Chemistry Investigatory

Project

* Discoveries in the field of Chemistry *

By - Atulika Bajpai
Class: XI E
Roll No: 11
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to

my teacher, Mrs. Damini Raut, who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic,
Discoveries in the field of science, which helped me in
doing research and coming to know about new things. I
am really grateful to them.

Secondly, I would also like to thank my parents and

friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this project
within the limited time frame.
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Atulika Bajpai of class XI E of roll

no: 11 has successfully completed the chemistry project
on Discoveries in the field of chemistry under the
guidance of Mrs. Damini… ma’am all in accordance with
the rules and regulations given by Central Board Of
Secondary Examination year 2021-2022.

Examiner
 CONTENTS

Serial No: Topic Page no:

1. Atom 01
2. Electron 02
3. Proton 03
4. Neutron 04
5. Alpha Rays 05
6. Bibliography 07
 1. Atom
Atomic theory is a scientific description of the nature
of atoms and matter that combines elements of physics,
chemistry, and mathematics. According to modern
theory, matter is made of tiny particles called atoms,
which are in turn made up of subatomic particles. Atoms
of a given element are identical in many respects and
different from atoms of other elements. Atoms combine
in fixed proportions with other atoms to
form molecules and compounds.
The theory has evolved over time, from the philosophy
of atomism to modern quantum mechanics. Here's a
brief history of atomic theory:
Atomic theory originated as a philosophical concept in
ancient India and Greece. The word "atom" comes from
the ancient Greek word atomos, which means
indivisible. According to atomism, matter consists of
discrete particles. However, the theory was one of many
explanations for matter and wasn't based on empirical
data. In the fifth century BCE, Democritus proposed that
matter consists of indestructible, indivisible units called
atoms. The Roman poet Lucretius recorded the idea, so
it survived through the Dark Ages for later
consideration.
 2. Electron
Electrons are the subatomic particle that remains
outside the nucleus. It is bound by the electromagnetic
force of attraction. Despite the huge distance between an
electron and a nucleus, the strong force keeps it in its
orbit. Sir William Crookes was the one who discovered
electrons in the year 1885.

He conducted many experiments by heating metallic

electrodes in a vacuum. He was conducting experiments
to check the behavioural features of metals when heated
in a vacuum. The glass tube in which he was heating the
electrodes was partially evacuated. When a source of
high-voltage was connected to the electrodes, a stream
of highly-energized particles was observed emerging
from the negative electrode or cathode to the positive
electrode of the anode. Crooks also saw that these
particles travelled in a straight line when there is no
influence of an external electric or magnetic field. A set
of features of these particles was then concluded by the
further experiments done by the other scientists. Sir J. J.
Thompson, who invented electrons, was an eminent
physicist who added to the physical features of electrons.

Crooks, who discovered electrons, and other scientists

concluded that these are very small particles that
possess very tiny mass and kinetic energy, travel very
fast in a straight line, and are negatively charged. They
also measured the charge to mass ratio (e/m) and found
that they are always the same.
 3. Proton
Eugen Goldstein, the one who discovered protons, was
experimenting with a perforated cathode (negative
electrode). The electrodes were fit into a glass tube
containing air, but the pressure is extremely low. He
experimented in 1886. During this time, the electron
was not discovered and identified. He passed high
voltage across the electrodes. He observed a red glow
behind the cathode in that tube. This ray was formed in
the opposite direction of the electrons flowing forming
cathode rays. Hence, the proton was discovered by
Goldstein accidentally.

The same experiment was then conducted on anodes

resulting in the flow of another ray. This time, the
particles had a significant mass but travelled straight
when there was no electrical or magnetic field around.
The formation of these subatomic particles in the ray has
been properly explained. If you read it carefully, you will
find who discovered protons and how the features of this
subatomic particle have been concluded.

These particles are much heavier than electrons. The

charge to mass ratio (e/m) was always the same even if
different metals were used to conduct the same
experiment. On proceeding further, Rutherford was
capable of proving that the hydrogen ion (H +), the
resultant of a hydrogen atom losing an electron, had the
same properties as that of the positive particles flowing
forming rays in 1919.
 4. Neutron
James Chadwick, after the end of World War I, returned
to England to his mentor Ernest Rutherford. He
completed his Ph.D. under Rutherford’s supervision and
concentrated his experiments on radioactive decay. Even
though Rutherford found protons in an atom, Chadwick
found that it was not the only subatomic particle
residing inside the nucleus of an atom.

He then conducted his experiments on atomic

disintegrations and found that the atomic number of
Helium is 2 but its mass number is 4. After carrying on
many other experiments, he concluded that only protons
can hold two electrons in a Helium atom. Hence, the
other subatomic particles, that have the same mass as a
proton, did not carry a charge. These particles were
neutral but had mass. In 1935, he discovered the
presence of neutrons and received the Nobel Prize.
 5. Alpha Rays
Radiation is one of the forms of energy that occurs when
an unstable parent nucleus undergoes radioactive decay.
Radiations travel a certain distance from their source in
the form of energized waves/particles.
Alpha particles were named after the Greek alphabet ‘α’.
The symbol for the alpha particle is α or α²⁺. As these
particles are congruent to Helium nuclei. That’s why
alpha particles can be written as He²⁺ or 24He indicating
a Helium ion with a +2 charge (lacking two electrons). 
Alpha particles are known as α-rays or alpha radiation;
these particles comprise two protons and two neutrons
bound together into a particle isotropic to Helium-4
nuclei. These particles are developed during the α-decay
process.
Characteristics of Alpha Particle
Parameter Value
Charge of alpha particle +2
Spin 0
Alpha Particle Mass
Mass of alpha particle in 3.727379378(23) GeV/c²
GeV/c²
Mass of alpha particle in kg 6.644657230(82) х
10⁻²⁷kg 
Mass of alpha particle in 4.001506179127(63) u
amu
Composition Two Protons
Two Neutrons
Activeness Highly active & energetic
Penetration Power Low
Ionization Power Highest
Speed In the order of 10⁷ m/s.
 Bibliography
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Alpha_particle
 https://www.electronjs.org/
 https://www.arpansa.gov.au/
understanding-radiation/what-is-radiation/
ionising-radiation/alpha-particles
 https://protonvpn.com/
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/
engineering/neutrons
 https://www.isis.stfc.ac.uk/Pages/What-is-
a-neutron-About.aspx