 hours (or less if death
occurs within 24 hours) to certain test populations. A chemical with a median lethal
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concentration (LC50) in air of 200 parts per million (ppm) by volume or less of gas or vapor,
or 2mg/l or less of mist, fume, or dust, when administered to certain test populations by
continuous inhalation for one hour, provided such concentration and/or condition are likely to
be encountered by humans when the chemical is used in any reasonably foreseeable manner.
A hazardous substances list is filed in the lab and is available for perusal on request.
 Controlling Chemical Exposure
3.2 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is special gear used to protect the wearer from specific
hazards of a hazardous substance. It is a last resort protection system, to be used when
substitution or engineering controls are not feasible. PPE does not reduce or eliminate the
hazard, protects only the wearer, and does not protect anyone else.
PPE includes gloves, respiratory protection, eye protection, and protective clothing. The need
for PPE is dependent upon the type of operations and the nature and quantity of the materials
in use, and must be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Workers who rely on PPE must
understand the functioning, proper use, and limitations of the PPE used.
 Eye protection
 Safety glasses
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Safety glasses look much like normal glasses but have lenses that are impact resistant and
frames that are far stronger than standard street-wear glasses. Safety glasses must have side
shields and should be worn whenever there is the possibility of objects striking the eye, such
as particles, glass, or metal shards.
 Chemical Splash Goggles
Chemical Splash Goggles should be worn when there is potential for splash from a hazardous
material. Like safety glasses, goggles are impact resistant. Chemical splash goggles should
have indirect ventilation so hazardous substances cannot drain into the eye area.
 Protective clothing and footwear
When the possibility of chemical contamination exists, protective clothing that resists
physical and chemical hazards should be worn over street clothes. Lab coats are appropriate
for minor chemical splashes and spills, while plastic or rubber aprons are best for protection
from corrosive or irritating liquids. Disposable outer garments (Tyvek suits) may be useful
when cleaning and decontamination of reusable clothing is difficult. Loose clothing (such as
overlarge lab coats or ties), skimpy clothing (such as shorts), torn clothing and unrestrained
hair may pose a hazard in the laboratory.
Shoes should be worn at all times in buildings where chemicals are stored or used. Perforated
shoes, sandals or cloth sneakers should not be worn in laboratories or where mechanical work
is conducted. Such shoes offer no barrier between the laboratory worker and chemicals or
broken glass.
Chemical resistant overshoes or boots may be used to avoid possible exposure to corrosive
chemical or large quantities of solvents or water that might penetrate normal footwear
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Gloves
Not only can many chemicals cause skin irritation or burns, but also absorption through the
skin can be a significant route of exposure to certain chemicals. Dimethyl sulphoxide
(DMSO), nitrobenzene, and many solvents are examples of chemicals that can be readily
absorbed through the skin into the bloodstream, where the chemical may cause harmful
effects. Protective gloves should be worn when handling hazardous materials, chemicals of
unknown toxicity, corrosive materials, rough or sharp-edged objects, and very hot or very
cold materials. When handling chemicals in a laboratory, disposable latex, vinyl or nitrile
examination gloves are usually appropriate for most circumstances.
4. Guidelines for Technical Report Writing
4.1 What is technical writing?
Technical writing generally is written reports, grants, proposals, and other similar papers.
Aside from writing ethically, the main goal of technical writing is to convey information
precisely and clearly.
Simply put, being ethical in writing implies not making up data, not making up sources,
not taking credit for what’s not yours, and citing your sources accurately. Misleading
information in a technical report can lead to incorrect conclusions.
 Some guidelines are:
 Be accurate in your work

 Be honest in your work
 Honor your obligations
 Don’t use the ideas of others without giving proper credit.
 Don’t violate copyright laws
 Don’t lie with statistics
 Don’t hide truth with ambiguity.
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4.2 Why do Chemical Engineers need to write technical reports?
Chemical Engineers need to be good, clear technical writers in order to communicate better.
 Engineering students generally have several misconceptions about technical writing:

 Engineers are naturally poor writers.
 Writing is not important for engineers.
 The rules for writing technical prose are different from those for non-technical prose.
The first two misconceptions tend to go together with some sort of reciprocal justification,
and we simply contradict them. The third is mistaken impression gained from wide exposure
to Techlish.
Engineers are not poor writers naturally. They may learn to be poor writers, or may not gain
good writing skills. Writing well comes from practice. Reports and papers are one of the
main methods for scientist and engineers to report their research to each other. And, contrary
to popular belief, proper grammar is extremely important in technical writing. The rules for
proper non-technical and technical writing are the same.
4.3 General Guidelines for better writing
One main goal in writing reports is having readable writing.
The first principle of readable writing: Express important actions as verbs, and the characters
associated with those actions as the subjects of those verbs.
The second principle of readable writing: Keep subjects as short as possible so that sentences
move quickly from short, specific subject to an action verb.
The third principle of readable writing: Sentences should begin with old information and end
with new information. As chemical engineers we need to be sure to make ethical decisions in
the work place.
4.3.1 Overview on report writing
This section describes a general format for lab reports that one can adapt as needed.
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Lab reports are the most frequent kind of document written in engineering and can count for
as much as 25% of a course and yet so little time is devoted to write good reports.
Regardless of the variations, however, the goal of lab reports remains the same. A good lab
report does more than present data; it demonstrates the writer’s comprehension of the
concepts behind the data. Merely recording the expected and observed results is not
sufficient; you should also identify how and why differences occurred, explain how they
affected your experiment, and shows your understanding of the principles the experiment was
designed to examine. Bear in mind that a format, however helpful, cannot replace clear
thinking and organized writing. You still need to organize your ideas carefully and express
them coherently.
4.3.2 Typical Components (Format) of a Technical report

Title page
Synopsis
Declaration and Acknowledgment
Table of Contents
Introduction
Experimental Procedure
Results and Discussions
Conclusions
Recommendations
References
Appendices
It is recommended that each heading should start on a new page.

Style: TIMES NEW ROMAN
Font size: 12, NORMAL
Headings: 14, BOLD
Subheadings: 12, BOLD
What you need to put under the different headings
 Title Page (Cover Page)
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The title page needs to contain the name of the Institution, name of the Department, name of
the experiment, student name, student number, Group number, Date of submission. The title
should be straightforward, informative, and less than ten words.
For example: To develop the drying curve characteristics of sand and pulp.
 Synopsis (Abstract)
Synopsis summarizes five essential aspects of the report: the purpose of the experiment,
method or procedure, key findings (results), significant point of discussion and major
conclusions. The synopsis often also includes a brief reference to theory or methodology. The
information should clearly enable readers to decide whether they need to read your whole
report. The synopsis should be one/two paragraphs of 100-250 words.
For example: The experiment examined the effect of flow rate on the performance of a
double-pass shell and tube heat exchanger. This was conducted by a counter current flow
arrangement. Both fluid and temperatures at the inlet and the outlet of the heat exchanger
were obtained. The fluid flow parameter and Nusselt Number was characterized. The ratios
of convective and conductive heat transfer rates were compared. Higher Nusselt Numbers
were obtained with increasing Reynolds Number for the same fluid. This shows that the heat
exchanger performance was enhanced with higher Reynolds Number. This is an agreement
with the Diltus-Boelter – Correlation.
 Declaration
Declaration declares that the report was done by you and the work is not a copy of someone
else’s work (see ethical).
 Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement list all assistance received during the practical and writing of the report.
 Table of Contents
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Table of Contents it is a complete list of numbered headings and subheadings, together with
the respective page numbers.
 Introduction
The Introduction is more narrowly focused than the synopsis. It states the objective of the
experiment and provides the reader with background and theory to the experiment.
For example: Heat exchangers are important equipment found in process industries. The two
mechanisms are conduction and convection by which heat is exchanged in this equipment.
The heat load being transferred per unit time is high when the convection heat transfer co-
efficient is high
A good introduction also provides whatever background theory, previous research, or

formulas the reader needs to know. Consider adding subheadings such as: Theoretical
Principles or Background.
 Experimental Procedure
Experimental Procedure describes the process in chronological order. Using clear paragraph
structure, explain all steps in the order they actually happened, not as they were supposed to
happen. All you are trying to convey is a mental picture of what you did. Remember that your
audience should be able to repeat your description if they wish to do so. A diagram of the
apparatus used may be helpful but should not replace a good verbal description.
 Results and Discussions
Results are usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures (graphs). Graphs need to be
clear, easily read, and well labeled (e.g. Fig.1: Moisture Content vs. Time).
In most cases, providing a sample calculation is sufficient in the report. Leave the remainder
in an appendix. Likewise, your raw data can be placed in an Appendix. Refer to Appendices
as necessary, pointing out trends and identifying special features.
Discussions are the most important part of your report, because here, you show that you
understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it. Explain. Analyse.
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Interpret. Some people like to think of this as the “subjective” part of the report. This part of
the lab focuses on a question of understanding “What is the significance or meaning of the
results?” To answer this question, use both aspects of discussion:
 Analysis: What do the results indicate clearly?

 What have you found?
 Explain what you know with certainty based on your results and draw conclusions.
 Interpretation: What is the significance of the results?
 Find logical explanations for problems in the data.
Focus your discussions with the following strategies:
 Compare expected results with those obtained.

 Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues.
 Relate results to your experimental objectives.
 Compare your results to similar investigations.
 Analyze experimental error.
 Analyze the strengths and limitations of your experimental design.
 Conclusions
Conclusions can be very short in most undergraduate laboratories. Simply state what you
know now for sure, as the result of the lab:
For example: Heat transfer in heat exchangers is enhanced with higher fluid flow rates.
 Recommendations
Recommendations can be very short, recommend on the quantitative observations of the

experiment on how you will obtain better results.
 References
Please use HARVARD – ANGLIA 2008 style of referencing.
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For example:
Felder and Rousseau: Elementary principles of chemical Engineering, 5th Edition Chapter
14; page 125-140
Harriett, P., McCabe, W. L., & Smith, J. C. (2005) Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
(Seventh Edition) Singapore: McGraw-Hill
Pilusa TJ; DMS Quality Control Systems; DeBeers CHQ Diamond Processing 2003; Chapter
2;page 12-22
 Appendices
Appendices typically include such elements as raw data, sample calculations, graphs or tables
that have been included in the report itself. Each kind of item should be contained in a
separate appendix. Make sure that you refer to each appendix at least once in your report.
For example:
Appendix A [Glossary; Acronyms and Abbreviations]
Appendix B (Equations; Sample Calculations]
Appendix C [Extras; Data, Figures and Tables]
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5.Refrigeration
The purpose of this experiment is to study the thermodynamic relationship that expansion of
a refrigerant has on the work done on a compressor and the Coefficient of Performance
(COPref)
Objectives
 Investigate the thermodynamics of refrigerant R134-a (tetrafluoro ethane) with
varying expansions stages.
 Develop a conclusive theory on how expansion is related to the work done by the
compressor.
 Determine the COPref of the refrigeration cycle for the different expansion stages
Apparatus
The system consists of an evaporator, condenser, compressor, throttle valve (1-12), capillary
tubes of varying expansion lengths and manometers. Thermo couples are placed at various
positions to monitor the temperature at different points. The unit is working in two modes,
namely domestic and commercial.
Set Up Refrigerator Unit
1. Set the unit to domestic mode.
2. Switch the unit to refrigerator mode.
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3. Set both the evaporator and the condenser fans to setting 1.
4. Switch the thermometers on
Expansion through 1m capillary tube
5. Close valves 4, 2, 1 and 7. All the other valves should be left open.
6. Press the reset button to reset the pressure gauges (at the top of the pressure gauges).
7. Switch on the MAIN SWITCH by turning the key on the unit.
cosφ
8. Record the Ampere reading and the power factor ( ) at the beginning of the
refrigeration cycle (Observation table given below)
9. Also record the temperatures at the beginning of the cycle.
10. Wait for unit to reach the point of balance and record all the temperatures, power
factor and the Ampere reading.
11. Safely switch off the refrigeration unit.
Expansion through 2m capillary tube
12. Close valves 4, 1, 3, 7. All the other valves should be left open
13. Repeat steps 6 to 11.
Expansion through 3m capillarity tube.
14. Close valves 4, 2, 3, 7. All the other valves should be left open
15. Repeat steps 6 to 11.
Results
 Draw the schematic diagram of the refrigeration cycle.
 Plot the P-H diagram for the 1m expansion stage.
 Calculate the actual work done by the compressor at the point balance for the different
expansion stages.
 Calculate the efficiency of the compressor for each expansion stage.
 Calculate the mass flow rate of the refrigerant for each expansion stage.
 Calculate the COPref for each expansion stage.
 Draw a histogram of the COPref versus expansion stage.
High
Capillary Power factor Low Pressure
Voltage (V) Amps (I) Pressure
Length (Cos) (kPa)
(kPa)
1m
2m
3m
17
T1 (oc) T2 (oc) T3 (oc) T4 (oc)
Capillarity Work Done
Temp In for Temp Out for Temp In for Temp Out for COPref
length (W) kW/kg
Evaporator Evaporator Compressor Compressor
1m
2m
3m
Data Sheet for R134-a (N.B. not all properties are found in this figure)
Discussion
 Comment on the work done for each expansion stage
 Comment on the efficiency of the compressor for the different expansion stages.
 Comment on the COPref for the different expansion stages.
References
M.J. Moran and H.N. Shapiro, Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, John Wiley
& Sons, Third Edition, 1988, chapter 11, pg479
T.D. Eastop and A. McConkey, Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists,

Prentice Hall, Fifth Edition,1993, Chapter 14, pg 485
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Smith, Van Ness, Abbott, Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill Chemical
Engineering Series, Sixth Edition, 2001, Chapter 9, pg 309
Mark Allocation
Typed laboratory assignment reports must be prepared, and will be assessed, using the topics
presented below.
The Laboratory report will be marked out of 50.
Laboratory Report rubric Score

TASK DETAILS
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
Statement in own Statement in
Stated in own Used words, as
words, does not own words,
Objective of the words, the stated in the Lab
explain the distorts the
experiment (3) purpose of the sheet on purpose
purpose of the purpose of the
experiment of the experiment
experiment experiment
4-5/5 2-3/5 1/5 0/3

Exceptional
Introduction Theory
Good Theory Poor Theory with
Theory with
with majority of many equations
(Theory/ incorporating almost no correct
equations and missing and few
equations and elements
Background) (5) diagrams. or no diagrams.
diagrams.
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/5

Described what Personalised the Does not use
Described what
Procedure and was done using Description of reported speech.
was done using
apparatus (3) reported speech.
text in the lab what was done.
sheet.
3/3 3/3 3/3 0/3

Indicates the Does not Indicate
Indicates clearly
formulas but the formulas and
the formulas
Results used and step-by-
does not follow a does not follow a The Analysis of
step-by-step step-by-step data does not
(Mathematical step procedure of
procedure of procedure of work at all as
calculating one
manipulation) (30) calculating one calculating one required.
set of tabulated
set of tabulated set of tabulated
results
results results
Table of results with

correct units conversion 3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
(3)
Enthalpies 5-6/6 4-3/6 2-1/6 0/6
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representation on the P-
H diagram for all 3
expansion stages (6)
Schematic diagram of
the refrigeration cycle 3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
(3)
P-H plot for 1M
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
capillary (3)
Actual work done by
compressor for the 3 5-6/6 4-3/6 2-1/6 0/6
expansion stages (6)

Compressor efficiency
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
(3)
Histogram (3) 3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
Determination of
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
COPref (3)
5-6/6 3-4/6 1-2/6 0/6
All the All the All the
All the
observations observations observations
observations
Tabulated but Tabulated but Tabulated and
Observations/ Findings Tabulated and
implied data not implied data not implied data do
(6) implied data
accurately determined. not represent
accurately
determined. experimental
determined.
data.
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3

Conclusions and Some core Most salient
There is little or
Recommendation elements are not points are missing
no conclusions
Conclusions (3) is done correctly elaborated in the in the conclusions
and
and salient points Conclusions and and
Recommendation
are highlighted. Recommendation Recommendation.
TOTAL POINTS out of 50
5.2 Lab Assignments
Single Stage Compression
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The purpose of this study is to expose the student to the technical operation of a single stage
compression unit and theoretical
Objectives
1. To study the compressor characteristics i.e., volumetric efficiency, isothermal
efficiency, brake horsepower and pressure ration.
2. To investigate the effect of compressor outlet pressure on the afore mentioned
parameters.
Theoretical Background
Introduction
There are two generic principles for the compression of air (or gas): positive displacement
compression and dynamic compression. Positive displacement compressors include, for
example, reciprocating (piston compressors, orbital compressors, and other different types of
rotary compressors namely, screw, tooth, and vane.
In positive displacement compressors, the air is drawn into one or more compression
chambers, which are then closed from inlet. Gradually the volume of each chamber
decreases, and the air is compressed internally. When the pressure has reached the designed
built-in pressure ration, a port or valve is opened, and the air is discharged into the outlet
system due to continued reduction of the compression chamber’s volume.
In dynamic compression, air is drawn between blades on a rapidly rotating compression
impellor and accelerates to a high velocity. The gas is then discharged through a diffuser
where kinetic energy is transformed into static pressure. Most dynamic compressors are turbo
compressors with an axial or radial flow pattern. All are designed for large volume rates.
In a reciprocating compressor, compression takes place as a result of the back-and-forth
travel, or stroke of a piston in a cylinder equipped with inlet and discharge valves. The cycle
is usually described by a Pressure-Volume (PV) diagram.
Figure 1. PV diagram for ideal process

Air Compression Theory
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Changes in state for gas can be followed from one to another in a PV diagram. For real life
cases, three axes for the variables p, V and T are required. With a change in state, we are
moved along a 3-dimensional curve on the surface in a p, V and T space. However, to
simplify, we usually consider the projection of the curve in one of the three planes. This is
usually the p/V plane. Five different changes in state can be considered:
- Isochoric process (constant volume)
- Isobaric process (constant pressure)
- Isothermal process (constant temperature)
- Isentropic process (without heat exchange with surroundings)
- Polytropic process (complete heat exchange with the surroundings)
We will consider only Isothermal, Isentropic and Polytropic process.
Isothermal Process
If a gas in a cylinder is compressed isothermally, a quantity of heat equal to the applied work
must be gradually removed. This is unpractical as such a slow process cannot occur
Figure 2. PV diagram for isothermal process
Q=mRT . ln
( )
P2
P1 ( )
=P 1 V 1 ln
V2
V1
Isentropic Process
An isentropic process exists if a gas is compressed in a fully-insulated cylinder without any
heat exchange with the surroundings. It may also exist if a gas is expanded through a nozzle
so quickly that no heat exchange with the surroundings has time to occur.
Figure 3. PV diagram for isentropic process
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( ) ( )
k k
P2 V 1 T2 k−1
= =
P1 V 2 T1
The isothermal process involves full heat exchange with the surroundings and the isotropic
process involves no heat exchange whatsoever. In reality, all processes occur somewhere in
between these extreme, the polytropic process. The relation for such a process is:
n
P V =constant =k
In actual practice, the compression process is neither isothermal nor Isentropic but a
combination of both processes. This third is called polytropic process.
The compressor diagram for displacement compressors

Figure 4A illustrates the pressure-volume relationship for a theoretical compressor while
figure 4B illustrates a more realistic compressor diagram for a piston compressor. The stroke
volume is the cylinder volume that the piston travels during the suction stage. The clearance
volume is the volume just underneath the inlet and outlet valves and above the piston, which
must remain at the piston’s top turning point for mechanical reasons. The difference between
the stroke volume and the suction volume is due to the expansion of the air remaining in the
clearance volume before suction can start. The difference between the theoretical PV diagram
and the actual diagram is due to the practical design of a compressor, e.g. a piston
compressor. The valves are never completely sealed and there is always a degree of leakage
between the piston skirt and the cylinder wall. In addition, the valves cannot fully open and
close without minimal delay, which results in a pressure drop when the gas flows through the
channels. The gas is also heated when flowing into the cylinder as consequence of this
design.
Figure 4. PV diagram for ideal process (A) and real process (B)
23
These relations show that more work is required for isentropic compression than for
isothermal compression.
Compression work with isothermal compression:
W =P1 V 1 ln
( )
P2
P1
Compression work with isentropic compression:

k
W= ( P V −P1 V 1 )
k−1 2 2
These relations show that more work is required for isentropic compression than for
isothermal compression.
Compression in a Cylinder with No Clearance
1.3.1 All reciprocating compressors actually have a small clearance at the top of the cylinder
to allow for valve movement both in the suction and discharge sides. But for simplifying the
analysis, we will begin initially with a case of cylinder without clearance. In most cases, the
compressor is double acting type, i.e the compression process takes place in both forward and
backwards strokes. However, for this analysis, a single acting operation will be considered. If
it is required to analyze the double acting operation, it could be done in the same manner, or
it can be considered approximately as being twice of the single acting operation as shown in
fig 5.
Figure 5. Double acting and single acting cylinder
Figure 6. PV Diagram for a cylinder with no clearance

Figure 6 shows the working cycle of a reciprocating air compressor. The process from the
initial state (0) to the first state (1) is in a suction stage of the operation in which the pressure
is constant until the piston moves to the bottom dead centre (point 1). The piston then returns
and compressors the gas in the compression process from point 1 to point 2 at which point the
24
discharge valve opens while the piston still moving ahead. The piston pushes the gas out of
the cylinder in the process when pressure remains constant until the piston reaches point 3,
which is the top dead centre of the piston. The discharge valve is then closed, and the piston
starts to reverse its direction while the suction valve opens, and the pressure drops from point
3 to point 0. The new cycle is then repeated indefinitely.
Compression in cylinder with clearance

In actual practice, reciprocating air compressor always has a clearance in the cylinder. This
clearance is expressed as % of cylinder total displacement volume and it is referred to as %
clearance (%C).
Figure 7. PV diagram (A) and TS Diagram (B)

The PV diagram of Figure 7 is similar to that of Figure 6 with an exception of Point 3 being
at Point 3’, where the piston begins to move backward and both discharge and suction valves
are still closed. Thus, the compressed gas in the cylinder clearance space expands, resulting
further work done to the piston until Point 4 is reached and suction valve opens. The
calculation for the total work done in a complete cycle is as follows:
Wcycle = Work done in the compression process + Work done in the expansion process
[( ) ] [( ) ]
n−1 m−1
n P2 n m P3 m
W cycle = P1 V 1 −1 − P4V 4 −1
n−1 P1 m−1 P4
Since P1 = P4 and P2 = P3, and the expansion work is very small in comparison with the
compression work. Thus, it can be assumed that m = n causing only small discrepancy in
using the above equation.
The area 123’4’ = Compression work done
25
[( ) ]
n−1
n P2 n
W cycle = P1 ( V 1−V 4 ) −1
n−1 P1
The difference between the two work equatons lies in the term V 4 which volume depends on
the pressure P1 and temperature T1 respectively.
Performance Index
Electrical power (EP)
EP is the electrical power supplied to the motor to drive an air compressor
EP=E × I ×φ
The electrical power may also be driectly measured by a Watt meter
Brake power (BP) or Shaft power
This is the power that the motor supplies to the compressor
2 πn N . m
BP=Torque × ω=Fr =W
60 s
Air mass flow rate (ṁ = qm)
The air mass flow rate of the compressor outlet from the air receiver, it can be calculated
from the flow rate through the orifice and differential pressure of the manometers in the same
manner as above. If the pressure in the air receiver is constant, both flow rates (in and out of
the compressor) will be equal. In normal practice, the mass flow through the inlet box is
basically used.
Isentropic Power (W)
This is the theoretical power from the theory of isentropic compression process, (Reversible
adiabatic process).
[( ) ] [( ) ]
k−1 k−1
P2 k P3 k
W =qm C p T 1 −1 +q m C p T 2 −1
P1 P2
Isothermal power (Wtotal)

This is the minimum horsepower for the compression process calculated as follows:
W Total =P1 V 1 ln ( )
P2
P1
+ P 3 V 3 ln ( )
P3
P2
But P1V1 = P3V3

W total =P 1 V 1 [ ( ln P2−ln P1 ) + ( ln P 3−ln P2 ) ]
¿ P1 V 1 ( ln P3−ln P 1)
P3
¿ P1 V 1 ln
P1
Where, P = Pressure, N/m2 and V = Volume per unit time, m3/sec
26
Isentropic efficiency, (Isen.eff%)
W
Isen . eff %=100
BP
Isothermal efficiency (Iso.eff%)
W total
Iso . eff %=100
BP
System efficiency (Sys.Eff%)
W total
Sys . eff %=100
BP
Volumetric Efficiency (Vol.eff%)
Flow Capacity ×100 qv
Vol .eff %= =
First stage displacement Swept volume
× speed
Cycle
Equipment Description
1. Level the table by turning the adjusting screw and observing the level inclined
manometer at horizontal position
2. Close the air receiver discharge valve and the drain valve
3. Turn on ELCB and CB at the right side of the control box
4. Adjust the compressor speed to 400 rpm
27
5. Press the Start button at the inverter
6. The motor will run and the compressor outlet pressure gauge start to increase
7. Record the data as given in the Table below at pressures 1 bar, 2 bar, 3 bar and 4 bar.
Repeat steps 1 to 7 but now adjusting the compressor speed to 700 rpm
After each set of experiments, open the drain valve to release the compressed air
Results
Arm length = 120 mm
Air box diameter = 210 mm
Orifice diameter = 15 mm
Patm = 1.013 x 105 N/m2
Compressor speed (n2) 400 rpm 700 rpm

Compressor outlet pressure, P2 (bar) 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Motor speed, n1 (rpm)
Motor brake power, BP (Watt)
Inlet air temperature, T1 (oC)
Outlet air temperature, T2 (oC)
Manometer level 1:2 (mm H2O), P1
28
Expansibility factor ε for orifice plates in atmospheric air
Calculations
Your calculations are a comparison between the motor speeds at a specific pressure of your
choosing.
 Cylinder displacement
 Air delivery
 Isentropic power
 Isothermal power
 Isentropic efficiency
 Isothermal efficiency
 Volumetric efficiency.
Discussions
 Pressure – Volume relationship (use a diagram)
 The effect of pressure on the temperature of the gas
29
 Comment on the behaviour of the gas (ideal/ non-ideal?) Explain.
 Comment on the compressor’s efficiency.
NB: Your results should include graphs drawn from recorded data and calculations
References
J. M. Smith, 2001, Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill,
Boston.
Mark Allocation
Content Mark allocated Mark Obtained
Introduction 5
Experimental Procedure 4
Results/Calculations 30
Observations/Findings 6
Conclusions 5
Total 50
Laboratory Report Format and Marking Rubric (Air compression)

presented below.
The Laboratory report will be marked out of 50, as follows:

TASK DETAILS
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
Used words, as Statement in own Statement in
Stated in own
stated in the Lab words, does not own words,
Objective of the words, the
sheet on purpose explain the distorts the
experiment (3) purpose of the
of the purpose of the purpose of the
experiment
experiment experiment experiment
4-5/5 2-3/5 1/5 0/3
Introduction Exceptional Good Theory Poor Theory with Theory with
(Theory/ Theory with majority of many equations almost no correct
Background) (5) incorporating equations and missing and few
30
equations and
diagrams. or no diagrams. elements
diagrams.
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/5
Described what
was done using
apparatus (3) text in the lab what was done.
reported speech.
sheet.
3/3 3/3 3/3 0/3
Indicates the Does not Indicate
Indicates clearly
formulas but the formulas and
the formulas
does not follow a does not follow a The Analysis of
Results used and step-by-
step-by-step step-by-step data does not
(Mathematical step procedure of
procedure of procedure of work at all as
manipulation) (30) calculating one
calculating one calculating one required.
set of tabulated
results
results results
Data Analysis 2 (3)
Cylinder 3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
displacement
Data Analysis 3 (5)
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Air delivery
Data Analysis 4 (5)
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Isentropic power
Data Analysis 5 (5)
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Isothermal power
Data Analysis 6 (4)
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Isentropic efficiency
Data Analysis 7 (4)
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Isothermal efficiency
Data Analysis 8 (4)
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Volumetric efficiency
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Observations/ All the All the All the All the
Findings (6) observations observations observations observations
Tabulated and Tabulated but Tabulated but Tabulated and
31
implied data
accurately
determined.
data.
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
Some core
Conclusions and Most salient There is little or
elements are not
Recommendation points are missing no conclusions
elaborated in the
Conclusions (3) is done correctly in the conclusions and
Conclusions and
and salient points and Recommendatio
Recommendatio
are highlighted. Recommendation. n
n
5.3 Steam Plant
Experiment 1: Separating and Throttling Calorimeter
Objective:
 The objective of this experiment is to determine the dryness fraction of wet steam.
APPARATUS:
Steam bench
a) Steam generator
b) Separating and throttling calorimeter
c) Measuring Beaker
32
33
Separating Throttling
Calorimeter Calorimeter
Steam Pressure Thermometer

Gauge
Throttle valve
Steam Inlet
Thermometer
Manometer
Separated Water Cooling Water

M1 Out
Condenser
Cooling Water
In
Condensate
M2
Fig. 1: Schematic diagram for the separating and throttling Calorimeters.
THEORY:
The separating calorimeter is a vessel used initially to separate some of the moisture from the
steam, to ensure superheat conditions after throttling. The steam is made to change direction
suddenly; the moisture droplets, being heavier than the vapor, drop out of suspension and are
collected at the bottom of the vessel.The throttling calorimeter is a vessel with a needle valve
fitted on the inlet side. The steam is throttled through the needle valve and exhausted to the
condenser. Suppose M kg of wet steam with a dryness fraction of x (state A) enters the
separating calorimeter. The vapour part will have a mass of xM kg and the liquid part will
have a mass of (1-x)M kg. In the separating calorimeter part of the liquid, say M 1 kg will be
separated from the wet steam. Hence the dryness fraction of the wet steam will increase to x1
(state B) which will pass through the throttling process valve. After the throttling process the
steam in the throttling calorimeter will be in superheated state (state C).
34
T
P1
A B
T1 ● ● P2
●
T2 C
Fig 2: T-S diagram of the separating and throttling calorimeter.
From the steady flow energy equation;
Q – W = h C - hB
Since throttling takes place over a very small distance, the heat transfer is negligible, i.e.,
Q = 0. Then the steady flow energy equation for the throttling process becomes,
hC = hB
Hence, enthalpy after throttling = enthalpy before throttling
hC = hf1 + x1 hfg1
If the pressure of the steam before throttling, the pressure and temperature of the steam after
throttling, are known the value of x1 can be calculated using steam tables.
Dryness Fraction = Mass of dry steam

Mass of mixture
Mx1 2
Therefore, X = M +M 1 2
35
Where, M2 is the mass of condensate.
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the boiler and supply steam to the separating and throttling calorimeter unit.
2. Start the cooling water flow through the condenser.
3. Open steam valve and allow the steam to flow through the calorimeters to warm
through the steam.
4. Open the throttle valve and adjust to give a pressure at exhaust of about 5cm Hg
measured on the manometer.
5. Drain the separating calorimeter.
6. Start the test and take readings at 2-3 minutes intervals.
7. When a reasonable quantity of condensate is collected measure the quantity of
separated water and the quantity of condensate.
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS:

Using the average values, obtain the specific enthalpy of steam at (state C) hence calculate
the dryness fraction of incoming steam. Also calculate the specific enthalpy of incoming
steam.
TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS
Reading # 1 2 3 Average.
Steam pressure in main P1 (bars)
Steam pressure after throttling P2 (bars)
Temperature of main T1 (oC)
Temperature after throttling T2 (oC)
Quantity of Separated water m1 (kg)
Quantity of condensate m2 (kg)
36
Atmospheric pressure Pa (bars)
Experiment 2: Separating Calorimeter and Throttle
Objective:
 Determination of Dryness Fraction Experiment
37
Apparatus
Combined separating and throttling calorimeter fitted with digital thermometer, pressure
gauge, mercury manometer, sight gradated glass and measuring beaker.
Fig. 1: Throttling calorimeter
PROCEDURE:
38
1. Start the boiler and supply steam to the separating and throttling calorimeter unit.
2. Start the cooling water flow through the condenser.
3. Open steam valve and allow the steam to flow through the calorimeters to warm
through the steam.
4. Open the throttle valve and adjust to give a pressure at exhaust of about 5cm Hg
measured on the manometer.
5. Drain the separating calorimeter.
6. Start the test and take readings at 2-3 minutes intervals.
7. When a reasonable quantity of condensate is collected measure the quantity of
separated water and the quantity of condensate.
Results
Tabulate results as follows:
Readings Units Reading1 Reading2 Final values
Steam pressure in main P1 bar P1av=
Steam temperature in main t1 ⁰C t1av =
Water collected in m ml mf = m2 - m1=
Steam pressure after
separator P3 bar P3av =
Steam temperature after
throttling t3 ⁰C t3av =
Steam condensed after
throttling M ml Mf = M2 – M1 =
Barometer
throttling reading Patm mmHg
Analysis of results
Dryness fraction of the steam leaving the
separator/entering the throttling calorimeter
Apparent dryness fraction of steam in main
pipe
True dryness fraction of the steam in the
main
Content Mark allocated Mark obtained

Mark
Introduction 5
Allocation:
Experimental Procedure 4
Results/Calculations 20
Observations/Findings 6 39
Conclusions 5
Total 40
Laboratory Assignment Report Format and Marking Rubric
presented below.

TASK DETAILS
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
Statement in own Statement in
Stated in own Used words, as
words, does not own words,
Objective of the words, the stated in the Lab
explain the distorts the
experiment (3) purpose of the sheet on purpose
purpose of the purpose of the
experiment of the experiment
experiment experiment
4-5/5 2-3/5 1/5 0/3

Exceptional
Introduction Theory
Good Theory Poor Theory with
Theory with
with majority of many equations
(Theory/ incorporating almost no correct
equations and missing and few
equations and elements
Background) (5) diagrams. or no diagrams.
diagrams.
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/5

Described what
was done using
apparatus (3) reported speech.
text in the lab what was done.
sheet.
3/3 3/3 3/3 0/3
Results Indicates clearly Indicates the Does not Indicate The Analysis of
the formulas formulas but the formulas and data does not
(Mathematical
used and step-by- does not follow a does not follow a work at all as
manipulation) (30) step procedure of step-by-step step-by-step required.
40
procedure of procedure of
calculating one
calculating one calculating one
set of tabulated
results
results results
Data Analysis 2 (5)

Steam table values
5/5 4/5 3/5 1/5
(interpolation) for boiler
steam
Data Analysis 3 (5)
Steam table values
5/5 4/5 3/5 1/5
(interpolation) for steam
outlet
Data Analysis 4 (5)
Calculating Mass of 5/5 4/5 3/5 1/5
condensate, m1 and m2
Data Analysis 5 (5)
5/5 4/5 3/5 1/5
Calculating x1
Data Analysis 6 (5)
5/5 4/5 3/5 1/5
Calculating x2
Data Analysis 7 (5)
5/5 4/5 3/5 1/5
Calculating actual x
Data Analysis 8 (3)
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
Graph
Data Analysis 9 (3) 3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
5-6/6 3-4/6 1-2/6 0/6

All the All the All the
All the
observations observations observations
observations
Tabulated but Tabulated but Tabulated and
Observations/ Findings Tabulated and
(6) implied data
accurately
determined.
data.
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3

There is little or
no conclusions
Conclusions (3) is done correctly elaborated in the in the conclusions
and
Recommendation
41
NB the mark allocation above is only
6. Lab Practicals
6.1 Gas Absorption
Absorption of CO2 with a solution of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
Objectives
 Determine the CO2 composition in the various streams around the column
 Evaluate the columns absorption efficiency
 Discuss the effect of varied liquid flow rates on pressure drop
 Discuss the effect of varied liquid flow rates on the absorbed CO 2 composition
in the liquid outlet stream, hence on mass transfer.
Theory/ Background
Absorption is a very important process in chemical technology and in industries treating

gases and vapors, and consists in separating components from a gaseous or liquid flow
exploiting the action of another gaseous or liquid flow.
In gas absorption, a soluble vapor is absorbed from its mixture with an inert gas by means of
a liquid in which the solute gas is more or less soluble.
The absorption process is carried out putting in contact a gaseous mixture containing the gas
which is to be absorbed and the absorbing liquid (Absorber) between them.
Henry’s law:
The liquid –gas solutions are systems of two components (e.g liquid solvent and gaseous
solute) for studying the absorption process, you must know the solubility of the gas to be
absorbed in liquid which is to be used as the absorber.
To evaluate absorption, you must know the solubility of the gas to absorbed in the liquid
which is to be used as the absorber and its variations as function of the temperature and
pressure in which the process is to be carried out. In practice, you must know the gas liquid
42
equilibrium curve, connecting the solute gas equilibriums to each temperature, divided into
the gaseous and liquid phase.
For diluted solutions and ideal gases, the activity of the gas to be absorbed in gaseous phase
can be considered equal to its partial pressure, which means that at a given temperature, the
molar fraction of a gas dissolved into a liquid is proportional to its partial pressure (henry’s
law)
Pa = HXa (see given values for CO2 in literature)
The value of the constant (H from Henry) depends on the temperature, the nature of the
solvent and the nature of the absorbed gas.
Ficks law:
If we consider two different phases (gas-liquid) in mutual contact, containing a soluble gas
component in both phases but distributed in different concentrations this component passes
from one phase to the other to reach an equilibrium of concentrations.
To perform this passage, the gas to be absorbed meets two resistances, the first in spreading
the higher concentration from the phase center to the inter phase zone, the second is the one it
meets when passing from the inter phase zone to the core of the second phase.
Inter-phase
G L
Applications of gas absorption
Gas absorption is a unit operation in which one or more soluble components of a gas mixture
are dissolved in a liquid. Gas absorption is a key method in the controlling of industrial air
pollution and generally aims at the separation of acidic impurities from mixed gas streams.
43
Impurities include carbon dioxide, Hydrogen sulfide, and organic sulphur compounds the
most important being C02. For both air pollution control and recovery of process gases,
packed towers are one of the most common mass transfer devices in current use.
Description
1) Schematic Diagram:
2) Material balance:
G2 Y2 L2 X2
G L
y
Y X
L1X1
44
G1 Y1 L1X1
(For dilute systems, the solute content is small relative to the non-soluble inerts and non-
volatile liquid. Thus, we can assume: L1=L2=L and G1=G2=G
The operating line equation is:
Y = (L/G) x + (Gy1- Lx1/ G)
45
Apparatus:
1) Gas absorption unit:
Tank: Contains the absorbent which is feed to the absorption column
Packing material: Provides a large area of contact between the liquid and the solute
containing gas entering the bottom of the absorber.
Pump: Transfers the absorbent to the top of the column
Mixer: The gases are mixed using a specially designed mixing tube located after the flow
meters and prior to entering the bottom of the tower.
Tower: The column is a 0.005024 m2 column filled raschig rings
Gas supply: CO2 and air are available from cylinders equipped with regulators. The flow
rates are maintained at desired levels using flow control valves.
Liquid supply: Water is pumped from a sump tank to the top of the column. It flows
downward through the column and can be returned to the sump tank or diverted to the drain.
Measurements:
Temperature transmitter - temperature can be read from the control panel
Differential pressure gauge -Gives the pressure drop across each of the two sections of the
column
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE FOR GAS ABSORPTION OPERATION
1. Start – up Procedure
 Insert the E.L.C.B

 Push the START pushbutton
 Fill tank D1 with deionized water (solvent)
 Open the valve on the compressed – air feed line
46
 Connect valve V8 to the compressed air supply at 1.5 bar by means of the pressure reducer on
the unit
 Connect the cylinder of the gas (CO2) to be absorbed to valve V9 at 2 bar by means of the
pressure reducer on the unit
 Shut off valves V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, V7 and V10
 Select the loop no 1 of the controller (by key Loop)
 Turn the loop no 1 in manual mode (by key M/A/C , red led on)
 Select on display, by means of key Ind , the Out and decrease it to zero by means of the
up/down scroll (valve FV1 closed)
 Turn the loop no 2 of the controller in manual mode (by key Loop, red led on)
 Select on display, by means of key Ind , the Out and decrease it to zero by means of the
up/down scroll (valve FV2 closed)
 Open valves V1, V8, V9
 Select loop no 3 (by key Loop)
 Select on display, by means of key Ind , the indication Out and set the flowrate of the pump
at 30% output (80 l/hr) by means of the up/down scroll
Set the flow rate FI1 (Air) and FI2 (CO2)

 Open the valve on the air feed line
 Select loop no1 for the flow rate of air(by means of key Loop )
 Switch the loop selected in manual mode with the pushbutton M/A/C (red led on)
 Select the Output with the pushbutton Ind
 Set the flow rate of the air at 20l/min by means of the up/down scroll
 Select loop no2 for the flow rate of CO2 (by means of key Loop )
 Switch the loop selected in manual mode with the pushbutton M/A/C (red led on)
 Select the Output with the pushbutton Ind
 Set the flow rate of the air at 9l/min by means of the up/down scroll
 Turn the switch of the pump G1 to position 1
2. Sampling (titration) Procedure
RUN 1
 Wait for 10mins and record the differential pressure (mmH2O) across the packed column
 Turn the pump G1 to position 0; and close valves 8 and 9.
47
 Drain all the water from the bottom of the column through valve 10; and close the valve
thereafter
 Use a pipet to take about 100 ml (for each titration run) of the sample and pipet into the 250
ml conical flasks
 Titrate with a standard solution of 0.100 mol/dm3 (0.1M) sodium hydroxide solution and
0.100 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid (HCl) standard solution
 Use phenolphthalein as indicator for the titration
 Determine the concentration of the carbonic acid solution /carbonate solution at the end point
RUN 2
 Increase the flow rate of the air to 40l/min

 Open valves 8 and 9
 Repeat the same aforementioned sampling procedure
RUN 3

RUN 4

3. Shut- off Procedure
 Close the regulator on the CO2 gas cylinder

 Shut – off FV2 to zero Output %
 Close the valve of the air feed line
48
 Shut – off FV1 to zero Output %
 Reduce the pressure on both the pressure reducers to zero bars.
 Close the valve on the compressed air feed line
 Exhaust all liquid from the column
 Drain tank D1
 Switch off the E.L.C.B switch
 Switch off the main switch on the wall
 Clean - up the glass ware and the working area.
4. Materials
 Stop watch
 250 ml Conical flask x2
 Phenolphthalein bottle with dropper
 100 ml pipet x2
 2 x 50 ml burette with stand
 1000 ml Volumetric flask
 Mass balance
 Sodium hydroxide pellets; hydrochloric acid (32%) and de-ionised water
 Sampling bucket/1 l beaker
 funnels
Results
Water flow CO2 CO2 Pressure

Run Time Air -flow CO2 flow rate composition composition Drop
Top of Bottom of
(min) (L/min) (L/min) (L/min) column column (mmHg)
1 10 20 9 80
2 20 40 9 80
3 30 60 9 80
4 40 90 9 80
Calculations and discussions
49
 Determine the C02 mole fraction in the incoming gaseous mixture for each run.
 Determine the C02 mole composition in the liquid outlet stream, by titration for
each run (Perform a mass balance around the column)
 Plot the operating line and equilibrium line for each run and interpret diagram.
 Plot gas mass flow rate versus pressure drop and discuss the relationship
References
J.M Coulson & J.F Richardson, Particle Technology & Separation Processes (2002) , Vol 2,
5th Ed, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann.
McCabe, W. L. and J. C. Smith, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,4th Edition,
McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1985.
Mark Allocation
Laboratory Report Format and Marking Rubric (NEW RUBRIC)
Scor
Laboratory Report rubric
e

TASK DETAILS
2/2 1/2 0/2
Used the
Used the recommended
Title page used is
Title Page (2) recommended title page but
not acceptable
Title page. some elements
are missing.
10/10 6-8/10 2-4/10 0/10
Major aspects of Major aspects of

the report are Few major
the report are No major aspect
aspects of the
Synopsis (10) summarised as summarised but of the report are
report are
advised in the some aspects are summarised.
summerised
practical manual. missing.
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3

Acknowledgemen Acknowledgemen Acknowledgemen There is no
Acknowledgements
t is clear. t is clear but some t is unclear and acknowledgemen
50
elements are the structure is
(3) t to the piece.
missing. not acceptable.
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3

Table of contents Table of contents Table of contents
There is no Table
to experiment is is computer is manually
Table of contents (3) of contents to the
computer generated but the generated is not
piece.
generated. writing is unclear. acceptable.
10/10 6-8/10 2-4/10 0/10

Exceptional
Theory
Introduction incorporating Good Theory Poor Theory with

Theory with
equations and with majority of many equations
(Theory/ almost no correct
diagrams as per equations and missing and few
elements
Background) (10) the guidelines in diagrams. or no diagrams.
the practical
manual.
7/7 4-5/7 2-3/7 0/7

Described what
was done during Description of reported speech.
Experimental was done using
the practical what was done.
Procedure (7) using reported
text in the
practical manual.
speech.
3/3 3/3 3/3 0/3

Does not Indicate
Indicates clearly Indicates the
the formulas and
the formulas used formulas but does
does not follow a The Analysis of
and step-by-step not follow a step-
step-by-step data does not
Results (20) procedure of by-step procedure
procedure of work at all as
calculating one of calculating one
calculating one required.
set of tabulated
results results
results
Data Analysis 2 (4)

Compositions of CO2
4/4 3/4 1-2/4 0/4
for run 1-4 at the top
of the column
Data Analysis 3 (4)
Compositions of CO2
4/4 3/4 1-2/4 0/4
for run 1-4 at the
bottom of the column
Data Analysis 4 (4) 4/4 3/4 1-2/4 0/4
Operating lines for run
51
1-4
Data Analysis 5 (2)
Equilibrium line - 2/2 1/2 0/2
equation
Data Analysis 6 (2)
Graphs for run 1-4
- 2/2 1/2 0/2
(operating line and
equilibrium line)
Data Analysis 7 (3)
Column’s absorption 3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
efficiency for run 1-4

Data Analysis 8 (1)
Graph (mass flow rate - - 1/1 0/1
vs pressure drop)
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Salient points are Some core Salient points are No connection
highlighted and elements are not missing. between the
thoroughly thoroughly theoretical theoretical
discussed. discussed but background and background and
insightful accurate the practical the practical.
Discussion (20) discussion Core element
connection
between between missing.
theoretical theoretical
background and background and
the practical the practical
4-5/5 2-3/5 1/5 0/5
In-text In-text
Detailed in-text referencing done referencing not in
In-text references No in-text
referencing (Discussion correctly and havard format but
not sufficient reference
sufficiently in references are
and Introduction)
Harvard format. sufficient
8-10/10 5-7/10 2-4/10 0/10
Conclusions and Conclusions and Some core Most salient There is little or
Recommendation elements are not points are missing no conclusions

Recommendation (10)
is done correctly elaborated in the in the conclusions and
52
Recommendation
5/5 3/5 1/5 0/5

Information is Information is
cited properly and cited but not
References (5) cited, but has not cited or is
in Harvard formatted
errors. cited incorrectly.
format. correctly.
5/5 3/5 1/5 0/5
Appendices is Appendices Appendices

done correctly as contains most contains few
There is no
Appedices (5) per the guideline aspects as per the aspects as per the
appendices
in the practical guideline in the guideline in the
manual manual manual
NB the mark allocation above is only a guide.
6.2 Fluid dynamics
1. Objectives of the Experiment

 To determine the energy losses across various fittings and pipe sizes for non-compressible
fluid only, and resistance coefficients (K) values of typical fitting,
 To measure velocities and corresponding pressure losses in a pipe and plot these test.
 To determine pipe friction loss and the wall friction.
2. Theoretical background
2.1. Fluid dynamics terms
53
2.1.1. Pressure drops
When crossing a straight pipeline, a bend, a valve, etc…, the flow of liquid always meets with a
mutual friction between the particles of the fluid and between these particles and the walls of the
vessel, of the valves, of elbows, etc…
This leads to a continuous and local reduction of the energy of the fluid and the energy the fluid will
receive to cover the distance between two far spots of circuit.
For instance, this phenomenon can easily be detected through two pressure gauges installed in a
pipeline of constant section at a distance from each other.
Reading these pressure gauges will lead to realize that P1 > P2; this means that there is a pressure
drop due to friction between the particle of the fluid and between these and the wall.
Generally, the problem consists in assessing one of these three quantities:
 Flow rate
 Diameter of the pipeline
 Pressure drops
2.1.2. Distributed pressure drops

The pressure drops occurring in a circular pipe of constant diameter full of liquid, in isothermal
conditions and in conditions of uniform flow, can be calculated through the following equation:
∆ P=10
−5 f × ρ × L ×V 2
2D
=10
−5 f × L
D
1
( 2
× ρ ×V ¿
2 ) (1)
Where
P = pressure drop (in bar)
L = length of pipeline (in meter)
D = diameter of the pipeline (in meter)
V = means velocity of fluid (in m/s)
F = dimensionless friction factor
Ρ = density of fluid (in kg/m3)
This equation shows that the pressure drop of a liquid flowing in a straight pipeline depends on the
following factors:
 Length of the pipeline
 Diameter of the pipeline
 Velocity of the fluid
 Density of the fluid
 Friction factor
But the most important element for assessing the valves of the friction factor (f) and the pressure drop
in the type of flow:
54
 Laminar flow
 Transition flow
 Turbulent flow
Laminar flow occurs at low velocities in narrow and smooth pipes. It is characterized by rectilinear
and parallel motion.
The flow cylinder in direct contact with the wall of the pipeline adheres to this wall and its velocity is
zero.
After exceeding a certain limit value of mean velocity of the flow depending on the characteristics of
the liquid and on the diameter of the pipeline, the regular rectilinear motion is replaced by an irregular
and whirling movement where the separate liquid particles run at velocities varying in time and in
section. And this is the turbulent flow.
A quantitative differentiation between these flows can be given by the ratio between maximum
velocity and mean velocity; this equal to 2 for the laminar flow and 1.16 and 1.23 for turbulent flow.
But the type of flow and the value of the fluid resistance corresponding to a certain velocity must be
determined with reference to the considered liquid and pipeline; therefore Osborne Reynolds has
introduced characteristic dimensionless number, called Reynolds number and is given by:
ρ× V × D V × D
ℜ= = (2)
μ v
Where
ρ = density of fluid (in kg/m3)
V = mean velocity of this length of pipeline (m/s)
D = inner diameter of pipeline (in m)
V = kinematic viscosity (in m2/s)
µ = dynamic viscosity (in Ns/m2)
It is known from experience that a certain critical value of Reynolds number, considered as element of
separation between the two possible types of flow, will correspond to a certain type of section.
Comparing this value will determine if the flow is laminar or turbulent. The Moody diagram explains
how the factor depends on Reynolds number.
55
56
Observing this diagram will lead to the conclusion that only f depends on Re in laminar flow
according to the following formula:
16
f= (3)
ℜ
Replacing the formula (2) and (3) in equation (1) will lead to:
−5 32 × L ×V
∆ P=10 ¿ (4)
D2
That is well known as the Poiseuille’s law for laminar flow.
2.1.3. Pressure drop in the bend

A bend provokes a pressure drop expressed by:
−5
Kρ
∆ P= ×V 2 10 ¿ (5)
2
The drag coefficient K depends on the ratio R/D between bend radius and inner diameter of the pipe
as well as on the bending angle of the same pipe.
3. Apparatus to be used
Figure 8: Fluid Dynamics Apparatus
57
58
3.1. Procedure
Automatic control
 Select the set point with pushbutton SP-W
 Set the value of the set point with pushbutton ▲▼
 Adjust, if necessary, the value of the gain and integral time controller
 Bleed the circuit of all the air
 Open the vale V3
 Close the angle valve V16
 Bleed the circuit of the all air
 Open the valve V4
 Close the valve V3
 Open valve V5
 Close valve V4
 Fill the tank D1
 Open valve V7
 Close valve V6
 Open valve V8
 Close valve V7
 Open valve V10
 Close valve V8
 Open valve V14
 Close valve V10
 After bleeding the hydraulic circuit of all the air, carry out the following operations:
 Open the by-pass valve V46 to prevent Hg from flowing out
 Select element Calibrated orifice plate by opening its respective valve V6 and closing all the
other valves
 Open the valves V20, V21, V44 and V45 until the measuring circuit is bled of all air
59
 Close V44 and V45
 Open V22 and V23
 Close V46
 Set the flow rate at 10 m3/h by adjusting valve FV1
 Fix the flow rate and read the pressure drop measured before and after the calibrated orifice
on the differential pressure guage
 Vary the flow rate of liquid by adjusting the pneumatic valve and detect pressure drop
 Open valve V46
 Select the venture tube
 Open V7 and close V6
 Open V20, V21, V44 and V45 until measuring circuit is bled of all the air
 Close V44 and V45
 Open V24 and V25
 Close V46
 Set the flow rate at 10 m3/h by adjusting valve FV1
 Fix the flow rate and read the pressure drop measured before and after the calibrated orifice
on the differential pressure gauge
 Vary the flow rate of liquid by adjusting the pneumatic valve and detect pressure drop
 Open valve V46
 Carry out the same operations on the other elements of the plant
 Test with tracer (laminar flow)
 Close the valve of the last element used
 Stop the pump G1
 Remove the plug of the tank D2
 Pour some red ink watered down
 Close the plug of the tank D2
 Open valve V9 partially
 Adjust the valve V1 to obtain a regular flow of the tracer
Stopping the plant

 Stop the pump G1
 Disconnect the socket from the mains
60
 Close the compressed air
4. Procedure
Fitting Flow rate (m3/hr) Pressure differential Discharge
(bar) coefficient/Friction
factor
Tube of stainless steel
DN 15
Tube of glass DN 15
Calibrated orifice
plate
Venturi tube
 Plot a graph of flow versus pressure losses for each element

 Discuss the effect of flow rate on the pressure losses
 Determine the friction losses of each element
 Determine which element had the highest losses and explain why
5. Reference
 Wilkes, James O. Fluid mechanics for chemical engineers, 2 nd ed., with microfluidics and
CFD
 Streeter, V.L., ed., Handbook of fluid dynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961.
Laboratory Report Format and Marking Rubric (Fluid dynamics)
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Acknowledgemen Acknowledgemen
There is no
Acknowledgements Acknowledgemen t is clear but some t is unclear and
acknowledgemen
(3) t is clear. elements are the structure is
t to the piece.
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piece.
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Exceptional
Theory

Theory with
elements
the practical
manual.
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Described what
text in the
practical manual.
speech.
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Does not Indicate
Indicates clearly Indicates the
the formulas and
the formulas used formulas but does
does not follow a The Analysis of
and step-by-step not follow a step-
step-by-step data does not
Results (20) procedure of by-step procedure
procedure of work at all as
calculating one of calculating one
calculating one required.
set of tabulated
results results
results
Batch control 1 (4)

3-4/4 2/4 1/4 0/4
Graph Temp vs Time
62
Batch control 2 (3)
Feedback control 3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
system at 50◦C
Batch control 3 (3)
system at 40◦C
On/Off control 4 (4)
3-4/4 2/4 1/4 0/4
Graph Temp vs Time
system for on/off

Graph Pump speed vs 3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
Time
16-20/20 10-15/20 5-9/20 0/20
discussed. discussed but background and background and
insightful accurate the practical the practical.
connection
between between missing.
theoretical theoretical
background and background and
the practical the practical
4-5/5 2-3/5 1/5 0/5
In-text In-text
and Introduction)
There is little or
Conclusions and no conclusions
is done correctly elaborated in the in the conclusions
Recommendation (10) and salient points Conclusions and and
and
Recommendation
5/5 3/5 1/5 0/5
References (5) Information is Information is Information is Information is
63
cited, but has not cited or is
format. correctly.
5/5 3/5 1/5 0/5

There is no
appendices
64
6.3 Cooling Tower
Practical: Draught forced bench top cooling tower.
Objective:
 To investigate the effect of different heat loads on the “wet-bulb temperature

approach” in a draught forced cooling tower.
Apparatus:
Fig 1: Bench top Cooling Tower
The water capacity of the system is 3 L (excluding the Make-up tank).

The packing density of the tower is 110m2/m3
The pump contributes a further 100 W (heat) to the water before entering the tower.
65
Experimental Procedure:
 Before the start of the experiment familiarize yourself with the equipment.
 Make sure the equipment is completely switch off prior start of the experiment
 Wet the wick of both wet-bulb temperature probes (t2 and t4) with tap water.
 Fill the load tank above the minimum water level.
 Fill the make-up tank with tap water (approx.1.2 L) use a measuring cylinder.
 Switch the equipment on with zero heat load (0 kW).
 Adjust the water flow rate to 30g/s.
 Make sure the damper on the fan is close.
 Let the equipment run for at least 10 minutes to wet the packing and to stabilize the
equipment.
 Switch the equipment off again and increase the heat load to 0.5 kW.
 Fill the make-up tank again with tap water (see the mark on the tank).
 Use a measuring cylinder to measure how much of the tap water you have added.
 Switch the equipment on and make sure the orifice differential over the packing is
about 16 mm H2O by adjusting the damper setting on the fan.
 Keep the operating conditions constant for the entire operation.
 Record the make – up rate after 10 min.
 Record the temperatures (t1 – t6) after 30 min.
 Increase the heat load to 1 kW and keep operating conditions the same.
 Record the temperatures (t1 – t6) after 30 min.
 Increase the heat load to 1.5 kW and keep operating conditions the same.
 Record the temperatures (t1 – t6) after 30 min
 Safely switch off the Apparatus.
Experimental Data
66
Operating Time(min) 30 30 30
T1 (air inlet dry-bulb temperature)
T2 (air inlet wet-bulb temperature)
T3 (air outlet dry bulb temperature)
T4 (air outlet wet bulb temperature)
T5 (water inlet temperature to tower)
T6 (water outlet temperature from the
tower)
Orifice differential mm H2O 16 16 16
Heat Load kW 0.5 1. 1.5
Water flow rate (g/s) 40 40 40
Table C.1: Experimental data table
67
Theory/Background
The Bench top Cooling Tower is designed to provide an understanding of the construction,
design and operational characteristics of an evaporative cooling system. It is an example of
an “open system” through which two streams flow (water and air) with a mass transfer from
the one to the other. The configuration is similar to a full-size forced draught cooling tower.
The Water Cooling Tower in the Chemical Engineering laboratory is illustrated in Fig. C.1. It
is completely self-contained and includes both the simulated heating load and the circulating
pump. It has much the same configuration as a full size force draught cooling tower, has the
same characteristics and stabilizes quickly. In this unit a fan is placed at the base of the tower
to drive air upwards through the packing. Natural buoyancy assists the fan and helps dissipate
the humid air from the top of the tower. A float valve is provided to allow accurate
measurement of 'make-up'. When the cooled water falls to the load tank it is reheated before
circulation.
The difference between the exit- water temperature and the entering air wet-bulb temperature
is called the “wet-bulb temperature approach”.
Water loss due to evaporation, entrainment or “blow down” can be calculated by performing
a mass balance around the cooling tower.
Heat been removed from the hot water can be calculated by performing a energy balance
around the system and also using the available Psychrometric chart for air-water at
atmospheric pressure.
The mass flowrate of air through the orifice is given by:
m a=0.0137
√ x
va
× A …………………………………………………………….[1]
Where:
.
ma = mass flow rate of air, kg/s.
x = Orifice Differential over the packing, (mm H2O)
68
v a = specific volume of air leaving top of column, (m3/kg)
A = area of the column, (m2)
When mass and energy balances are considered, there should be proper assumptions made
and bases stated that satisfy the current situation of the system. Credit will be earned for
proper statement, assumptions and organized work.
69
Results
 Calculate the temperature range for every heat load.

 Calculate the “wet –bulb temperature approach” for every heat load.
 Calculate the air mass flow rate for every heat load.
 Calculate the air enthalpy change across the tower for every heat load.
 Calculate the water enthalpy change for every heat load.
 Calculate the evaporation rate for every heat load.
 Determine the Make-up rate for every heat load.
 Draw a histogram for evaporation rate versus heat load.
 Calculate the cooling tower efficiency for every heat load
Discussions
 Discuss the difference in the “wet-bulb temperature approach”

for every heat load.
 What is the significance of the “wet –bulb temperature approach”?
 What contributes to the loss of water during the cooling process?
 Comment on the humidity of the air at the top of the tower.
 Why is the Make-up rate different for every heat load?
References
McCabe, W. L. and J. C. Smith, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,4th

Edition, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1985.
Laboratory Report Format and Marking Rubri (cooling tower )
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Acknowledgemen Acknowledgemen
There is no
Acknowledgements Acknowledgemen t is clear but some t is unclear and
acknowledgemen
(3) t is clear. elements are the structure is
t to the piece.
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3

There is no Table
piece.
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Exceptional
Theory

Theory with
elements
the practical
manual.
7/7 4-5/7 2-3/7 0/7

Described what
text in the
practical manual.
speech.
3/3 3/3 3/3 0/3
Results (20) Indicates clearly Indicates the Does not Indicate The Analysis of
the formulas used formulas but does the formulas and data does not
and step-by-step not follow a step- does not follow a work at all as
procedure of by-step procedure step-by-step required.
calculating one of calculating one procedure of
71
calculating one
set of tabulated
results results
results
Wet-bulb and Range

3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
Temp. (3)
Air mass flow rate (3) 3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
Air enthalpy change

2/2 1/2 0/2 0/2
(2)
Water enthalpy change
3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
(3)
Evaporation rate (2) 2/2 1/2 0/2 0/2
Make-up rate (2) 2/2 1/2 0/2 0/2
Histogram (2) 2/2 1/2 0/2 0/2
Efficiency of the tower

3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3
(3)
16-20/20 10-15/20 5-9/20 0/20
discussed. background and background and
discussed but
insightful the practical the practical.
accurate
connection
between missing.
between
theoretical
theoretical
background and
background and
the practical
the practical
4-5/5 2-3/5 1/5 0/5
In-text In-text
and Introduction)
8-10/10 5-7/10 2-4/10 0/10
Conclusions and Conclusions and Some core Most salient There is little or
Recommendation elements are not points are missing no conclusions

Recommendation (10)
is done correctly elaborated in the in the conclusions and
and salient points Conclusions and and Recommendatio
72
are highlighted. Recommendation Recommendation. n
5/5 3/5 1/5 0/5

References (5) cited, but has not cited or is
format. correctly.
5/5 3/5 1/5 0/5

There is no
appendices
73
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY
Course Information and Laboratory Schedule
OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this laboratory course module are:
1. To verify various theoretical concepts by simple experiments.

2. To familiarize the student with the operation of laboratory scale equipment.
3. To evaluate the performance characteristics of the various unit operation equipment.
4. To obtain insight into the design and operation of full scale chemical engineering
plants and equipment.
5. To learn how data are collected in experiments.
6. To critically analyze the results of experiments and to properly report such results.
EXPERIMENTS AND INSTRUCTIONS
Visit Blackboard Board or see on Notice board in front of Labs G403/6219
GROUP PRACTICALS/ASSIGNMENTS
Experiments will be performed by groups of 6 students. Every student is expected to learn, by

independent study, the underlying theory behind each experiment and the procedures which
must be followed to obtain reliable experimental data.
A student will be designated by the group as the group leader for one experiment and others
assigned different roles within the team. These roles are expected to be rotational in
subsequent experiments.
SCHEDULE FOR PERFORMING EXPERIMENTS
See the Lab rooster on notice board in front of Lab G403 and Chemical Engineering
Departmental notice board (4th floor)
74
PARTICIPATION IN LABORATORY
It is expected from Students to come prepared to the Laboratories (e.g. Must be in possession
of his/her own Laboratory Manual, PPE, have an idea of what is expected during the
experiment). Students must have adequate background of the subject matter before
conducting the experiments. Each member of the group is expected to be thoroughly familiar
with the practical as well as the theoretical aspects of the experiments. Each group member
will be judged individually and the grade will be assigned accordingly.
Group leaders are expected to direct the experiment and coordinate data collection. The
leader should plan a division of tasks, know what data is to be acquired and devise an
experimental plan. The other Students are expected to be knowledgeable and provide
technical assistance to the group leader. Students will be judged by the Laboratory Assistants
on their active participation in the laboratory according to their role. Students will be quizzed
by Laboratory Assistants in the Laboratory (ad hoc basis). The quiz questions will cover both
theoretical and practical aspects of the experiments. Responses to questions as well as active
participation in the Laboratory will both contribute to the participation grade.
FORMAL REPORT (refer to the Guidelines for Technical Report Writing Manual)
Students will also be assessed based on their verbal presentation skills. All Students will be
expected to submit a group report (will be announced during the lab session) for the Fluid
Dynamics or Liquid Diffusion Experiment and make an oral presentation (not more than 10
slides) thereafter. It is highly recommended for Students to prepare their presentation on
Microsoft Power Point.
A timetable will be put out for the Presentations on a weekly basis (see notice board). It is
preferred that all the Presentations will take place on Fridays after the submission of the
report (see notice board for any other day/schedule).
Reports are due a maximum of two weeks/10 working days after the experiment; 5% will be
deducted for each day’s delay. The formal report should be no more than 15 typed pages in
length excluding Appendices (pending on the type of experiment).
All data and calculations presented in the reports must be in SI units.
75
Reports are due a maximum of two weeks/10 working days after the experiment; 5% will be
deducted for each day’s delay. The formal report should be no more than 15 typed pages in
length excluding Appendices (pending on the type of experiment).
LAB ASSIGNMENTS
Lab Assignments are due a maximum of 5 working days after the experiment. No late
submissions are accepted. The assignment should be no more than 10 typed pages in
length (pending on the type of experiment). The format will be explained during the Practical
session.
GRADING SCHEME
Please keep in mind that the course module is a continuous assessment module, basically the
student need to write all lab tests and submit all Lab reports and assignments to pass the
module. A pass mark of 50 % must be obtained to pass the module.
The assessment criteria are designed as follows:

Assessments Number
Lab Tests 2
Laboratory assignments 3
Laboratory reports 3
Presentation 1
Total 9
Weight percentage per assessment Weight

Lab Tests 30%
Laboratory assignments 30%
Laboratory reports 30%
Presentations 10%
76
Total 100%
Breakdown of Lab
assignments:
Assessment type Lab Assignment Weight
Individual Refrigeration 10%

Single Stage Compressor and Steam Plant 10% each
Breakdown of Lab reports:

Assessment type Practical Weight
Group/ Gas Absorption 10%
Individual Process Control and Cooling Tower 10% each
Presentations 10%
Breakdown of Lab Tests:

Assessment type Assessment Weight
Individual Lab Assignments 15%

Lab Practicals 15% each
GROUP REPORT
Pre - practical questionnaire – 5% (a pre - practical test will be written before the
practical).
Group Report – 60 % (The mark obtained for the lab report will be assigned to each Student
in that particular Group).
Presentation – 35 % (each Student will receive an individual mark pending on the

participation during the presentation).
TOTAL – 100%
 Students will be examined on the following criteria during the presentations:
77
90% Contribution
Technical Content Presentation Skills
Intro & Results Conclusio Slide Communication Time
Methodology
Aim Interpretation n Quality Skills Penalty
10 10 20 20 10 10 10
10% Contribution
Question Handling per each student in a group of four
1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10
ASSESSMENT OF THE REPORTS
The final written report/assignment will be marked by the Laboratory Assistant/Lecturer

responsible for the experiment. The purpose of this is to ensure a close link between the
lectures in the class and the experiments in the laboratory. The Lecturer is expected to be in
the laboratory for at least 30 minutes to monitor the progress and answer any queries that may
arise.
Students can consult with the Laboratory Assistant five days after submission of the report
(See Consultation Time Table of the Laboratory Assistant).
All the Students have five days to consult after the marks have been published on the notice
board. No marks will be changed after these prescribed five days.
It is therefore expected that Students must submit their Reports on time (BEFORE 12
0’CLOCK ON DAY OF DUE DATE), if fail to abide to this rule 5% will be deducted for
each day of late submission.
All lab reports/assignments must be submitted at the LABRATORY REPORT

SUBMISSION STATION in front of Lab G407 in the respective pigeon hole. No lab reports
will be accepted by any Lab staff member.
PLAGIARISM
78
Please Note:
 Reproducing reports from previous semesters.

 Reproducing the Laboratory manual.
 Copying paragraphs from the internet.
 Copying some paragraphs or the entire report from fellow students.
The above mentioned are STRICTLY not allowed. Any student who fails to abide by these
rules will obtain 0% and will be given a final written warning. Please read the UJ Policy
regarding plagiarism.
No exceptions will be made on this rule!
INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL WORK
It is impossible to carry out the experiments in a useful and intelligent manner without
adequate knowledge of the principles of the particular subject matter. It is strongly
recommended that Students make a conscious effort to learn the underlying theory of the
experiment being carried out.
PROCEDURE
Before starting an experiment, a student must become thoroughly familiar with the equipment
provided in the laboratory and its safety protocol. The following procedure must then be
followed.
 Carefully start up the apparatus and note its transient behavior.

 Bring the apparatus to steady state conditions.
 Record operating parameters and collect reliable experimental data.
 Vary the operating conditions and note the resulting transient behavior.
 Bring the apparatus back to steady state operation under new conditions.
 Record the operating parameters and obtain adequate experimental data.
 Carefully shut down the apparatus according to the appropriate procedure.
 The equipment and work area must be left clean and tidy
79
In some cases, it may not be possible to complete an experiment within the prescribed time at
more than one or two set(s) of steady state conditions. In other cases, it may be possible to
obtain more than two sets of experimental data.
ANALYSIS
With the experimental data collected in the Laboratory it should be possible to make a
reasonably complete assessment of the performance characteristics of the experimental
apparatus. Detailed steps to be followed will obviously vary from one experiment to another.
 LABORATORY SAFETY
All Students must abide by the laboratory safety rules. Lab coats and safety glasses must be
supplied by each Student. Please note that contact lenses should not be worn in the laboratory
– wear glasses instead. Details are provided in the Safety Protocol Manual
80
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BEng Tech

B. General Laboratory checks

C. Specific equipment used

D. Behavior in the laboratory

 No loud talking or yelling.

 No manhandling of each other.

 No touching any equipment that is not directly involved in your practical.

The University of Johannesburg is committed to providing a safe laboratory environment for

3.1 CONTROL MEASURES TO REDUCE EXPOSURE

It may be necessary to supplement engineering controls and protective equipment with

 Particularly Hazardous Substances

Particularly hazardous substances are defined to include select carcinogens, reproductive

 Controlling Chemical Exposure

3.2 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

 Chemical Splash Goggles

 Protective clothing and footwear

4. Guidelines for Technical Report Writing

4.1 What is technical writing?

 Some guidelines are:

 Be accurate in your work

 Engineering students generally have several misconceptions about technical writing:

4.3 General Guidelines for better writing

One main goal in writing reports is having readable writing.

4.3.1 Overview on report writing

4.3.2 Typical Components (Format) of a Technical report

It is recommended that each heading should start on a new page.

What you need to put under the different headings

 Title Page (Cover Page)

A good introduction also provides whatever background theory, previous research, or

 Results and Discussions

 Analysis: What do the results indicate clearly?

Focus your discussions with the following strategies:

 Compare expected results with those obtained.

Recommendations can be very short, recommend on the quantitative observations of the

Please use HARVARD – ANGLIA 2008 style of referencing.

Appendix A [Glossary; Acronyms and Abbreviations]

Appendix B (Equations; Sample Calculations]

Appendix C [Extras; Data, Figures and Tables]

T.D. Eastop and A. McConkey, Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists,

The Laboratory report will be marked out of 50.

Laboratory Report rubric Score

4-5/5 2-3/5 1/5 0/3

3/3 2/3 1/3 0/5

3/3 3/3 3/3 0/3

Table of results with

expansion stages (6)

3/3 2/3 1/3 0/3

TOTAL POINTS out of 50

5.2 Lab Assignments

Single Stage Compression

Figure 1. PV diagram for ideal process

Figure 2. PV diagram for isothermal process

Figure 3. PV diagram for isentropic process

The compressor diagram for displacement compressors

Compression work with isentropic compression:

Figure 5. Double acting and single acting cylinder

Figure 6. PV Diagram for a cylinder with no clearance

Compression in cylinder with clearance