ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
hormones
SAGE
- includes all of the glands of the body and
the hormones produced by those glands.
- help in different processes: cellular
metabolism, reproduction, sexual
development, sugar and mineral
homeostasis, heart rate, digestion, etc.
 
Hypothalamus
- collection of specialized cells located in the
lower central part of the brain
- main link between the endocrine and
nervous systems
- its nerve cells control the pituitary gland by
producing chemicals that either stimulate or
suppress hormone secretions from the
pituitary.
PITUITARY GLAND
located at the base of the brain
known as the “master gland”
it makes hormones that control several other
endocrine glands
provides information by the brain
has two parts: Anterior Lobe and Posterior Lobe
ANTERIOR LOBE – produces hormones
 GROWTH HORMONE
- growth of the bones and other body tissues
- role in the body’s handling of nutrients and
minerals
 PROLACTIN
- milk production (in breastfeeding women)
 
THYROTROPIN
-stimulates thyroid gland to produce thyroid
CORTICOTROPIN
- stimulates adrenal gland to produce certain
hormones
 secretes endorphins 
- a chemical that acts on the nervous system
- reduce the feelings of pain
 secretes hormones that signal reproductive
organs to make sex hormones; controls
ovulation and menstrual cycle
POSTERIOR LOBE – regulates the activities of
the thyroid, adrenals and reproductive 
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
- control the balance of water in the body
 OXYTOCIN
- triggers the contractions of the uterus in a woman
having a baby
THYROID
- located in the front of the lower neck
- important in the development of the brain
and nervous system (on kids)
- more thyroid in the bloodstream, the
faster the occurrence of chemical
reaction
 Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine
- hormones that control the rate at which
the cells burn fuels from food to produce energy
 Thyrotropin
- controls the production and release of
thyroid hormones
 Calcitonin
- reduces the concentration of blood
calcium level when it has risen to an above normal
level
PARATHYROIDS
- Four tiny glands attatched to the thyroid
glands
Parathyroid Homone
 - regulate the level in the blood with the MELATONIN
help of calcitonin (produed in the thyroid) - regulation of sleep-wake cycle
- plays a central role in the regulation
of circadian rhythm (the roughly 24-hour cycle of
biological activities associated with natural periods
of light and darkness).

Reproductive glands
- also known as gonads
ADRENAL GLANDS - main source of sex hormones
 MALE GONADS

 Testes - located in the scrotum

- two glands; one on top of each kidney  Androgens- testosterone
- tells the body when it is time to
- they have a strong influence on your
a. have changes to make puberty
kidney function
b. produce sperm
- divided into two: The Adrenal Cortex
FEMALE GONADS
and Adrenal Medulla
ADRENAL CORTEX- outer part
Glucocorticoids- increase blood glucose level by
the synthesis of glucose from proteins
Hydrocortisone
- known as cortisol; regulates how the
body converts fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates 
- also helps regulate blood pressure and
cardiovascular function.
Corticosterone- works with hydrocortisone to
regulate immune response and
suppress inflammatory reactions. 
Ovaries
Corticosteroids- influence/regulate salt and water
- located in the woman’s pelvis
balance in the body, response to stress,
- produce eggs
matabolism, immune system and sexual
- secrete estrogen and progesterone
development and function 
Estrogen
Mineral corticoids: aldosterone- maintain water
- puberty change
and salt balance
- regulation of menstrual cycle and
Sex corticoids - stimulate the development of
role in pregnancy
secondary sexual characters
Progesterone - regulation of menstrual
ADRENAL GLAND
cycle and role in
ADRENAL MEDULLA
pregnancy
Catecholamines: epinpherine/adrenaline
increases blood pressure and heart rate
PANCREAS
when the body experiences stress

Pineal gland

- associated with the digestive system

- produces and secretes digestive
hormones
- also known as pineal body
Insulin and Glucagon
- maintain steady level of glucose (sugar)
in the blood and to keep the body supplied
with fuel to produce and maintain stores of
energy
THYMUS
- pair of small, oval reddish bodies
- vital role in the training and development 
of T- lymphocytes or T cells, an extremely 
- important type of white blood cell that helps
defend the body from pathogens
 Thymosin
- differentiates the T lymphocytes
- stimulates the development of
disease-fighting T cells.
DISEASES OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hypothyroidism
- result of the thyroid gland not putting out
enough of the thyroid hormone to keep the
body’s functions from slowing down. 
Symptoms include: tiredness, dry skin,
tender/weak muscles, body aches, constipation,
weight gain, high choresterol, weight gain, and
irregular and heavy menstrual periods (for
women)
HYPOGLYCEMIA
- Low blood sugar
- Usually happens with diabetes
Symptoms include: Tiredness, palpitations,
sweating, irritability, anxiety, pale skin; and on
worse cases: seizures, confused behaviour,
blurry vision and unconsciousness
DWARFISM
- condition of short stature
- caused by metabolic and hormonal
disorders
- Skeletal Dysplasias – genetic abnormal
bone growth
LPA/Little People of America
- 4 and10 ft or below
- result of medical or genetic condition
- average growth is 4 ft
GIGANTISM
- abnormal growth in terms of height and
girth (size and dimension)
- pituitary gland produce too many hormone:
somatropin
- symptoms might seem like be normal at
childhood
DIABETES
- also known as Diabetes Mellitus
- group of metabolic diseases: high blood
glucose (sugar), inadequate insulin
production or the body’s cells do not
respond properly to insulin
High blood sugar patients
 polyuria - frequent urination
 polydipsia - excessive thirst
 polyphagia - excessive hunger
DIABETES
TYPE 1
- body does not produce enough insulin
- insulin-dependent diabetes or juvenile /
early-onset diabetes
- usually develop before the 40th year, early
adulthood or teenage years
TYPE 1 PATIENTS
- should take insulin injections
- ensure blood sugar levels by carrying out
regular blood tests and following special
diet
TYPE II
- does not produce enough insulin
- known as insulin resistance or the body
does not react to insulin
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM OF THE FROG
 
The Endocrine system is the system that secretes
hormones throughout the body. This system
works in hand with the nervous system because
the system sends messages to the glands in order
to secrete and stimulate different hormones for
various processes.
Thyroids
- They are paired in frog. Each thyroid
gland is situated behind the hyoid apparatus. They
secrete thyroxine. Thyroxine regulates
metabolism. It also brings about metamorphosis
(change from larva to adult).
Parathyroids
- These are two pairs of small bodies
located on either side of the posterior portion of
the hyoid plate. They secrete parathormone (PTH)
which regulates the
calcium phosphorous
balance in the blood.
Adrenals
- The hormones of the adrenal cortex are
called cortin or adrenocorticoides (e.g, cortisol,
aldosterone).
Adrenals
 Cortisol - regulates the metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats
 Aldosterone - increases reabsorption of
sodium in the uriniferous tubules
(nephrons) of the kidney
 Adrenaline - is the hormone of the medulla
which increases heartbeat, blood pressure,
blood sugar, respiratory rate, etc.
Pituitary Gland
- consists of anterior lobe, intermediate lobe and
posterior lobe
ANTERIOR LOBE
1. Growth hormone (GH) influences growth of
the body
2. Gonadotrophic hormones (GTHs) affect
growth and functioning of the gonads
(testes and ovaries)
3. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
stimulates growth of thyroids and
production of thyroxine,
4. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
stimulates cortex of adrenal glands to grow
and secrete its hormone
INTERMEDIATE LOBE
- melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
influences the colouration of the skin
POSTERIOR LOBE
- antidiuretic hormones (ADH) or
vasopressin which increases the
reabsorption of water in the uriniferous
tubules (nephrons) of the kidneys.
Pineal Gland
- It lies on the dorsal surface of the
diencephalon of the brain.
Melatonin hormone
- affects the colour of the skin and
inhibits gonad function.
Thymus
- a small compact lymphoid body
located behind each tympanum under the
depressor mandibulae muscle.
 Thymosin hormone - stimulates the sexual characters do not appear and the
production of lymphocytes (a type of sex instinct is never present.
WBCs), increasing resistance to infection.
It also hastens attainment of sexual
maturity.

Pancreas
- composed of islets of Langerhans.
Some cells of islets of langerhans secrete
insulin hormone which converts glucose
into glycogen in the liver.

Stomach
- Certain cells of the mucous
membrane (=mucosa) of the stomach
secretes a hormone called the gastrin
which stimulates the gastric glands to
produce the gastric juice.

Intestine
 Secretin - causes the release of sodium
bicarbonate solution from the pancreas for
pancreatic juice and from the liver for bile
 Cholecystokinin - stimulates the gall
bladder to release the bile into the
duodenum

REPRODUCTIVE GLANDS

Testes
•  are attached to the antero-lateral part of
the kidneys
• primary function is to produce sperms but
there are also present endocrine cells
known as interstitial cells
• secrete male sex hormone, which brings
about secondary sexual characters (the
characters which appear only during sexual
maturity
• also influences the male bahaviour during
mating.
Ovaries
• the same position as those of testes.
• not only produce ova, but also female sex
hormone to cause secondary sexual
characters in female
• she receives the male at a certain period or
periods of the year.
 If the ovaries are removed the female sex
hormone is not produced, the secondary