PHYSICAL SCIENCE REVIEWER

© angelica garcia

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Naming Ternary Compounds
1. Acid (oxy-acid)
- central element + -ous (lower no. of O atoms)
- central element + -ic (higher no. of O atoms)
- Examples:
a. HNO2 – nitrous acid (nitrite NO2-) f. H3PO4 – phosphoric acid
b. HNO3 – nitric acid (nitrate NO3-) (phosphate PO4-3)
c. H2SO3 – sulfurous acid (sulfite SO3- g. HClO2 – chlorous acid
2) h. HClO3 – chloric acid
d. H2SO4 – sulfuric acid (sulfate SO4-2) i. HBrO2 – bromous acid
e. H3PO3 – phosphorous acid j. HBrO3 – bromic acid
(phosphite PO3 ) -3 k. HIO2 – iodous acid
l. HIO3 – iodic acid

2. Bases (Hydroxides)
- NaOH – sodium hydroxide
- Fe(OH)3 – Iron (III) hydroxide
- Sn(OH)4 – Tin (IV) hydroxide

3. Salts (of oxy-acids resulting from metal replacement)

- HNO3 + Na+ → NaNO3 + H+ (Nitric Acid  Sodium Nitrate)
- HNO2 + Na+ → NaNO2 + H+ (Nitrous Acid  Sodium Nitrite)
- See the list of common ions:

Physical Change vs Chemical Change

PHYSICAL CHEMICAL
 Rearranges molecules but doesn’t affect  Results in the formation of new chemical
their internal structures. substances
 The matter is the same.  Involves making or breaking bonds
  The original matter can be recovered.
 Ex. Ice melting
 Although some extensive properties (like
shape, phase, etc.) of the material
change, the material itself is the same
before and after the change. The change
can be “undone.”
between atoms
 The matter is different
 The old matter is no longer present. The
original matter cannot be recovered.
 Ex. Nail rusting
 The substances present at the beginning
of the change are not present at the end;
new substances are formed. The change
cannot be “undone."

Chemical Reaction
1. Combination Reaction
- aka synthesis reaction
- 2 or more substances combine to form a new compound
- A+B  AB
- Ex: 2Na + Cl2  NaCl (table salt)

2. Decomposition Reaction
- Breaking down of a single compound to produce 2 or more simpler substances
- Opposite of synthesis reactions
- BC  B + C
- Ex: 2H2O → 2H2 + O2 (Subjected to electricity: electrolysis)

3. Single Replacement Reaction

- aka substitution reaction
- 1 element replaces another element in a compound
- Many take place in aqueous solution
- AB + C  A + BC
- Ex: 2KBr + Cl → 2KCl + Br2

4. Double Replacement Reaction

- aka metathesis or double decomposition reaction
- Ions of 2 compounds exchange places in an aqueous solution, forming 2 new compounds
- Products: a precipitate and a soluble compound
- AB + CD  CB + AD
- Ex: AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3

5. Combustion Reaction
- C and H reacts with O2 → water vapor, CO2 and heat
- CmHn + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Balancing Chemical Equations

 In most cases, it is advisable to start the balancing with the
element having the largest number of atoms
 Usage of least common multiple
 If an element appears in more than one substance on a
side of the equation, it is in most cases advisable to make
an odd number of atoms even by multiplying this number
by 2
Mole Concept (Avogadro’s Number)
 The mole as a unit in chemistry serves as a bridge between the atomic and microscopic worlds
 In Latin, mole means “huge pile”
 Mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in 12
grams of carbon-12
 1 mole = 6.02x1023 (Atoms, formula units, molecules, or ions)
 Avogadro’s number
 Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu)
 The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C.
 1 mol= NA= 6.0221367 x 1023 (where NA is the Avogadro’s number)
 Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of a substance in grams

Molar Mass vs Formula Mass

Molar Mass Formula Mass
 Is the sum of the atomic masses (in amu) in a  is the sum of the atomic masses (in amu) in a
covalent molecule. formula unit of an ionic compound.

MOLECULAR OF FORMULA MASS = MOLAR MASS

1 molecule SO2= 64.07 amu 1 formula unit NaCl= 58.44 amu
1 mole SO2= 64.07 g SO2 1 mole NaCl= 58.44 g NaCl

Map of Conversion of Units

Practice Problems
1. Calculate the number of iron atoms in a 4.48 mole sample of iron.
2. How many atoms are in 0.551 g of potassium (K)?
3. Calculate the mass of sample copper if it contains 4.5 x 1022Cu atoms.

STOICHIOMETRY
 The area of chemistry that deals with the quantitative relationships
between reactants and products.
 The chemical equation must be balanced
 The coefficient represents the number of moles of the reactant or product.

Mole Ratio
 A ratio between the moles of any two substances involved in a chemical
reaction.
 The coefficients used in mole ratio expressions are derived from the
coefficients used in the balanced equation.
Map of Stoichiometry

Steps
1. Balance the equation.
2. Assess what is given and what is unknown.
3. Solve the unknown by following the map.

Kinds of Equations
1. Mole to Mole 3. Mass to Mole
2. Mole to Mass 4. Mass to Mass

Sample Problems
1. Mole to Mole

2. Mole to Mass
 3. Mass to Mole

4. Mass to Mass

Collision Theory
 Reactant particles require sufficient kinetic energy to initiate successful collisions that will lead to
formation of products
 Activation energy (EA) is the minimum energy required to initiate reaction

Factors Affecting Reaction Rates

 Reaction Rate – Speed by which reactants are converted to products
1. Effect of Concentration
- ↑ concentration, ↑ collisions, ↑ reaction rate
- Gas: ↑ pressure ↓ volume ↑ collision
2. Effect of Particle Size
- Reactants with same phase (liquid-liquid) or (gas-gas) = easily collide and react
- Solid –gas/liquid = ↓ particle size of solid, ↑ surface area, ↑reaction rate
3. Effects of Temperature
- ↑ temperature, ↑ kinetic energy, ↑ collisions
4. Effect of Catalyst
- Biological systems – enzymes (catalyst) = Substances that hasten
reaction without themselves being consumed in the reaction

Energy in Chemical Reactions

Exothermic Reactions
 releases more energy than it absorbs
 Bond energy – energy associated with bond breaking or formation
 Products have lower bond energy than the reactants
 Excess energy is often given off as heat or light
 Ex: Fireflies, squid give off light, Space shuttle taking off, cellular respiration (glucose and oxygen =
energy)
 Reactants → products + energy

Endothermic Reactions
 Absorbs more energy than it releases
 Products have higher bond energy than reactants
 Energy must be absorbed to make up for this energy difference
 Ex. Photosynthesis (energy from sun → carbohydrates)
 Reactants + energy → products

ASTRONOMY
 Greek Two-Domain View: Celestial and Terrain Domain
 Celestial – everything on the heavens
 Terrain – everything on land/earth

The Aryuvedic Five Elements

 Aristotle
 The heavy elements naturally move down toward the center of the cosmos (which is earth),
and the lighter elements naturally move up
 Fire, Water, Air, Earth, Ether
 According to Aristotle, terrestrial motion happens in straight lines. (Rock = Earth; Fire = Air)

DOMAIN ELEMENT MOTION

Terrestrial Fire Alteration (may ginawa)
Air Natural (walang ginagawa)
Water Violent (w/ too much force/pressure)
Earth
Celestial Ether Perfect Motion: circular and
constant speed

Earth’s Motion
 Celestial Sphere
 A projection of latitude and longitude onto the sky.
 The Celestial Sphere is a directional system for a “sky
globe”
 Earth is titled because of an ecliptic
 Motions:
1. Rotation
 Earth’s axis titled at 23.5º
 24 hours  day to night
 Westward motion
2. Diurnal Motion
 Diurnal motion is the daily motion of stars and other celestial bodies across the sky.
 This motion is due to the Earth’s rotation from west to east, which causes celestial bodies
to have an apparent motion from east to west.
3. Revolution
 365 days  1year
 4. Annual Motion
 The Ecliptic is the apparent path of the Sun relative to the stars.
 As the Sun moves along the Ecliptic as seen from Earth, it passes through 12 ancient
constellations known as the Zodiac.
 The Equinoxes:
 In March and September
 Axis is at right angles to the Earth-Sun line
 The sun is seen on the celestial equator
 Day and night are of equal length
a. Vernal Equinox
 Occurs around March 21
 Northern Spring and Southern Autumn
b. Autumnal Equinox
 Occurs around September 21
 Northern Autumn and Southern Spring
 The Solstices (Day and Night are of different lengths)
a. Summer Solstice
 Occurs in June
 The Sun rises in the Northeast, and sets in the Northwest
 Day is longer than Night in the Northern Hemisphere
 Day is shorter than Night in the Southern Hemisphere
b. Winter Solstice
 Occurs in December
 The Sun rises in the Southeast, and sets in the Southwest
 Day is shorter than Night in the Northern Hemisphere
 Day is longer than Night in the Southern Hemisphere
5. Earth’s Precession (Precession of the Equinoxes)
 Slow westward drift of the rotation axis
 Takes ~26,000 years to complete 1 circuit
 Amounts to ~50"/year, or 1 degree in 72 years.

Ancient Greeks and Astronomy

1. Pythagoras – started the idea of the spherical Earth
2. Plato – educated his students about sphericity of Earth but made no justification
3. Aristotle – noted that there were stars in Egypt that could not be seen on other parts of the
earth
4. Eratosthenes – Estimated the circumference of Earth

Models of the Universe

1. Eudoxus’ Model (Homocentric)
- Celestial spheres share one common center-earth
- 1st model of geocentric model
- Made up of 27 spheres and 5 planets

2. Aristotle’s Model (Geocentric)

- Proved that the earth is spherical
 - Believed that the is fixed earth at the center of the solar system and that everything
revolves around it
- Believed that all stars are fixed points which rotate on a single celestial sphere
- It has 56 spheres
- Prime mover – drives the motion of the planets

3. Aristarchus’ Model (Heliocentric)

- 1st to place the sun at the center of the universe
- The sun and the stars are fixed
- The earth is revolving around the sun in a circular orbit

4. Ptolemy’s Model (Geocentric)

- Shows the deferent (circular path in which planets moves)and epicycle (circles where
planets move)
- Proposed the equant (a point close to the orbit’s center)

5. Copernicus’ Model (Heliocentric)

- Celestial motions are uniform, infinite and circular
- Planets revolved around the sun
- Earths motion explains the retrograde motion of the other planets
- Earths spins on a tilted axis, which accounts for the seasons

6. Tycho’s Model (GeoHeliocentric)

- Brahe plotted all his observations of the heavens using instruments of his own design.
- He was extremely thorough, so the predictions he made were much more accurate than
many other methods.
- His model of the universe was both helio and geo centric, with the planets revolving
around the sun, and the sun revolving around the earth.
- In his studies of the heavens, he witnessed and record two supernovae, which opposed
Ptolemy’s idea that the stars were unchanging.

7. Kepler’s Model (Heliocentric)

- Planetary orbits were based on geometric shapes (ellipse).
- He said that the planets movements around the sun were elliptical though. He also
believed that the closer the planets were to the sun, the faster they orbited.
- Able to predict motions of the universe fairly accurately.

Ptolemaic, Copernican, and Tychonic Models of the Universe

Galileo’s Astronomical Observations
 made possible through the creation of a telescope

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

1. Ellipses
- The orbit of a planet is an ellipse, with the sun at one focus.
- Perihelion (point nearest to the sun), Aphelion (point farthest to the sun)

2. Equal Areas
- Planets travels equal areas of space in equal periods of time.
- Planets travel faster during perihelion, travel slower during aphelion
- Angular momentum: measure of rotational motion. (Angular momentum of the Sun and a
planet is constant)

3. Harmonies
- The larger the planet’s orbit, the longer the revolution.
- The square of the revolutions of the planet are directly
proportional to the cubes of their average distances.
𝑃12 𝑅13
( = )
𝑃22 𝑅23

KINEMATICS
 Describes motion in terms of displacement, velocity and acceleration
 Dynamics – relates force and motion
 Translation – motion in straight line

Two Quantities
1. Scalars – quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (numerical value and units).
 Distance, Speed, Acceleration
 2. Vectors – quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
 Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration

Parameter Symbol Units

Position or Displacement x m
Speed or Velocity v m/s
Acceleration a m/s2
Time t s

Distance vs Displacement
DISTANCE DISPLACEMENT
 "How much ground an object has  how far out of place an object is
covered" during its motion.  where you are in relation to where you
 How far you have traveled, regardless of started
direction

SI Unit of Distance and Displacement = meter (m)

Sample Problems
1. Starting from origin, a person walks 90-m east, then turns
around and walks 40-m west.
a. What is the total walked distance? 130m
b. What is the displacement? 50m, due east

2. A student walks 4 meters east, 2 meters south, 4 meters

west, and 2 meters north.
a. What is the total distance? 12m
b. What is the final displacement? 0 displacement

3. The skier moves from A to B to C to D. At each of the indicated times, the skier turns around
and reverses the direction of travel.

a. What is the total distance? 420m

b. What is the final displacement? 140m,
rightward

4. Mica walks 16km to the north, 12km back to the east and 15km to the west.
a. Determine the distance which Mica moved. 43km
b. Determine Mica’s displacement. 16km, N

Vector Addition
 The sum of two or more vectors is represented by a single vector called the resultant
 There are a variety of methods for determining the magnitude and direction of the result of
adding two or more vectors.
a. Head-to-tail method using a scaled vector diagram
 b. Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric methods
 The Pythagorean theorem is a useful method for determining the result of adding two vectors
that make a right angle to each other.
 A mathematical equation that relates the length of the sides of a right triangle to the length
of the hypotenuse of a right triangle.

Sample Problems
1. A plane flying due north at 100m/s is blown by a 500m/s strong wind due east. What is the
plane’s resultant velocity?

Using Trigonometry to Determine a Vector’s Direction

 The direction of a resultant vector can often be determined by use of trigonometric functions:

 The cosine function relates the measure of an acute angle to the ratio of the
length of the side adjacent the angle to the length of the hypotenuse.
 The tangent function relates the measure of an angle to the ratio of the length
of the side opposite the angle to the length of the side adjacent to the angle.

Sample Problem
Speed vs Velocity
SPEED VELOCITY
 "how fast an object is moving.“  “how fast and which way; the rate at
 rate at which an object covers distance. which position changes”
 rate at which an object changes its
position."
SI Unit of Speed and Velocity = meters (m)/seconds (s) [m/s]

Concepts
 A fast-moving object has a high speed and covers a relatively large distance in a short
amount of time.
 A slow-moving object that has a low speed; it covers a relatively small amount of distance in
the same amount of time.
 An object with no movement at all has a zero speed.

Instantaneous Speed/Velocity
 The speed or velocity at any given instant in time.

Average Speed/Velocity
 The average of all instantaneous speeds; found simply by a distance/time ratio.
 Measure of the distance traveled in a given period of time

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒅
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍

∆𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

Sample Problems
1. In a drag race competition, John completes the 402.25m dragster race in a record time of
4.437s. Determine the speed of John’s car.
a. Given – d = 402.25m ; t = 4.437s
b. Formula – speed = distance/time
c. Solution – speed = 402.25m/4.437s
d. Answer – 90.658m/s
2. PNR travels forward along a straight track at 60 m/s for 2,500 m and then travels at 100.0 m/s
for the next 2,500 m. What is the average velocity?

Acceleration
 Acceleration refers to the change in velocity of a moving object per unit of time.
 The change in velocity may be achieved in three ways:
a. Change in speed
b. Change in direction
c. Change in both speed and direction
 A body is said to be “accelerating” when:
a. moving at changing speed but same direction
b. moving at constant speed but changing direction
 c. moving at changing speed and direction
 Formula:
𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒕

Negative Acceleration
 A negative acceleration does not necessarily mean the object is slowing down
 “Deceleration” means a decrease in speed, not a negative acceleration

Sample Problems
1. The Lamborghini can accelerate from 0 to 27.8 m/s in a time of 3.40 seconds. Determine the
acceleration of this car.

2. Homer leads the Varsity team in home runs. In a recent game, Homer hit a 90km/hr curve ball
head on, sending it off his bat in the exact opposite direction at 134km/hr. The contact
between ball and bat lasted for 0.75hr. Determine the acceleration of the ball during the
contact with the bat.

Free Fall
 Freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity alone
 Free fall does not depend on the object’s original motion
 All objects falling near the earth’s surface fall with a constant acceleration
 The acceleration is called the acceleration due to gravity, and indicated by g

Acceleration due to Gravity

 Symbolized by g
 G = 9.80 m/s²
 When estimating, use g ≈ 10 m/s2
 g is always directed downward toward the center of the earth
 Ignoring air resistance and assuming g doesn’t vary with altitude over short vertical distances,
free fall is constantly accelerated motion

Displacement Formula
𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑽𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
Sample Problems
1. A ball is thrown down with an initial velocity of 20 m/s from the rooftop. What is the ball's
displacement after 5.0 s? (Acceleration due to gravity is 9.80 m/s2.)

Position Time Graph

POSITION DESCRIPTION

Time is increasing, distance is constant

Speed = 0

Time is increasing, distance is increasing

Speed = CONSTANT

Steeper line indicates larger distance covered

GREATER SPEED/“FASTER”

Speed is increasing, change in speed is constant

OBJECT IS ACCELERATING
(if the object changes speed, the graph is
curving upward)

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Motion according to Aristotle and Galileo
Aristotle Galileo
Vertical Motion  Any object not in its natural  Any two objects that are
place will strive to get there. dropped together will fall
 Objects fall at a rate together regardless of their
proportional to their weight. weight if air resistance is
 Heavier weights fall much negligible.
faster than lighter objects.  Object falls at the same rate
Horizontal Motion  Force is needed to start and  Force is not needed to sustain
sustain the motion of an motion of an object.
object  Force is required to change
motion. (to accelerate)
Projectile Motion  A force is needed to start an  A projectile is influenced by
 object to move through air vertical motion due to the
until its natural motion force of gravity and horizontal
eventually brings it to Earth. motion that is uniform.

Sir Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)

 Only 25 when he formulated most of his discoveries in math and physics.
 His book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy is considered to be the most important
publication in the history of Physics.

Law #1: Law of Inertia

Law of Inertia states than an object remains at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted
on by an external unbalanced force.

 Inertia – the natural tendency of an object to remain in a state of rest or in uniform motion in a
straight line (first introduced by Galileo).
 Mass – quantitative measure of inertia of a body
 Force – action exerted upon by a body that changes its state, either at rest or of uniform
motion along a straight line. In Newton’s 1st law, the force is unbalanced.
 Therefore: The larger the mass of a body, the more difficult to change its state of motion.
 Balanced (equal) forces, therefore no motion.
 Unbalanced forces result in motion
 A spacecraft keeps going because no forces act to stop it
 A large rock stays put until/if a large enough force acts on it.
 Because of the relationship between motion and inertia:
 Newton’s First Law of Motion is sometimes called the Law of Inertia.
 Seatbelts help ‘correct’ for this law during sudden changes in speed.
 Remember: The greater the mass of an object the greater the inertia

Law #2: Law of Acceleration

Law of Acceleration states that, the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force
acting on the body and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.

 Gravity: the force that pulls objects towards each other

 Since gravity is a force it also obeys Newton’s second law
 Since objects fall at the same speed, their acceleration is the same.
 All objects accelerate at the rate. Here on Earth the rate is: Ag=9.8 m/s2 or Ag=32 ft/s2
 Air resistance keeps things from falling equally
 Newton’s second law deals with the effect of net force on the change in velocity or
acceleration.
 Therefore: the greater the force the greater the
acceleration; the greater the mass of an object the
smaller the acceleration
 Force, Mass, Acceleration
𝐹
- Original Situation: 𝑎 =
𝑚
- If we double the force, we double the acceleration.
- If we double the mass, we half the acceleration.
 F = ma
- “F” is the net force (unbalanced), which is likely the vector sum of two or more forces.
 - “m” & “a” are concerning the whole system
- Units
a. Force = mass x acceleration = kg x m/s2 = N
 N = kg-m/s2 = newton -- this is a derived unit and is the metric system (SI) unit of force

Law #3: Law of Interaction

Law of Interaction states that, whenever on object exerts a force on a second object, the second
object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first object.

 For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

 Action = opposite reaction
 F1 = -F2 or m1a1 = -m2a2