IB Biology Notes - 4.

4 Genetic engineering and biotechnology

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1 Statisical Analysis
Working with data Genetic engineering and biotechnology
2 Cells
4.4.1 Outline the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to copy and amplify minute quantities of
Cell theory
Prokaryotic cells
DNA.
Eukaryotic cells
Polymerase chain reaction is used to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA. It can be useful when only a small
Membranes
amount of DNA is available but a large amount is required to undergo testing. We can use DNA from blood, semen, tissues
Cell division
and so on from crime scenes for example. The PCR requires high temperature and a DNA polymerase enzyme from
3 Chemical elements and water Thermus aquaticus (a bacterium that lives in hot springs).
Chemical elements & water
Carbohydrates, lipids & proteins
4.4.2 State that, in gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electric feld and are
Dna structure
Dna replication
separated according to their size.
Transcription & translation
In gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electrical field and are separated according to their size.
Enzymes
Cell respiration
Photosynthesis 4.4.3 State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profling.
4 Genetics
Gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling.
Chromosomes, genes, alleles & mutations
Meiosis
Theoretical genetics 4.4.4 Describe the application of DNA profling to determine paternity and also in forensic
Genetic engineering & biotechnology invesigations.
5 Ecology and evolution
Organisms have short sequences of bases which are repeated many times. These are called satellite DNA. These repeated
Communities & ecosystems
sequences vary in length from person to person. The DNA is copied using PCRand then cut up into small fragments using
The greenhouse effect
restriction enzymes. Gel electrophoresis separates fragmented pieces of DNA according to their size and charge. This gives
Populations
a pattern of bands on a gel which is unlikely to be the same for two individuals. This is called DNA profiling. DNA profiling
Evolution
can be used to determine paternity and also in forensic investigations to get evidence to be used in a court case for
Classification
example.
6 Human health and physiology
Digestion
The transport system
4.4.5 Analyse DNA profles to draw conclusions about paternity or forensic invesigations.
Defence against infectious disease
For a suspect look for similarities between the DNA found at the crime scene and the suspect. For a paternity test, look for
Gas exchange
similarities between the child and the possible father. 
Nerves, hormones & homeostasis
Reproduction
4.4.6 Outline three outcomes of the sequencing of the complete human genome.
7 Nucleic acids and proteins
Dna structure
It is now easier to study how genes influence human development. 
Dna replication
It helps identify genetic diseases.

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IB Biology Notes - 4.4 Genetic engineering and biotechnology

Transcription
It allows the production of new drugs based on DNA base sequences of genes or the structure of proteins coded for by these genes.
Translation
It will give us more information on the origins, evolution and migration of humans. 
Proteins
Enzymes
4.4.7 State that, when genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of
polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal.
8 Cell respiration and
photosynthesis
Cell respiration
Photosynthesis When genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged
because the genetic code is universal. 
9 Plant science
Plant structure & growth
Transport in angiospermophytes 4.4.8 Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer involving plasmids, a hos cell (bacterium,
Reproduction in angiospermophytes yeas or other cell), resriction enzymes (endonucleases) and DNA ligase.
10 Genetics The human gene that codes for insulin can be inserted into a plasmid and then this plasmid can be inserted into a host cell
Meiosis such as a bacterium. The bacterium can then synthesis insulin which can be collected and used by diabetics. This is done
Dihybrid crosses & gene linkage as follows. The messenger RNA which codes for insulin is extracted from a human pancreatic cell which produces insulin.
Polygenic inheritance DNA copies are then made from this messenger RNA by using the enzyme reverse transcriptase and these DNA copies are
then given extra guanine nucleotides to the end of the gene to create sticky ends. At the same time, a selected plasmid is
cut using restriction enzymes which cut the DNA at specific base sequences. Then extra cytosine nucleotides are added to
create sticky ends. Once we have both the plasmid and the gene ready, these are mixed together. The two will link by
complementary base pairing (between cytosine and guanine) and then DNA ligase is used to make the sugar phosphate
bonds. The plasmids with the human insulin gene (called recombinant plasmids) can then be mixed with host cells such as
bacterium. The bacterium will take in the plasmid and start producing insulin which can then be collected and purified.

4.4.9 State two examples of the current uses of genetically modifed crops or animals.

The transfer of a gene for factor IX which is a blood clotting factor, from humans to sheep so that this factor is produced in the sheep’s milk.
The transfer of a gene that gives resistance to the herbicide glyphosate from bacterium to crops so that the crop plants can be sprayed with the
herbicide and not be affected by it.

4.4.10 Discuss the potential benefts and possible harmful efects of one example of genetic
modifcation.

It is quite common to see genetic modifications in crop plants. An example of this is the transfer of a gene that codes for a
protein called Bt toxin from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis to maize crops. This is done because maize crops are
often destroyed by insects that eat the corn and so by adding the Bt toxin gene this is prevented as the toxin kills the
insects. However this is very controversial as even though it has many positive advantages, it can also have some harmful
consequences. The table below summarizes the benefits and possible harmful effects of genetically modifying the maize
crops. 

Benefits Harmful Effects

Since there is less damage to the

We are not sure of the consequences of humans and animals eating the modified
maize crops, there is a higher crop
crops. The bacterial DNA or the Bt toxin itself could be harmful to human as well as
yield which can lessen food
animal health.
shortages.

Since there is a higher crop yield,

Other insects which are not harmful to the crops could be killed. The maize pollen will
less land is needed to grow more
contain the toxin and so if it is blown onto near by plants it can kill the insects feeding
crops. Instead the land can become
on these plants. 
an area for wild life conservation.

There is a reduction in the use of

Cross pollination can occur which results in some wild plants being genetically
pesticides which are expensive and
modified as they will contain the Bt gene. These plants will have an advantage over
may be harmful to the
others as they will be resistant to certain insects and so some plants may become
environment, wild life and farm
endangered. This will have significant consequences on the population of wild plants. 
workers. 

4.4.11 Defne clone.

Clone: a group of genetically identical organisms or a group of genetically identical cells derived from a single parent cell. 

4.4.12 Outline a technique for cloning using diferentiated animal cells.

Dolly the sheep was cloned by taking udder cells from a donor sheep. These cells were than cultured in a low nutrient
medium to make the genes switch off and become dormant. Then an unfertilized egg was taken from another sheep. The

http://ibguides.com/biology/notes/genetic-engineering-and-biotechnology[10/8/2018 12:11:17 PM]

IB Biology Notes - 4.4 Genetic engineering and biotechnology

nucleus of this egg cell was removed by using a micropipette and then the egg cells were fused with the udder cells using
a pulse of electricity. The fused cells developed like normal zygotes and became embryos. These embryos were then
implanted into another sheep who’s role was to be the surrogate mother. One lamb was born successfully and called
Dolly. Dolly was genetically identical to the sheep from which the udder cells were taken.

4.4.13 Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans.

There are many ethical issues involving therapeutic cloning in humans. Below is a table summarizing the arguments for
and against therapeutic cloning in humans. 

Arguments for  Arguments against

Embryonic stem cells can be used for therapies that save lives and reduce pain for Every human embryo is a potential
patients. Since a stem cell can divide and differentiate into any cell type, they can be human being and should be given
used to replace tissues or organs required by patients. the chance of developing.

More embryos are generally

Cells can be taken from embryos that have stopped developing and so these cells
produced than are needed and so
would have died anyway. 
many are killed. 

Cells are taken at a stage when the embryos have no nerve cells and so they cannot There is a risk of embryonic stem
feel pain. cells developing into tumour cells.

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