Determination of Optimal Size and Depth of Discharge

for Battery Energy Storage in Standalone Microgrids

Ibrahim Alsaidan, Amin Khodaei, Wenzhong Gao
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Denver,
Denver, CO, United States

Abstract— Battery energy storage (BES) has a critical role in T BES lifetime.
standalone microgrids to improve reliability and reduce v Value of lost load.
operation costs. Two major factors affecting the economic ߟ BES round trip efficiency.
viability of integrating a BES to a microgrid are its investment
Į BES charging/discharging period.
cost and lifetime. The BES investment cost greatly depends on
its size, while the BES lifetime, which can be defined as the total Variables:
number of charge/discharge cycles that it can perform, depends C Stored energy in the BES at each interval.
on how deep the battery is discharged each time. Therefore, it is CR BES rated energy.
imperative to determine both the BES optimal size and depth of PR BES rated power.
discharge when integrating BES to a microgrid. This paper D BES depth of discharge.
presents a standalone microgrid expansion model with the N BES number of cycles.
ability of determining the optimal BES that minimize the LS Load curtailment.
microgrid expansion cost. The BES long-term investment and I State of dispatchable DG (1 if committed, 0
short-term operation models, as well as complicated constraints
otherwise).
relating the charge/discharge schedules to the BES lifetime, are
further developed and formulated. A mixed integer P DER output power.
programming approach is used to formulate the microgrid R DER available online reserve.
expansion problem. Numerical simulations on a test standalone u BES operating state (1 if discharging, 0
microgrid are performed to validate the proposed models. otherwise).
ȟ A variable that represents the performed
Index Terms—Battery energy storage, expansion planning, BES cycle (1 if BES cycle is completed, 0
microgrid, renewable generation, sizing. otherwise)
w Binary variable that represents the chosen
NOMENCLATURE value of the BES depth of discharge (1 if
Indices: chosen, 0 otherwise).
ch Superscript for BES charging.
dch Superscript for BES discharging. I. INTRODUCTION

S
d Index for day. TANDALONE microgrids, consisting of dispatchable
h Index for hour. diesel generators and non dispatchable renewable
i Index for distributed energy resources. distributed generators (DGs), are considered as faster and
m Index for considered depth of discharge
cheaper alternatives for supplying electricity to remote areas
values.
than upgrading the existing utility grid infrastructure. Since
Sets:
the utility grid connection is not available on this type of the
S Set of BES units.
G Set of dispatchable DGs. microgrid, any mismatch between demand and generation
W Set of renewable DGs. causes voltage and frequency deviations, which needs to be
Parameters: quickly addressed or otherwise may result in system collapse
B Investment budget. [1]-[3]. To maintain the system frequency within allowable
CE Annualized energy rating cost. limits, a load curtailment must take place when the generation
CP Annualized power rating cost. is lower than the microgrid load and not able to fully supply
CL Critical load demand. it. If the microgrid generation is higher than its load due to
L Load demand. high renewable generation, the frequency is stabilized by

978-1-5090-3270-9/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE

curtailing renewable generation [4]. In both cases the
microgrid economy and reliability are affected. Another
potential solution to the demand/supply balance issue in
standalone microgrids is to utilize battery energy storage
(BES) [5]. The BES stores energy at off-peak hours and
discharges its stored energy when it is most needed. As a
result, the microgrid operation cost will be reduced and its
reliability will be improved. However, the high investment
cost associated with the BES installation limits its application
in microgrids. This cost is mainly related to the BES size [6].
For this reason, it is imperative to determine the optimal size
of the integrated BES in order to gain the desired economical
and reliability benefits [7]. It is also equally important to take
the BES aging factors into consideration when calculating its
optimal size. The main factors that impact the BES lifetime
are the number of charging/discharging cycles and the depth
of discharge [8]. There is a relationship between the BES
depth of discharge and the cycles that the BES can last before
it reaches the end of its lifetime. This relationship, which is
different from one BES technology to another, can be
provided by the manufacturers. In general, it can be said that
as the depth of discharge increases the number of remaining
BES cycles decreases [9].
The subject of BES sizing in standalone microgrids has
been addressed in [10]-[16]. The impact of different energy
storage sizes and technologies including BES on the cost of
energy for a microgrid incorporating wind and diesel
generator is investigated in [10]. In [11] the microgrid
performance indices, namely frequency deviation and CO2
emission, are measured for different BES sizes. An expansion
model that determines both the BES optimal size and
technology for a standalone microgrid is presented in [12].
The design of a hybrid energy storage system consisting of a
BES and a supercapacitor is presented in [13]. Although
being efficient, these models do not consider the effect of
BES cycles and depth of discharge on the BES lifetime,
which could result in the need for replacing the BES before it
reaches the end of the planning horizon. In [14] a duty cycle
based method is used to size a BES in a standalone microgrid.
The authors introduce an aging factor to the sizing problem
based on a mathematical equation that represents the
relationship between the battery depth of discharge and life
cycle. This equation, however, requires specific parameters
for each battery technology, which is hard to be determined.
Moreover, the proposed sizing method does not yield an
accurate result as the actual operation of the BES is not
determined and only a one-day time frame is considered for
studies. The other important but neglected issue is the optimal
depth of discharge. The relationship between the BES depth
of discharge and lifetime is briefly discussed in [17]-[20].
Diesel Generator
+ -
Battery Energy Storage
Wind Turbine
Residential & Commercial
PV Demand
Figure 1. Standalone microgrid structure.
In this paper a new expansion model that takes the
impact of the BES depth of discharge on its lifetime is
proposed. The model determines the optimal size and depth
of discharge for a BES that is integrated into a standalone
microgrid in order to improve its reliability and reduce its
operation cost. A mixed integer programming (MIP)
approach is used to formulate the problem. The rest of the
paper is organized as follows: Section II introduces and
formulates the proposed microgrid expansion problem.
Numerical studies are presented in Section III to validate the
proposed model. Section IV concludes the paper.
II. PROBLEM FORMULATION
The objective of the proposed microgrid expansion
model is to determine the optimal BES size and depth of
discharge that minimize the microgrid expansion cost (1).
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram for the microgrid
configuration considered in this paper.
[
Min ¦¦¦ Fi ( Pidh ) Iidh + ¦¦ vdh LSdh + ¦ CPi Pi R + CEiCiR ] (1)
i∈G d h d h i∈S
The first term in (1) represents the generation cost of the
diesel generator. It must be noted that the diesel generator
fuel consumption and efficiency are related to the percentage
of the output power to the rated power. It is discussed that
when the diesel generator output power is 25% of its rated
capacity, its fuel consumption efficiency is reduced by 19%
compared to the operation at rated power [21]. Thus, to avoid
running the diesel generator at light load, its rated power is
designed to supply the average load excluding the very short
peak periods. This combined with the stochastic nature of
renewable DGs output power will lead to a potential loss of
load at peak periods. Failing to supply the demand is
normally associated with a penalty cost known as cost of
unserved energy which is represented by the second term in
(1) [22][23]. This cost depends on different factors such as
load type, location, and the duration of the interruption. The
BES integration to the microgrid can reduce the amount of
curtailed load and therefore reduce the cost of unserved
energy as well as improve the microgrid reliability. At the
same time it will impose an investment cost as given in the
third term in (1). The BES investment cost is composed of
power rating cost and energy rating cost. The former cost
includes the BES power rating capital cost and the operation
and maintenance costs, whereas the latter cost includes the
BES energy rating capital cost and the installation cost [24].
These costs are calculated in annual basis to be used in the
microgrid expansion model. The objective function (1) is
subject to operation constraints, diesel generator constraints,
and BES constraints, as discussed in the following:
A) Microgrid Operation Constraints
These constraints are imposed to guarantee an adequate
and reliable microgrid operation at all times. The summation
of the generated power from the diesel generator, renewable
DGs, and the BES (positive when discharging and negative
when charging) at each interval must be equal to the demand
(2). If there is a shortage in generation, microgrids non-
critical load will be partially curtailed otherwise the
frequency of the microgrid will deviate from the allowable
range. The load curtailment limits are represented by (3). It is
assumed that the case of excess generation, due to high
renewable generation, will not occur and therefore there is no
need to add a virtual loads to the model (i.e., to curtail
renewable generation). To ensure supply continuity for
critical loads, an online reserve must be available to
compensate for any sudden change either in the microgrid
generation or demand. There are different methods to
determine the amount of the required online reserve,
however, in this paper a percentage of the critical load at each
interval is considered (4). The diesel generator and the BES
can provide this reserve as given in (5) and (6).
(2)
¦P it
i∈{G ,W , S }
+ LS dh = Ldh ∀d , ∀h
0 ≤ LS dh ≤ (Ldh − CLdh ) ∀d , ∀h (3)
(4)
¦R
i∈{G , S }
idh
t arg et
≥ Rdh ∀d , ∀h
Ridh ≤ Pi max I idh − Pidh ∀i ∈ G, ∀d , ∀h (5)
ch ­C ½ (6)
Ridh ≤ − Pidh + min® idh , Pi R ¾ ∀i ∈ S , ∀d , ∀h
¯ τ ¿
B) Diesel Generator Constraints
Operating the diesel generator under light-load
conditions does not only increase its fuel consumption but it
also increases the risk of its engine failure and may cause a
premature aging. Therefore, a minimum generation capacity
limit must be imposed on the operation of the diesel generator
Pi min ≤ Pidh ≤ Pi max ∀i ∈ G, ∀d , ∀h (7)
C) BES Constraints
The set of constraints that need to be considered when
operating the BES include the power constraints, capacity
constraints, and cycles constraints imposed to prolong BES
lifetime. The BES charge and discharge powers cannot
exceed the determined optimal power rating (8)-(9). The BES
power at each interval is given by (10). The binary variable u
represents the BES operation mode (1 when discharging and
0 when charging). Moreover, it can be used to determine the
number of BES performed cycles over the planning period.
The BES cycle is defined as a single complete charging-
discharging cycle. Based on this definition when the value of
u changes from 1 to 0 and to 1 again, one complete cycle is
performed. The performed BES cycles is computed in (11). In
order to prolong the BES lifetime, a constraint is imposed on
the BES performed cycles (12). The amount of allowable
BES cycles is a function of the considered BES lifetime (T)
and the determined optimal depth of discharge (D).
Increasing either T or D will reduce the number of cycles that
the BES can perform. The relationship between the BES
depth of discharge and number of cycles, which is normally
provided by the BES manufacturer, is used in this paper.
Index m is used to represent the selected segment for the
depth of discharge value in a step-wise depth of discharge
curve. The BES cannot be discharged beyond the
determined optimal depth of discharge value as given in (13).
The binary variable w determines the optimal depth of
discharge value. The summation of w over m must be less
than or equal to 1 to ensure that only one value of the BES
depth of discharge is chosen (14). The BES stored energy at
each interval can be expressed as in (15). The BES must be
fully charged at the end of each day to be ready to perform
the next day cycle (16). The BES optimal power rating is
limited by a maximum value (17) and its energy rating is
determined based on the optimal power rating and continuous
charging/discharging duration (18). The BES investment cost
is limited by the available budget limit (19).
0 ≤ Pidh ≤ Pi Ruidh ∀i ∈ S , ∀d , ∀h (8)
R
− Pi (1 − uidh ) ≤ Pidh ≤ 0 ∀i ∈ S , ∀d , ∀h (9)
Pidh = P + P ch
idh
dch
idh ∀i ∈ S , ∀d , ∀h (10)
ξ idh = (uidh − uid ( h −1) )uidh ∀i ∈ S , ∀d , ∀h (11)
¦¦ξ
d h
idh ≤ N (T , D) ∀i ∈ S (12)

to improve its efficiency and protect it against engine failure

(1 − ¦ Dm wm ) ≤ Cidh ≤ CiR ∀i ∈ S , ∀d , ∀h (13)
and premature aging, as modeled in (7). The binary variable I m
is used to represent the diesel generator state of operation
(i.e., 1 if it is ON, and 0 otherwise). A constraint on the
¦w
m
m ≤1 ∀i ∈ S (14)

amount of emissions can also be imposed on the diesel dch

Pidh τ (15)
Cidh = Cid ( h −1) − ch
− Pidhτ ∀i ∈ S , ∀d , ∀h
generator operation to achieve a certain environmental target. η
Even though this is not considered in this paper, the proposed Cidh = CiR ∀i ∈ S , ∀d , ∀h = 24 (16)
expansion model can be easily modified to include it.
0 ≤ Pi R ≤ Pi max ∀i ∈ S (17)
CiR = Pi Rα i ∀i ∈ S (18)
CPi Pi R + CEi CiR ≤ B ∀i ∈ S (19) 1
Insuffiecient generation area
0

Suffiecient generation area

III. NUMERICAL SIMULATION -1

Power Difference (MW)

-2
A standalone microgrid, as in Figure 1, is used to show the
-3
practicality and the merits of the proposed microgrid
-4
expansion model. The characteristics of the microgrid -5

generation units are given in Table I. The historical data for -6

the microgrid load and renewable generation are obtained -7

from [25] for one year. The microgrid peak load is 8.49 MW. 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time (hour)
6000 7000 8000

A combination of residential and commercial customers is Figure 2. Difference between microgrid load and installed generation
assumed for this microgrid with a value of lost load of capacity.
$30,000/MWh [26]. The critical load is 40% of the microgrid Two cases are studied: in the first case, the microgrid
load at each time interval. The microgrid online reserve must operation without the integration of the lead acid battery is
be greater than or equal to 10% of the critical load to studied; in the second case, the expansion model is applied to
compensate for any sudden decrease in generation or increase determine the optimal size and depth of discharge for the
in demand. Figure 2 shows the difference between the installed lead acid battery that yields the minimum expansion
microgrid load and available generation taking into account cost. This case is solved for various BES life time scenarios.
the required online reserve. A negative difference means that The obtained results for each case are discussed below:
the microgrid has sufficient generation to meet the load and
the required online reserve. On the other hand, the positive Case 1: The microgrid load is supplied by the diesel
values represent the unserved load due to the shortage in the generator and renewable DGs. It can be seen from Fig. 2 that
available generation. According to [10], lead acid battery is the microgrid load is higher than the installed generation
found to be one of the best BES technologies for standalone capacity during the peak periods, which occurs rarely during
microgrid applications. Lead acid battery is known to have a the year. As mentioned before, the diesel generator fuel
low investment cost as well as a low life cycle. Thus, it is consumption and efficiency depend on the diesel generator
very important to optimize the battery depth of discharge output power compared to its rated power and therefore it is
which in turn impacts the number of cycles before the battery not economically and technically advisable to oversize the
reaches its end of life time. Even though lead acid battery is diesel engine only to supply those rarely occurred demands.
used in this simulation, the proposed model can be applied to The unserved demand in this case is found to be 23.4
any other battery technology without loss of generality. Table MWh/year. The computed costs associated with this case are
II provides the annualized costs associated with purchasing given in Table IV.
and installing the lead acid battery in the microgrid for TABE II
different BES life times [24]. The amount of money that can LEAD ACID BATTERY ANNUALIZED COSTS AND BUDGET LIMIT
be spent investing on the BES is limited by the available Annualized
Lead acid Annualized Power Annualized
budget limit which is assumed to be $3 million. This budget Energy Rating
Battery Lifetime Rating Related Budget Limit
limit is also annualized and given in Table II for each BES Related Cost
(yr) Cost ($/MW/yr) ($/yr)
lifetime. The costs are computed based on a 4% interest rate. ($/MWh/yr)
The round trip efficiency of the lead acid battery is assumed 10 74,658 8,629 396,873
to be 80% and the charging/discharging periods are assumed 20 64,716 5,150 220,745
to be 3 hours. The relationship between the lead acid battery 30 61,566 4,047 173,490
cycles and its depth of discharge is taken from the
manufacturer data sheet [27] and presented in Table III. The
number of cycles for each depth of discharge value must be TABLE III
LEAD ACID BATTERY CYCLES AT DIFFERENT DEPTH OF DISCHARGE
divided by the BES lifetime to get the annual number of
Depth of Depth of Number of
cycles for each BES lifetime. Discharge (%)
Number of Cycles
Discharge (%) Cycles
TABLE I 5 30000 55 650
MICROGRID GENERATION UINTS CHARACTERISTICS 10 7900 60 580
15 4000 65 520
Cost Coefficient Minimum Maximum 20 2500 70 490
Unit
($/MWh) Capacity (MW) Capacity (MW) 25 1800 75 450
Diesel Engine 200 1.4 7 30 1500 80 430
35 1200 85 400
Wind turbine - - 1
40 950 90 380
PV - - 1.5 45 800 95 370
50 700 100 350
Case 2: A lead acid battery is integrated into the microgrid in
order to reduce the unserved load (i.e., to improve the
microgrid reliability) as well as the operation cost. Three BES
lifetime scenarios, including 10 years, 20 years, and 30 years,
are considered in this case. The costs and optimal values for
each BES lifetime scenario are given in Tables IV and V,
respectively. From the results presented in Table IV it is clear
that the integration of the lead acid battery is economically
justifiable regardless of the considered BES life time, as the
reduction in the microgrid operation cost is higher than the
expansion costs for the considered BES lifetimes. The
expansion cost decreases as the depth of discharge increases
until it reaches the optimal depth of discharge determined by
the proposed expansion model after which the expansion cost
increases again. For a 10-year BES lifetime, the expansion
cost is almost the same for depth of discharge values larger
than 80%.
110

investment cost imposed by the battery installation. The 20-

10 years BES life
100 20 years BES life
30 years BES life
year BES life time yields the minimum expansion cost. 90

80
However, if more weight is put on the microgrid reliability,

BES State of Charge (%)

70

then a 10-year BES lifetime would be the more desirable 60

solution. It is further noticed that a larger battery size and a 50

lower depth of discharge are needed as the BES life time

40

30

increases. This comes from the fact that higher depth of 20

discharge and BES life time reduce the cycles that can be 10

performed by the BES. Thus, a trade off between the size and 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (hour)
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

depth of discharge must be performed to reach the optimal Figure 3. Lead acid battery state of charge for one sample day.
solution.
6

TABE IV
x 10
7.6
10 years BES life
COST ANALYSIS FOR THE CONSIDERED CASES Microgrid Expansion Cost ($/year)
7.55
20 years BES life
30 years BES life

Project Lead Acid Battery Operation Cost ($/year ) 7.5

Case Diesel Total Cost

lifetime Investment Cost Unserved 7.45

Number Generation Energy Cost ($/year)

(years) ($/year) Cost 7.4

1 - - 6,987,198 702,000 7,689,198 7.35

10 61,332 6,990,960 202,639 7,254,931 7.3

2 20 51,662 6,990,917 207,720 7,250,299 7.25

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

30 60,057 6,990,833 216,000 7,266,891 Depth of Discharge (%)

Figure 4. Microgrid expansion cost for different lead acid battery life and
depth of discharge values at the determined optimal size.
TABE V
DITERMINED OPTIMAL VALUES FOR CASE 2
IV. CONCLUSION
Optimal Size Optimal
Project Number of Unserved Two factors that greatly impact the BES performance
Depth of and economy are its size and life time. The BES life time can
lifetime Power Rating Energy Rating Performed Energy
Discharge
(years) (MW) (MWh) Cycles (MWh) be determined by the number of operating cycles. At each
(%)
depth of discharge value, a certain number of cycles can be
10 0.61 1.83 95 34 6.75
performed before the BES reaches its end of life time. This
20 0.64 1.93 75 22 6.92
paper takes these interrelated relationships into account and
30 0.81 2.44 45 26 7.20
proposes a BES optimal sizing problem within the microgrid
Another representation for the BES depth of discharge expansion model. The model was developed using MIP and
value is the minimum state of charge, which defines the was solved for different BES life time scenarios. The ability
minimum amount of energy that must be stored in the battery of the proposed model to accurately determine the BES
at each time interval. For example, a 75% depth of discharge optimal size and depth of discharge were further validated in
value is equivalent to a 25% minimum state of charge. The each scenario. A follow-on work of this research will focus
state of charge for the installed BES is given in Fig. 3 for a on expanding the model to consider other optimization
sample day. It is clear that the lead acid battery state of variables that affect the expansion cost such as the BES
charge remains above the minimum state of charge value technology, number, and distributed/centralized installation
determined by the model. schemes.
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