Unit IV: Wastewater Treatment

Primary treatment; equalization, neutralization,

sedimentation, oil stripping of volatile organic, biological
treatment process; activated sludge process, reverse
osmosis, anaerobic decomposition, sludge handling and
treatment process.
What is Wastewater?
Wastewater (or waste water) is any water that has been contaminated by human
use. Wastewater is "used water from any combination of domestic, industrial,
commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer
inflow or sewer infiltration".
Types of wastewater include: domestic wastewater
from households, municipal wastewater from
communities (also called sewage) and industrial
wastewater.
Households may produce wastewater
from flush toilets, sinks, dishwashers, washing
machines, bath tubs, and showers. Households that
use dry toilets produce less wastewater than those
that use flush toilets.
Effluent refers to the sewage or liquid
waste that is discharged into water bodies
either from direct sources or from
treatment plants. Influent refers to water,
wastewater, or other liquid flowing into a
reservoir, basin or treatment plant.
The composition of wastewater varies widely. This is a partial list of pollutants that may be
contained in wastewater:
Chemical or physical pollutants
 Heavy metals including mercury, lead, and chromium
 Organic particles such as feces, hairs, food waste, paper fibers, plant material, humus,
etc.
 Soluble organic material such as urea, fruit sugars, soluble proteins, drugs, , etc.
 Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, rubber residues from
tires, ceramics, Soluble inorganic material such as ammonia, road-salt, sea-
salt, cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, etc.;
 Macro-solids such as nappies/diapers, needles, children's toys, dead animals or plants,
Gases such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.;
 Emulsions such as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants, emulsified oils, etc.;
 Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.
 Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, hormones, perfluorinated
compounds, siloxanes, drugs of abuse and other hazardous substances
 Microplastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, polyester and polyamide
 Thermal pollution from power stations and industrial manufacturers
Biological pollutants
● Bacteria ● Viruses
● Protozoa ● Parasites
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT
The current wastewater treatment processes can be divided into three main categories:
● Primary treatment: Wastewater is first subjected to Primary treatment, which is
largely a Physical process including removal of grit, grease and scum.
● Secondary treatment focused on the removal of biodegradable waste that are
responsible for BOD in the water and it is usually accomplished by biological treatment
with micro-organisms.
● Tertiary treatment: it is sometimes called advanced waste treatment. The Tertiary
treatment includes a variety of processes performed on the effluent from secondary
waste treatment and is especially important in the treatment of water that may be
recycled.
 PRIMARY TREATMENT

Primary treatment removes material that will either float or readily settle out
by gravity. It includes the physical processes of screening, comminution, grit removal,
and sedimentation.

The screened wastewater flows into a primary settling tank where it is held for several
hours allowing solid particles to settle to the bottom of the tank and oils and greases
to float to the top.

Screens are made of long, closely spaced, narrow metal bars. They block floating
debris such as wood, rags, and other bulky objects.

In modern plants the screens are cleaned mechanically, and the material is promptly
disposed of by burial on the plant grounds.

A comminutor may be used to grind and shred debris that passes through the
screens. The shredded material is removed later by sedimentation or flotation
processes.
Primary and secondary treatment of sewage, using the activated sludge process.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
 PRIMARY TREATMENT

As shown in the previous slide, Grit chambers are long narrow tanks that are
designed to slow down the flow so that solids such as sand, coffee grounds, and
eggshells will settle out of the water.

Suspended solids that pass through screens and grit chambers are removed from the
sewage in sedimentation tanks (also called primary clarifiers).

The settled solids—known as raw or primary sludge—are moved along the tank
bottom by mechanical scrapers. Sludge is collected in a hopper, where it is pumped
out for removal. Mechanical surface-skimming devices remove grease and other
floating materials.
 SEDIMENTATION

Sedimentation is the process of allowing particles in suspension in water to settle

out of the suspension under the effect of gravity. The particles that settle out from
the suspension become sediment, and in water treatment is known as sludge.
When a thick layer of sediment continues to settle, this is known as consolidation.
When consolidation of sediment, or sludge, is assisted by mechanical means then
this is known as thickening.

In water treatment sedimentation might be used to reduce the concentration of

particles in suspension before the application of coagulation, to reduce the amount of
coagulating chemicals needed, or after coagulation and, possibly, flocculation. When
sedimentation is applied after coagulation, its purpose is usually to reduce the
concentration of solids in suspension so that the subsequent filtration can function
most effectively.

Sedimentation is one of several methods for application prior to filtration: other

options include dissolved air flotation and some methods of filtration. Generically,
such solids-liquid separation processes are sometimes referred to as clarification
processes.
There is a variety of methods for applying sedimentation and include: horizontal
flow, radial flow, inclined plate, ballasted floc and floc blanket sedimentation.

Horizontal flow tanks

The simplest form of sedimentation is to fill a jar or tank with water, leave alone for a
long enough time for particles to settle and then decant off the resulting water
without the sediment. In practice this is rarely viable in treating water for townships,
and therefore sedimentation tanks are operated continuously.

Radial flow tanks

Radial flow tanks are circular with the inlet for the water at the centre and a
peripheral outlet. Attention has to be paid to the design of inlet to support uniform
distribution of flow to the whole of the tank. The sediment is scraped to a central
hopper for its discharge.

Inclined settling
In unhindered settling tank size is governed by the time to be allowed for particles to
settle through the depth of water. The simple theory shows that efficiency of removal
of particles is governed by the area available for settlement. An approach to providing
a large are with a small footprint is to use inclined plates or tubes. These are usually
constructed with lightweight material in modular form which can be easily positioned
in a concrete or steel tank.
Ballasted sedimentation
The density difference between water and the particles produced in water treatment
by coagulation, flocs, in general is small. Therefore they settle slowly. Methods of plain
sedimentation (i.e. horizontal, radial and inclined sedimentation) are preceded by a
slow mixing process called flocculation. The purpose of flocculation is to assist
coagulated particles to collide and adhere so as to grow into larger particles that might
settle faster, and for the particle size distribution to be as small as possible. Flocculation
can be assisted by the application of high molecular weight polymers called
polyelectrolytes.

Floc blanket sedimentation

The first floc blanket tanks had an inverted pyramidal shape topped by a short vertical
section. The incoming suspension was fed downward into the apex of the pyramidal
hopper by a single pipe. The blanket occupied most of the pyramidal hopper. The
comparative success of floc blanket settling resulted in adaptation of premix-
recirculation tanks being developed to include floc blanket zones. However, more
effective developments and cheaper designs led to use of flat-bottomed rectangular
tanks fed by an arrangement of multiple inlet pipes – candelabra like, or horizontal
pipes with multiple orifices close to the tank floor. Further developments have led to
the use of inclined plate or tube modules in such tanks.
EQUALIZATION
●Equalization is a method of retaining wastes in a basin so that the effluent discharged
is fairly uniform in its characteristics ( pH, color, turbidity, alkalinity, B.O.D. etc.)

● Equalization (EQ) is a means of buffering or equalizing the characteristics

of wastewater prior to entering the wastewater treatment system. Industrial waste
streams vary considerably in both level of contaminants (pH, total suspended solids,
etc.) and flow rates. To minimize the impact of these fluctuations on downstream
processes, equalization should be considered.

BENEFITS OF EQUALIZATION
 Equalization improves sedimentation efficiency by improving hydraulic retention
time.
 The efficiency of biological process can be increased because of uniform
characteristics and minimization of the impact of shock loads and toxins during
operation.
 Manual and the automated control of flow- rate-dependent operations, such as
chemical feeding, disinfection, and sludge pumping are simplified.
 Treatability of the waste water is improved and some BOD reduction and odor
removals provided if aeration is used for mixing in the equalization basin.
 A point of return for recycling concentrated waste stream is provided, thereby
mitigating shock loads to primary setters or aeration basin.
NEUTRALIZATION
The aim of neutralisation is to modify an acid or base water flow to a neutral pH
(approximately 7). The most important objectives are to make the wastewater
treatable using biological purification and/or make it comply with discharge criteria. In
addition to neutralisations, various pH corrections are also performed for a variety of
reasons:
• Conditioning, stabilising raw wastewater
• Emulsion breaking
• Precipitation reactions / resolving precipitation
• Checking chemical reaction speeds

Neutralisation generally takes place by adding chemicals directly to the wastewater

flow. Thus equipment consists of storage and reaction tanks and a dosage and mixing
installation.
To increase pH one uses a leachant (NaOH) or lime milk (Ca(OH)2); to decrease pH
sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl) or carbon dioxide (CO2) is used. Other
acids and bases are also possible (organic acids/bases, for example), but are less
commonly used for treating wastewater.
 Neutralization
A basic pH adjustment / neutralization system consists of six basic components:
1. Instrumentation for monitoring, controlling, and recording
2. pH electrodes and/or ORP sensors and associated mounting hardware
3. Effluent holding tank
4. Level control
5. Chemical pumps and reagent storage tanks
6. Mixers/agitators

In this system, effluent flows into the holding tank where a pH sensor (also known as pH
electrode or pH probe) senses the pH of the solution. The sensor provides input to the pH
controller device which operates chemical pump(s) to inject acid or caustic as required to
neutralize the effluent. The mixer serves to evenly distribute the neutralizing chemicals
throughout the holding tank to ensure complete neutralization.
 AIR STRIPPING OF VOLATILE ORGANIC
Air stripping is a process by which a liquid, usually wastewater, is brought into intimate
contact with a gas, usually air, so that some undesirable volatile substances present in the
liquid phase can be released and carried away by the gas. These procedures produce a
condition in which a large surface area of the water to be treated is exposed to air, which
promotes transfer of the contaminant from the liquid phase to the gaseous phase.
The process consists of counter-current flow of water
and air through a packing material. The packed tower
consists of a cylindrical drum equipped with a gas inlet
and distributing space at the bottom; a liquid inlet and
distributor at the top; gas and liquid outlets at top and
bottom, respectively; and a supported mass of inert
solid shapes, called tower packing.
In the traditional system, water is pumped to the top of
the tower, and is allowed to flow down over the inert
packing, while air is pumped countercurrent from the
bottom of the tower. The contaminants of interest such
as ammonia or volatile organic compounds (VOC) are
stripped out of the water into the air stream.

In practice, two methods are used to achieve contact between phases so that mass transfer can
occur: (1) continuous contact and (2) staged contact. Different flow patterns used in practice
include countercurrent, co-current and cross-flow. The most common flow pattern is
countercurrent mode.
Stripping Theory
The ratio of the contaminant at equilibrium in the liquid phase, CL , to the contaminant
in the gaseous phase, CG, is a relationship known as Henry’s law:
𝐶𝐺
𝐻=
𝐶𝐿
where H is Henry’s constant. Henry’s constant is a property of the solute/solvent system
and the temperature, and follows Van’t Hoff’s relationship.
−𝐻𝑜
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐻 = +𝑘
𝑅𝑇
where H° = enthalpy change resulting from the dissolution of the compound in water;
R = the universal gas constant; T = the absolute temperature; and
k = a compound dependent constant.

The general form of the equation for the rate of mass transfer across the gas-liquid
interface in a gas stripper is given by the equation:
1 𝑑𝑚
= 𝐾𝐿 𝑎 𝐶𝐿 ∗ − 𝐶𝐿
𝑉 𝑑𝑡
where V = the liquid volume, m3; m = the mass of the solute, kg; t = time, s; KL = the
overall liquid mass transfer coefficient, m/s; a = the specific interfacial area, m2/m3;
CL = the bulk average concentration in the liquid phase, kg/m3; CL* = the liquid
concentration in equilibrium with the gas phase concentration, CG, kg/m3; and KLa =
the transfer rate constant.
 SECONDARY TREATMENT

Secondary treatment removes the soluble organic matter that

escapes primary treatment. It also removes more of the
suspended solids. Removal is usually accomplished by
biological processes in which microbes consume the organic
impurities as food, converting them into carbon dioxide, water,
and energy for their own growth and reproduction.

Removal of soluble organic matter at the treatment plant helps

to protect the dissolved oxygen balance of a receiving
stream, river, or lake.

There are three basic biological treatment methods:

 the trickling filter,
 the activated sludge process, and
 the oxidation pond.
TRICKLING FILTER
• A trickling filter is simply a tank filled with a deep bed of stones. Settled
sewage is sprayed continuously over the top of the stones and trickles to the
bottom, where it is collected for further treatment. As the wastewater trickles
down, bacteria gather and multiply on the stones.
• The steady flow of sewage over these growths allows the microbes to absorb
the dissolved organics, thus lowering the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
of the sewage. Air circulating upward through the spaces among the stones
provides sufficient oxygen for the metabolic processes.
• Two or more trickling filters may be connected in series, and sewage can be
recirculated in order to increase treatment efficiencies.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT SYSTEM

 The activated sludge treatment system consists of an aeration tank followed by a

secondary clarifier. Settled sewage, mixed with fresh sludge that is recirculated from
the secondary clarifier, is introduced into the aeration tank.
 Compressed air is then injected into the mixture through porous diffusers located at
the bottom of the tank. As it bubbles to the surface, the diffused air provides oxygen
and a rapid mixing action.
 Under such oxygenated conditions,
microorganisms flourish, forming an active,
healthy suspension of biological solids—
mostly bacteria—called activated sludge.
 About six hours of detention is provided in
the aeration tank. This gives the microbes
enough time to absorb dissolved organics
from the sewage, reducing the BOD.
 The mixture then flows from the aeration
tank into the secondary clarifier, where
activated sludge settles out by gravity.
 Clear water is skimmed from the surface of Schematic diagram of an activated
the clarifier, disinfected, and discharged as sludge process.
secondary effluent.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT SYSTEM

 The sludge is pumped out from a hopper at the bottom of the tank. About 30 percent
of the sludge is recirculated back into the aeration tank, where it is mixed with the
primary effluent.
 This recirculation is a key feature of the activated sludge process.
 The recycled microbes are well acclimated to the sewage environment and readily
metabolize the organic materials in the primary effluent.
 The remaining 70 percent of the secondary sludge must be treated and disposed of in
an acceptable manner.

Variations of the activated sludge process include extended aeration, contact

stabilization, and high-purity oxygen aeration. Extended aeration and contact stabilization
systems omit the primary settling step.
• They are efficient for treating small sewage flows from motels, schools, and other
relatively isolated wastewater sources.
• Both of these treatments are usually provided in prefabricated steel tanks
called package plants. Oxygen aeration systems mix pure oxygen with activated sludge.
A richer concentration of oxygen allows the aeration time to be shortened from six to
two hours, reducing the required tank volume.
OXIDATION POND
 Oxidation ponds, also called lagoons or stabilization ponds, are large, shallow
ponds designed to treat wastewater through the interaction of sunlight, bacteria,
and algae.
 Algae grow using energy from the sun and carbon dioxide and
inorganic compounds released by bacteria in water.
 During the process of photosynthesis, the algae release oxygen needed by aerobic
bacteria.
 Mechanical aerators are sometimes installed to supply yet more oxygen, thereby
reducing the required size of the pond.
 Sludge deposits in the pond must eventually be removed by dredging. Algae
remaining in the pond effluent can be removed by filtration or by a combination of
chemical treatment and settling.
ANAEROBIC DECOMPOSITION OR ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Anaerobic digestion is a process by which organic material decomposes
under the influence of microorganisms in the absence of oxygen. This process occurs
naturally in soil and in lakes. The same process can be harnessed in special digesters
that are used to treat waste material. In each case, the product of the digestion is a
mixture of gases, usually with methane as the main component. This can be used to
generate electricity and heat.
Anaerobic digestion systems can minimize odors and vector attraction,
reduce pathogens, produce gas, produce liquid and solid digestate, and reduce waste
volumes.
During digestion, various microbes use
the organic matter such as animal manure, sewage
sludge, wasted food and other organics in the
absence of oxygen. The process can be controlled
and enhanced through chemistry and engineering.

In controlled environments, organic

materials such as biosolids and other relatively wet
organic materials, along with various types of
bacteria, are put in an airtight container called
a digester where the process occurs. Depending on
the waste feedstock and the system design, biogas
is typically 55 to 75 per cent pure methane.
Anaerobic digestion System Components

Figure : Anaerobic System Components

 The chemical reactions that occur during anaerobic digestion
1. Hydrolysis: The first stage sees the breakdown of complex matter, such as
carbohydrates and proteins, broken down into sugars and amino acids. These are
normally long-chain chemical compounds, but Hydrolysis breaks them down into single
molecules.
2. Acidogenesis: In the second stage, microorganisms break down the single
molecules of sugar and amino acids even further into ethanol and fatty acids, as well
as producing carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide as by-products.
3. Acetogenesis
In the third stage, the ethanol and fatty acids are converted into hydrogen, carbon
dioxide and acetic acid.

4. Methanogenesis: In the
methanogenesis step, acetic
acid, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen are converted to
biogas by methanogens.
Biogas consists mainly of
methane and carbon dioxide
and can be used as a
renewable energy fuel in a
variety of applications.
Benefits of Anaerobic digestion

 Anaerobic Digestion projects reduce greenhouse gas emissions by capturing

and combusting methane; generating renewable energy, thereby reducing
dependence on fossil fuels.
 The anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge from wastewater treatment
facilities plays an important role in cost-effective wastewater solids
treatment and management at thousands of facilities due to the significant
reduction in solids volume and their stabilization.
 Anaerobic digestion concentrates nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, which, if discharged in excess quantities, can cause algae
growth and eutrophic conditions in water bodies. These concentrated
nutrients can then be recovered and beneficially used.
 Anaerobic Digestion projects may conserve resources and increase
sustainable materials management by reducing the volume of wasted food
disposed of in landfills, since food is a large component of landfilled
municipal solid waste (MSW).
 Anaerobic Digestion may produce liquid and solid products that can be used
as fertilizer or soil amendment, replacing some conventional fertilizer.
 Anaerobic Digestion may prevent pollution by diverting organics from
landfills and agricultural sites, reducing nutrient runoff, and hauling costs.
TERTIARY TREATMENT

 Tertiary treatment is the final cleaning process that improves wastewater quality
before it is reused, recycled or discharged to the environment.
The treatment removes remaining inorganic compounds, and other substances

 Tertiary treatment of effluent involves a series of additional steps after secondary

treatment to further reduce organics, turbidity, nitrogen, phosphorus, metals, and
pathogens.
 Most processes involve some type of physicochemical treatment such as
coagulation, filtration, activated carbon adsorption of organics, reverse osmosis,
and additional disinfection.
 The advanced oxidation processes using ozone, UV radiation, chlorination, etc. fall
into tertiary treatment techniques.
 Tertiary treatment of wastewater is practiced for additional protection of wildlife
after discharge into rivers or lakes. Even more commonly, it is performed when the
wastewater is to be reused for irrigation (e.g., food crops, golf courses), for
recreational purposes (e.g., lakes, estuaries), or for drinking water.
 Tertiary treatment may take several different forms depending on the quality of
the final effluent required. Near bathing waters (European Bathing Waters
Directive 76/160/EEC), UV irradiation is the most common method and has
become a more favoured option in reducing the number of viable bacteria.

 Previously, chlorine had been used although this may lead to additional
environmental problems such as bleaching and direct toxicity to
the flora and fauna in the receiving waters.

Tertiary treatment of sewage is increasingly being adopted in India.

Some of the reuse could be:
 industrial reuse of the reclaimed water in cooling systems, boiler feed, process
water etc.,
 reuse in agriculture, horticulture, watering of lawns, golf courses, and such
purposes,
 ground water recharge for augmenting groundwater resources for downstream
users or for preventing saline water intrusion in coastal areas.
SLUDGE HANDLING AND TREATMENT PROCESS
The term ‘sludge’ has been used to designate the solid by-products from wastewater
treatment.
In the biological treatment processes, part of
the organic matter is absorbed and converted
into microbial biomass, generically called
biological or secondary sludge. This is mainly
composed of biological solids, and for this
reason it is also called a biosolid.
The term ‘biosolids’ is a way of
emphasising its beneficial aspects, giving more
value to productive uses, in comparison with
the mere non-productive final disposal by
means of landfills or incineration.
Although the sludge represents only
1% to 2% of the treated wastewater volume, its
management is highly complex and has a cost
usually ranging from 20% to 60% of the total
operating costs of the wastewater treatment
plant.
Besides its economic importance, the final sludge destination is a complex operation,
because it is frequently undertaken outside the boundaries of the treatment plant.
Sludge stabilisation
Sewage sludge in its natural state (raw sludge) is rich in pathogenic
organisms, easily putrescible and rapidly developing unpleasant smells. Stabilisation
processes were developed with the purpose of stabilising the biodegradable fraction of
organic matter present in the sludge, thus reducing the risk of putrefaction as well as
diminishing the concentration of pathogens.
The stabilisation processes can be divided into:
• biological stabilisation: specific bacteria promote the stabilisation of the biodegra-
dable fraction of the organic matter.
• chemical stabilisation: chemical oxidation of the organic matter accomplishes
sludge stabilisation.
• thermal stabilisation: heat stabilises the volatile fraction of sludge in hermetically
sealed containers.

The mesophilic anaerobic digestion is the main sludge stabilisation process used
worldwide. Aerobic digestion of sewage sludge is less popular than anaerobic digestion.

Composting is common in municipal solid waste processing plants, and is also used by a
limited number of small wastewater treatment plants.
 Table : Sludge stabilisation technologies and final disposal methods

Treatment process Final disposal method or use

Aerobic/anaerobic digestion Biosolid suitable for restricted use in agriculture as
soil conditioner and organic fertiliser. Usually
followed by dewatering, requires further treatment
(disinfection) for unrestricted uses in agriculture.

Chemical treatment (alkaline Used in agriculture or as daily landfill covering.

stabilisation)
Composting Topsoil like material suitable for nurseries,
horticulture and landscaping. Uses dewatered
sludge
Thermal drying Product with high solids content, substantial
(pelletisation) concentration of nitrogen and free from pathogens.
Unrestricted use in agriculture

Table shows stabilisation processes and associated sludge final disposal methods,
including uses as soil conditioner or organic amendment for fields and crops.
The degree of sludge stabilisation depends upon the wastewater treatment process
adopted.
Sludge thickening and dewatering
The removal of the water content is a fundamental unit operation for the
reduction of the sludge volume to be treated or disposed of. Water removal takes
place in two different stages of the sludge processing phase:
• thickening
• dewatering

Sludge thickening is mainly used in primary treatment, activated sludge and

trickling filter processes, having large implications on the design and operation of
sludge digesters. Sludge dewatering, carried out in digested sludge, impacts sludge
transportation and final disposal costs. In both cases, water removal influence sludge
processing, since the mechanical behaviour of sludge depends upon its solids
content.
The main reasons for sludge dewatering are:
• reduction of transportation costs to the final disposal site
• improvement in the sludge handling conditions, since the dewatered sludge is more
easily conveyed
• increase in the sludge heating capacity through the reduction of the water prior to
incineration
• reduction of volume aiming landfill disposal or land application
• reduction of leachate production when landfill disposal is practised
Intermolecular forces of different types are responsible for water bonding to
sludge solids. Four distinct classes may be listed, according to the ease of
separation:
• free water
• adsorbed water
• capillary water
• cellular water
 The removal of free water is accomplished in a consistent way by simple
gravitational action or flotation.

 Adsorbed water and capillary water demand considerably larger forces to be

separated from the solids in sludge. These forces may be either chemical, when
flocculants are used, or mechanical, when mechanical dewatering processes such
as filter presses or centrifuges are employed. Solids contents higher than 30% may
be obtained, resulting in a final product known as cake.

 Cellular water is part of the solid phase and can only be removed through thermal
forces that lead to a change in the state of aggregation of the water. Freezing and
mainly evaporation are two different possibilities for cellular water separation.
Pathogen removal from sludge
Pathogenic organisms are sludge constituents that cause most concern in
its processing and final disposal. Bacteria, viruses, protozoan cysts and intestinal
parasites eggs are present in sewage sludges, and a significant part of them are
disease-causing agents.

The degree of sludge pathogenicity can be substantially reduced through

stabilisation processes, such as aerobic or anaerobic digestion. However, many
intestinal parasites, and mainly their eggs, are scarcely affected by conventional
stabilisation processes, needing a complementary stage or even further stabilisation
to achieve complete inactivation. These processes are known as PFRP (Processes to
Further Reduce Pathogens).

A hygienically safe sludge through this mechanism follows the steps shown
below:
 Raise the sludge pH to values higher than 12 for at least 72 hours
 Maintain the sludge temperature higher than 52 ◦C for at least 12 hours, while pH
is higher than 12
 Allow open air drying until reaching 50% solids concentration, after the pH-rising
period.
Sludge transformation and disposal methods

The common transformation and disposal methods are:

Thermal drying: Thermal drying is a highly flexible process, easily adapted to

produce pellets for agricultural reuse, sanitary landfills disposal or incineration. The
process applies heat to evaporate sludge moisture. The produced pellets can be
used as fuel for boilers, industrial heaters, cement kilns and others.

Wet Air Oxidation: The process is based on the capability of dissolved or particulate
organic matter present in a liquid to be oxidised at temperatures in the range of 100
◦C–374 ◦C (water critical point). The process is highly efficient in organic matter
destruction of effluents in the 1%–20% solids concentration range, allowing enough
organic matter to increase the reactor internal temperature through heat
generation without external energy supply.

Incineration : Incineration is the sludge stabilisation process which provides the

greatest volume reduction. The residual ashes volume is usually less than 4% of the
dewatered sludge volume fed to incineration. Sludge incineration destroys organic
substances and pathogenic organisms through combustion obtained in the
presence of excess oxygen.