Climatology Optional

GEOGRAPHY
OPTIONAL
by
SHAMIM ANWER
LEARNING GEOGRAPHY -
A NEVER BEFORE EXPERIENCE
PREP SUPPLEMENT
CLIMATOLOGY
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GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL
CLIMATOLOGY
INDEX
1. WEATHER AND CLIMATE ...................................................................................2-6

Introduction
Elements of Weather and Climate
a. Insolation
b. Air Pressure
c. Wind
d. Moisture
e. Clouds
f. Precipitation
Weather Forecast
Season
Climate
Difference between Weather and Climate
Factors Affecting Climate
a. Latitudes or Distance from the Equator
b. Altitude or Height from the Mean Sea Level
c. Continentality or Distance from the Sea
d. Nature of the Prevailing Winds
e. Cloud Cover
f. Ocean Currents
g. Direction of Mountain Chains
h. Slope and the Aspects
i. The Nature of the Soil and Vegetation Cover
2. TEMPERATURE ....................................................................................................7-22
Introduction
Process of Heat Energy Transfer
a. Conduction
b. Convection
c. Radiation
d. Evaporation
e. Advection
f. Sea Breezes
Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere
Process of Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere
CLIMATOLOGY
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a. Partial absorption of solar radiation

b. Conduction
c. Terrestrial Radiation
d. Convection and Advection
e. Latent Heat of Condensation
f. Expansion and Compression of the Air
Factors Controlling Temperature
i. Latitude
ii. Altitude
iii. Cloud Cover
iv. Distance from Sea
v. Maritime Effect Continental Effect
vi. Winds and Ocean Currents
vii. Length of Day
viii. Aspect
Temperature Zones
A. Torrid Zone
B. Temperate Zone
C. Frigid Zone
Global Surface Temperature Distribution
Vertical Distribution of Temperature
Lapse Rate
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Temperature Inversion
Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion
Types of Temperature Inversion
Economic Implications of Temperature Inversion
Temperature Anomaly
Urban Climate
Urban Heat Island
3. HEAT BUDGET OF THE EARTH .......................................................................23-25
Introduction
Some Terms Associated with the Topic
a. Insolation
b. Albedo
c. The Natural Greenhouse Effect
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Latitudinal Heat Balance

Methods of Transfer of Heat
a. Ocean Currents
b. Trade Winds
c. Storms
4. PRESSURE BELTS OF THE WORLD ...............................................................26-30
Introduction
Observed Distribution of Pressure and Winds and Idealized Zonal Pressure Belt
Semi-Permanent Pressure Systems – The Real World
Seasonal Distribution of Pressure
Diurnal Variation of Pressure
The Factors that Affect Atmospheric Pressure
a. Altitude
b. Temperature
c. Water Vapour
d. Wind Patterns
5. PLANETARY AND LOCAL WINDS ..................................................................31-37
Introduction
Various Types of Winds
I. Planetary Winds
a. Trade Winds
b. The Westerlies
c. The Polar Easterlies
II. Periodic Winds
a. Land and Sea Breezes
b. Mountain and Valley Breezes
c. Monsoons
III. Local Winds
6. MIOSTURE .........................................................................................................38-45
Basics
a. Latent Heat
b. Evaporation
c. Condensation
d. Sublimation
e. Deposition
Movement of Water through the Atmosphere
Humidity -Water Vapour in the Air
CLIMATOLOGY
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i. Absolute Humidity
ii. The Mixing Ratio
iii. Vapour Pressure
iv. Relative Humidity
v. Dew Point Temperature
Adiabatic Temperature Changes
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation
Moisture and Atmospheric Stability
Moisture and Cloud Formation
Mechanisms that cause Air to Rise
a. Orographic Lifting
b. Frontal Wedging
c. Convergence
d. Localized Convective Lifting
7. FORMS OF CONDENSATION ..........................................................................46-54
Introduction
Cloud Formation
Condensation Aloft
Growth of Cloud Droplets
Cloud Classification
a. Cirrus
b. Cumulus
c. Stratus
High Clouds
Middle Clouds
Low Clouds
Clouds of Vertical Development
Forms of Condensation
Fogs
Fogs Formed by Cooling
a. Radiation Fog
b. Advection Fog
c. Upslope Fog
Fogs Formed by Evaporation
d. Steam Fog
e. Frontal Fog
Dew and Frost
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8. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION .......................................55-68

How Precipitation Forms?
Precipitation from Cold Clouds
The Bergeron Process
Precipitation from Warm Clouds
The Collision-Coalescence Process
Forms of Precipitation
a. Rainfall
Types of Rainfall
i. Convectional Rainfall
ii. Orographic Rainfall
iii. Cyclone or Frontal Rainfall
b. Snow
c. Sleet and Glaze
d. Hail
e. Rime
Factors Controlling Distribution of Precipitation
a. Latitudes
b. Continents and Oceans
c. Mountain Barriers
Global Distribution of Precipitation
Zonal Distribution of Precipitation
Distribution of Precipitation over the Continents
9. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE .................................................................................69-73
Introduction
Process to Understand Hydrological Cycle
Humans and the Water Cycle
i. Hydroelectricity
ii. Irrigation
iii. Deforestation
iv. Greenhouse Effects
v. Nature of Science
The Blue Planet
Earth-what’s it’s all about
Earth-Fun Facts
Water Distribution
10. ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION ......................................................................74-82
Introduction
CLIMATOLOGY
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Large and Small Scale Circulation

Global Circulation
Single-Cell Circulation Model
Three-Cell Circulation Model
a. Hadley Cell
b. Ferrel Cell
c. Polar Cell
Even more Messy- The Real World
Key Concepts in Understanding the General Circulation
Climatic Significance of Meridional Circulation
The Westerlies
JET STREAMS
a. Sub-Tropical Jet Streams
b. Middle-Latitude Jet Stream or Polar Front Jet Stream
Waves in the Westerlies
Jet Stream and the Weather
11. ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND INSTABILITY ..........................................83-86
The Critical Weather Maker-Atmospheric Stability
Atmospheric Instability and Cloud Development
Types of Stability
A. Absolute Stability
B. Absolute Instability
C. Conditional Instability
Stability and Daily Weather
12. AIR MASSES .......................................................................................................87-90
Why to Study Airmass?
What is an Airmass?
Source Region
Modification of an Airmass
a. Thermodynamic Modifications
b. Mechanical Modification
Classification of Air Masses
13. FRONTOGENESIS ..............................................................................................91-98
Introduction
Frontogenesis and Frontolysis
Classification of Front
a. Warm Fronts
b. Cold Fronts
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c. Stationary Fronts
d. Occluded Fronts
e. Drylines
Occlusion-The Beginning of the End
14. TEMPERATE AND TROPICAL CYCLONES .................................................99-115
Introduction
Significance of Cyclone
a. Temperate Cyclone
Formation and Development of Temperate Cyclone
A. Polar Front Theory (Norwegian Cyclone Model)
B. Thermodynamic Theory of Lampert and Shaw
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclone
Structure of the Temperate Cyclone
Distribution
Idealized Weather of a Mid-Latitude Cyclone
b. What is a Tropical Cyclone?
The Conditions Favourable for the Formation & Intensification of Tropical Storms
Types of the Tropical Cyclone
a. Tropical Depression
b. Tropical Storm
c. Tropical Cyclone
Structure
Life of a Tropical Cyclone
Intensification, Dissipation
Characteristics
Where and when do Tropical Cyclone Occur?
Weather Associated with it
Tropical Cyclone as Disaster
i. Storm Surges and Tides
ii. Wind and Squalls
iii. Inland Flooding
iv. Torandoes
v. Thunderstorms
Comparison between Tropical Cyclone and Extra-Tropical Cyclone
a. Formation
b. Latitude wise
c. Size
d. Structurally
CLIMATOLOGY
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e. Isobars
Anticyclone
Type of Anti Cyclone
a. Cold Anticyclones
b. Warm Anticyclones
c. Subtropical Anticyclones
Anti Cyclonic Weather and Blocking High
15. CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION ......................................................................116-132
Introduction
Basis of Classification
A. Koppen’s Scheme of Climate Classification
Advantage
Limitation
B. Thornthwaite’s Scheme of Climate Classification
A Critical Appraisal of 1931 Classification
1948 Classification
A Critical Appraisal of 1948 Classification
A Comparative Analysis of Koppen’s and Thornthwaite’s Scheme
C. Trewartha’s Climate Classification
Departure from Koppen’s Classification
Some Features of Trewartha’s Climatic Classification
16. GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE, ROLE AND RESPONSE OF MAN IN CLIMATE
CHANGE ..........................................................................................................133-145
Introduction
Is Climate Change Real?
Climate in the Recent Past
Natural Causes of Climate Change
a. Volcanic Eruptions
b. Ocean Currents
c. Earth orbital Changes
d. Solar Variations
Human Causes of Climate Change
Evidence for Global Warming
i. Rise in Sea Level
ii. Rise in Earth’s Average Temperature
iii. Rise in Ocean Temperature
iv. Shrinking Glaciers
v. Ocean Acidification
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Many Lines of Evidence Indicating Global Warming is Real

Green House Gases
How Strongly do they Impact Global Temperature?
Effects of Climate Change
Response of Man to Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol
Carbon Trading
Ozone, CFCs and the Montreal Protocol
Outcomes of the U.N. Climate Change Conference in Paris
Strengthening Efforts at Home
India Firm on Equity Concerns
Policies Contributing to Climate Mitigation
17. APPLIED CLIMATOLOGY ............................................................................146-147
Introduction
Technical Geographical Definitions
Applied Climatology
CLIMATOLOGY
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GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL
SECTION - CLIMATOLOGY
PAST YEAR QUESTIONS FROM THIS SECTION
1. Differentiate between insolation and temperature and explain anomalous temperature. (2016/10)
2. Compare the origin and weather conditions associated with the tropical and temperature cyclones.
(2016/15)
3. Give a reasoned account on how the impact of global warming differs from one of the Earth to the
other. (2016/10)
4. Discuss the significance of World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) and its core projects in
the understanding of climate change. (2016/20)
5. Discuss as to how frontogenesis contributes to weather instability.(2015/10)
6. What is Potential Evapotranspiration? Explain how it is used in assessing the water balance in an
area. (2015/15)
7. Discuss the basis of Koppen’s climatic classification. Bring out the salient characteristic of ‘Cs’type
of climate. (2015/20)
8. Explain the meridional circulation of the atmosphere and its importance in world climate. (2015/15)
9. Discuss the salient features of ‘sirocco’ and ‘mistral’.(2014/10)
10. Describe the origin and development of thunderstorms with examples. (2014/15)
11. With suitable examples, bring out the impact of local winds on the climate of an area. (2013/20)
12. Discuss Dew point and various forms of condensation. (2013/15)
13. Compare and contrast tropical cyclone and temperate cyclone. (2012/12)
14. Classify airmasses and explain how ‘cP’ airmasses affectes global climate. (2012/30)
15. Answer the following: impact of Cryosphere on global climate. (2012/20)
16. Write a short note on Rossby waves and jet stream. (2011/12)
17. Give an account of global climate distribution of precipitation. (2011/30)
18. “Contemporary global climate change is an anthropogenic phenomenon.” Discuss. (2011/30)
CLIMATOLOGY
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1. WEATHER AND CLIMATE
INTRODUCTION
Temperature, pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation, interact with each other. They influence the
atmospheric conditions like the direction and velocity of wind, amount of insolation, cloud-cover and the
amount of precipitation. These are known as the elements of both weather and climate.
The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is known as temperature. The temperature of the atmosphere
changes not only between day and night but also from season to season. Summers are hotter than winters. An
important factor that influences the distribution of temperature is insolation.
a. Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth. The amount of insolation decreases from
the equator towards the poles. Therefore, the temperature decreases in the same manner.
b. Air Pressure
Air pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface. As we go up the
layers of atmosphere, the pressure falls rapidly. The air pressure is highest at sea level and decreases with
height. Horizontally the distribution of air pressure is influenced by temperature of air at a given place. In areas
where temperature is high the air gets heated and rises. This creates a low-pressure area. Low pressure is
associated with cloudy skies and wet weather.
In areas having lower temperature, the air is cold. It is therefore heavy. Heavy air sinks and creates a high
pressure area. High pressure is associated with clear and sunny skies. The air always moves from high pressure
areas to low pressure areas.
c. Wind
Wind is the horizontal motion of air, due to the pressure difference between two places. Wind is the perceptible
natural movement of the air, especially in the form of a current of air blowing from a particular direction. The
gaseous mixture in our atmosphere is called air. It includes oxygen, which we breathe and carbon dioxide
which we exhale.
Updraft and downdraft, in meteorology, upward-moving and downward-moving air currents, respectively,
those are due to several causes. Local daytime heating of the ground causes surface air to become much
warmer than the air above, and, because warmer air is less dense, it rises and is replaced by descending cooler
air. Updrafts and downdrafts also occur as part of the turbulence that is created when air passes over
topographic barriers such as mountains.
Strong updrafts and downdrafts occur in thunderstorms as well. Updrafts characterize a storm’s early
development, during which warm air rises to the level where condensation begins and precipitation starts to
develop. Intense downdrafts are called downbursts or microbursts.
d. Moisture
When water evaporates from land and different water bodies, it becomes water vapour. Moisture in the air at
any time is known as humidity. When the air is full of water vapour we call it a humid day. As the air gets
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warmer, its capacity to hold the water vapour increases and so it becomes more and more humid. When the
water vapour rises, it starts cooling. The water vapour condenses causing formation of droplets of water.
e. Clouds are just masses of such water droplets. When these droplets of water become too heavy to float in
air, then they come down as precipitation.
f. Precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form is called rain. Most of the ground water comes
from rainwater. Plants help preserve water. When trees on hill sides are cut, rainwater flows down the bare
mountains and can cause flooding of low lying areas.
On the basis of mechanism, there are three types of rainfall: the convectional rainfall, the orographic
rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall.
The influence of these elements differs from place to place and time to time. It may be restricted to a small area
and for a short duration of time. We very often describe this influence in the name of weather as sunny, hot,
warm, cold, fine, etc depending upon the dominant element of weather at a place and at a point of time.
Therefore, weather is the atmospheric condition of a place for a short duration with respect to its one or more
elements. Two places even a short distance apart may have different kind of weather at one and the same time.
WEATHER FORECAST
It is important to know by some means the coming weather in advance. You may be planning to go on a hike
without knowing that the particular day may be rainy. Farmers, sailors, aviators, tourists and many others are
interested to know the weather conditions in advance for their own benefits. That is why newspapers publish
weather reports and weather forecasts along with a map showing this information. Now, better weather
forecasts are available with the use of weather satellites. Weather conditions are televised every day. When a
cyclone or dangerous weather is expected, warnings are issued over the radio, television and newspapers so
that people can prepare to save themselves and their property from its hazard.
The weather office collects data on temperature, wind, cloud cover, rainfall and other atmospheric phenomena
through its numerous observation centres. These centres are scattered all over the country. Similar information
is also received from the ships sailing in the high seas. The analysis of these data thus collected, helps in
forecasting weather conditions for the next 48 hours or even for a week. The significance of a weather
information supplied through a map and its forecast is better utilised in a country like the U.K. where weather
changes are very rapid.
SEASON
We know that a year is divided into seasons depending upon variations in atmospheric conditions. They are
specified periods in a year which have similar weather conditions. Season is a period of the year characterized
by a particular set of weather conditions resulting from the inclination of the earth’s axis and the revolution of the
earth round the sun. The same cycle of season is repeated year after year. Four seasons, each of three months
duration have been recognized in temperate regions. They are spring, summer, autumn and winter. In our
country, we have three distinct seasons which are summer, winter and rainy. The Indian Meteorological
Department has recognized four main seasons. They are (1) cold weather season (December to February.) (2)
hot weather seasons (March to May) (3) advancing monsoon season or rainy season (June to September.)
and. (4) retreating monsoon season (October to November.)
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Traditionally there are six seasons in north India. They are (1) Basant Ritu (Chaitra-Vaisakh or March-April),
(2) Greeshm Ritu (Jaystha-Asharh or May-June), (3) Varsha Ritu (Shravan-Bhadrapad or July-Aug.), (4)
Sharad Ritu (Aswina-Kartika or Sept-Oct.), (5) Hemant Ritu (Margashirsh-Posh or Nov-Dec.) and (6)
Shishir Ritu (Magh-Falgun or Jan-Feb.)
The rays of the sun are more or less direct on the equator throughout the year. Hence, equatorial regions
experience the same temperature all the year round. Therefore, seasons are insignificant on or near the equator.
Near the coast, the oceanic influence reduces the seasonal variations. In the Polar Regions, there are only two
season’s i.e. long winter and short summer.
CLIMATE
The average weather conditions, prevalent from one season to another in the course of a year, over a large area
are known as climate. The average of these weather conditions is calculated from the data collected for several
years (about 35 years) for a larger area. Rajasthan, for example, experiences hot and arid climate, Kerala has
tropical rainy climate, Greenland has cold desert climate and the climate of Central Asia is temperate
continental. Climate of a region is considered more or less permanent.
 Weather is the atmospheric condition of any place for a short period of time with respect to its one or
more elements such as temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloud cover
etc.
 The periods of the year which are characterised by particular set of weather conditions are mainly
caused by the inclination of the earth’s axis and the revolution of the earth around the sun, are known
as seasons.
 The average weather conditions of a large area for the past several years are known as its climate
persisting more or less permanent.
The difference between weather and climate
(1) Weather is the study of atmospheric conditions for short duration of a limited area. Climate is the
study of the average weather conditions observed over a long period of time for a larger area.
(2) Weather is influenced by anyone of its predominant elements i.e., temperature or humidity. Climate is
the collective effect of all its elements.
(3) The weather changes very often whereas climate is more or less permanent.
(4) It is experienced over small areas of a country whereas climate is experienced over large area of the
continent.
(5) A place can experience different types of weather conditions in a year whereas under climate a place
can experience only one type of climate.
FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE
Different regions of the world have differences in temperature, humidity and precipitation. These differences
influence the lifestyle of the people living under different climatic conditions. To understand different climatic
conditions, let us discuss the factors which cause the variations in the climate of a place or a region.
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a. Latitude or Distance from the Equator

The places near the equator are warmer than the places which are far away from it. This is because the rays of
the sun fall vertical on the equator and slanting in the temperate and polar regions. The vertical rays are
concentrated over a small area than the slanting one. Again, the vertical rays pass through a shorter distance in
the atmosphere before reaching the earth’s surface. Therefore, lower the latitude higher is the temperature and
vice versa. Malaysia which is near the equator is warmer than England which is far away from the equator.
b. Altitude or the Height from the mean sea level
We all know that mountains are cooler than the plains. Shimla situated on a higher altitude is cooler than
Jalandhar, although both are almost on the same latitude. The temperature decreases with the height of a place.
For a vertical rise of 165 metres there is an average decrease in temperature at the rate of 1°C. Thus the
temperature decreases with increase in height.
c. Continentally or the Distance from the Sea
The water is a bad conductor of heat i.e. it takes longer time to heat and longer time to cool. Due to this
moderating effect of the sea, places near the coast have low range of temperature and high humidity. The places
in the interior of the continent do not experience moderating effect of the sea. These places have extreme
temperatures. The places far from the sea have higher range of diurnal (daily) and annual temperatures.
Mumbai has relatively lower temperature and higher rainfall than Nagpur, although both are almost situated on
the same latitude.
d. Nature of the Prevailing Winds
The on-shore winds bring the moisture from the sea and cause rainfall on the area through which theypass. The
off-shore winds coming from the land are dry and help in evaporation. In India, the on-shore summer monsoon
winds bring rains while off-shore winter monsoon winds are generally dry.
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e. Cloud Cover
In areas generally of cloudless sky as in deserts, temperature even under shade is very high because of the hot
day time sunshine. At night this heat radiates back from the ground very rapidly. It results in a large diurnal range
in temperature. On the other hand under cloudy sky and heavy rainfall at Thiruvananthapuram the range of
temperature is very small.
f. Ocean Currents
Ocean waters move from one place to another partly as an attempt to equalize temperature and density of
water. Ocean currents are large movements of water usually from a place of warm temperature to one of
cooler temperature or vice-versa. The warm ocean currents raise the temperature of the coast and sometimes
bring rainfall, while the cold currents lower the temperature and create fog near the coast. Port Bergen in
Norway is free from ice even in winter due to warm North Atlantic Drift while Port Quebec in Canada remains
frozen during winter months due to chilling effect of the Cold Labrador Current in spite of the fact that Port
Quebec is situated in much lower latitude than Port Bergen. The on-shore winds passing over a warm current
carry warm air to the interior and raise the temperature of the inland areas. Similarly, the winds blowing over
cold current carry cold air to the interior and create fog and mist.
g. Direction of Mountain Chains
The mountain chains act as natural barrier for the wind. The on-shore moisture laden winds are forced to rise
after striking against the mountain; and give heavy rainfall on the windward side. These winds descending on
the leeward side cause very low rainfall. The great Himalayas check the moisture laden monsoon winds from
crossing over to Tibet. This mountain chain also checks biting polar cold winds from entering into India. This is
the reason for which northern plains of India get rains while Tibet remains a perpetual rain shadow area with
lesser amount of rainfall.
h. Slope and the Aspect
The concentration of heat being more on the gentler slope raises the temperature of air above them. Its lesser
concentration along steeper slopes lowers the temperature. At the same time, mountain slopes facing the sun
are warmer than the slopes which are away from the sun’s rays. The southern slopes of Himalaya are warmer
than the northern slopes.
i. The Nature of the Soil and Vegetation Cover
The nature of soil depends upon its texture, structure and composition. These, qualities vary from soil to soil.
Stony or sandy soils are good conductor of heat while black clay soils absorb the heat of the sun’s rays quickly.
The bare surface reradiates the heat easily. The deserts are hot in the day and cold in the night. The forest areas
have lower range of temperature throughout the year in contrast to non-forested areas.
The varied effect of the major weather elements in different parts of the world and also the varied nature of the
earth’s surface give every location a distinct climate. Hence, the number of different climate is large. In order to
easily understand and comprehend this large variety, the climate of the world has been classified into a few
major groups, each having certain common important characteristics.
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2. TEMPERATURE
INTRODUCTION
Simply stated, temperature is the measure of the internal heat energy of a substance. Temperature is also a
degree of hotness or coldness the can be measured using a thermometer. It’s also a measure of how fast the
atoms and molecules of a substance are moving. Temperature is measured in degrees on the Fahrenheit,
Celsius, and Kelvin scales.
Temperature scales are based on two internationally agreed fixed points: the freezing point and the boiling
point. The ice point or freezing point is the temperature at which pure ice melts under a pressure of one
standard atmosphere. The boiling point is the temperature at which pure water boils at a pressure of one
standard atmosphere.
Common temperature scales are the Celsius scale on which the ice point is 0°C and the boiling point 100°C,
and the Fahrenheit scale on which the ice point is 32°F and the boiling point 212°F.
The average Earth surface temperature is 14° C. That’s 287 kelvin, or 57.2° F. The Earth’s temperature can be
much higher or lower than this temperature. In the hottest places of the planet, in the deserts near the equator,
the temperature on Earth can get as high as 57.7° C. And then in the coldest place, at the South Pole in
Antarctica, the temperature can dip down to -89° C.
Because of the small size of the earth compared to the sun and the great distance between the two (149 million
kilometres), only a minute percentage of solar radiation one in two billion parts is intercepted by the earth. But
even this small amount of solar radiation reaching the earth is of great significance. All biological and many of
the physical phenomena of the earth are controlled by this tiny proportion of solar radiation. The incoming solar
radiation is known as insolation. It is received in the form of short waves which are of electromagnetic nature.
PROCESS OF HEAT ENERGY TRANSFER
Heat can travel from one place to another in different ways like Conduction, Convection, and Radiation etc.
Both conduction and convection require matter to transfer heat. If there is a temperature difference between
two systems heat will always find a way to transfer from the higher to lower system.
If there is a temperature difference between two systems heat will always find a way to transfer from the higher
to lower system.
a. Conduction: - Conduction is the transfer of heat between substances that are in direct contact with each
other. The better the conductor, the more rapidly heat will be transferred. Conduction occurs when a substance
is heated; particles will gain more energy, and vibrate more. These molecules then bump into nearby particles
and transfer some of their energy to them. This then continues and passes the energy from the hot end down to
the colder end of the substance. The transfer of heat continues until both the bodies attain the same temperature
or the contact is broken. Conduction is important in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.
b. Convection: - Thermal energy is transferred from hot places to cold places by convection. Convection
occurs when warmer areas of a liquid or gas rise to cooler areas in the liquid or gas. Cooler liquid or gas then
takes the place of the warmer areas which have risen higher. This results in a continuous circulation pattern.
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Water boiling in a pan is a good example of these convection currents. Another good example of convection is
in the atmosphere. The earth’s surface is warmed by the sun, the warm air rises and cool air moves in.
c. Radiation
Radiation is a method of heat transfer that does not rely upon any contact between the heat source and the
heated object as is the case with conduction and convection. Heat can be transmitted through empty space by
thermal radiation often called infrared radiation.
This is a type of electromagnetic radiation. No
mass is exchanged and no medium is required in
the process of radiation. Examples of radiation
are the heat from the sun, or heat released from
the filament of a light bulb.
d. Evaporation
Another process by which heat is transferred is
called evaporation. When a dog sticks out its
tongue and breathes hard (pants), the moisture
on the tongue turns into water vapour – it
evaporates. Heat energy is needed to turn a liquid into a gas, so heat is removed from the dog’s tongue in the
process. This helps to cool the dog down. People cool themselves down by sweating through pores (tiny
holes) in their skin, which removes heat from their bodies in the same way.
e. Advection
The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection. Horizontal movement of the air is
relatively more important than the vertical movement. In middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night)
variation in daily weather is caused by advection alone. In tropical regions particularly in northern India during
summer season local winds called ‘loo’ is the outcome of advection process.
f. Sea Breezes
During the day, sunlight warms the land more quickly than the sea. Warm air rises from the land by convection,
moves out to sea, and cools, creating a circular current. This is why, at ground level, sea breezes blow from sea
to land during the day. At night, the land cools more quickly than the sea. Warm air rises from the sea, the
convection current reverses, and the breezes blow from land to sea.
HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE
There are different ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere. The earth after being heated by insolation
transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near to the earth in long wave form. The air in contact with the land
gets heated slowly and the upper layers in contact with the lower layers also get heated.
The atmosphere is heated or cooled by the following processes:
a. Partial absorption of solar radiation: As we know, the atmosphere is not heated directly by the sun’s rays
passing through it. Even then, the dust particles and water vapour present in the lower layers of the atmosphere
directly absorb about 10 per cent of the incoming solar radiation.
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About 50 per cent of this absorption occurs in the lower 2 km of air where most of the water vapour is found.
However, the process of absorption is not very effective in raising the surface-air temperature. That is why
even on a clear sunny day, the temperature near the surface remains low. In winter, people enjoy the warmth of
sunshine by sitting close to the side of a wall of their houses exposed to the sun, because the short-wave
incoming solar radiation is being converted into long-wave terrestrial energy.
b. Conduction: Conduction is a slow process of heat transfer as regards warming of the atmosphere. Since air
is a very poor conductor of heat, the conduction process affects only the lowermost layers of air closest to the
earth’s surface.
As a means of heat transfer for the atmosphere as a whole, conduction is the least important and can be
neglected when considering a majority of meteorological phenomena.
c. Terrestrial radiation: About two-thirds of the radiant solar energy reaches the earth’s surface directly or
indirectly in the form of short-wave electro-magnetic waves, where it is converted into terrestrial heat by the
surface.
According to Kirchoffs Law, the earth radiates heat in the form of long waves or infrared radiation. Remember
that the terrestrial radiation is a process which continues for all the 24 hours. During the sunlight hours the
receipt of heat through insolation exceeds its loss by terrestrial radiation. On the contrary, during night the heat
is lost through long-wave earth radiation.
Thus, most of the atmospheric gases, especially carbon dioxide and water vapour, that are almost transparent
to the short-wave solar radiation and are able to absorb only about 19 percent of it, absorb about 85 per cent
of the terrestrial long-wave or infrared radiation. Thus, it is clear that the atmosphere receives a larger part of
its energy supply from the earth and not directly from the sun.
Since the atmosphere is almost transparent to most of the solar radiation and absorbs a large part of the
terrestrial radiation, it acts to conserve the heat energy of the earth. This conservation is called the greenhouse
effect.
Water vapour, carbon dioxide, dust particles and ozone are directly involved in the process of absorption of
terrestrial radiation. But water vapour is the most important.
It is on account of this that in arid regions, characterized by the minimum amount of water vapour present in the
atmosphere, nights are cooler because of the earth’s radiation of heat. On the contrary, even in the long winter
nights, when there is a thick cover of clouds, the temperatures remain relatively higher because of the
absorption of long-wave terrestrial radiation by the clouds.
The earth radiates heat to the layers of air which re-radiate it. The radiation from the atmospheric layers is
upward and downward both. That is why there is a gradual decrease in temperature with increasing altitude.
d. Convection and advection: Since the atmosphere is a gaseous medium, convection is the most significant
mechanism of heat transfer. Heat gained by the layers of air at or near the earth’s surface from radiation or
conduction is usually transferred to the upper atmospheric layers by the process of convection.
Transfer of heat by convection takes place in two forms: (a) sensible heat content of the air which is transferred
directly by the rising and mixing of heated air, and (b) latent heat which is the indirect form of energy transfer by
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convection. When condensation in the free atmosphere takes place, the latent heat of evaporation is released
and made available to the air. This is known as the latent heat of condensation.
Whereas the term convection is used to describe the vertical motions in the atmosphere, the term advection is
reserved for horizontal convection transport of heat. It is worthwhile to remember that the horizontal
convection is on a much larger scale. In fact, advection is responsible for slow heat transfer from the equatorial
to the Polar Regions. Vertical convection, on the other hand, is more localized in character. In other words, the
process of convection redistributes heat from equatorial regions to the poles and from the surface upward.
When pockets of air are heated by contact with the warm earth’s surface, they expand in volume and become
less dense than the surrounding air and, therefore, rise. The rising air currents are replaced by cooler and
denser air from above. Thus a convectional circulation is set up with horizontal as well as vertical motions.
e. Latent heat of condensation: There is no doubt that the atmosphere receives a large percentage of its
total heat energy from the long-wave terrestrial radiation, conduction and convection. But in the heating and
cooling of the atmosphere, the latent heat of evaporation as well as the latent heat of condensation also plays a
significant role.
The latent heat of condensation is made available to different layers of the atmosphere by the process of
evaporation taking place at the surfaces of oceans, humid ground, and natural vegetation. Oceans with their
extensive water surfaces exposed to the sun are the most important source for the latent heat of evaporation. It
is estimated that half of the insolation received at the ocean surfaces is consumed in the evaporation of surface
water, because the process of evaporation needs a certain amount of energy.
This transformed solar energy is thus contained in the air in potential form. When water vapour is condensed,
the latent energy is again released into atmosphere and is used in heating it. The released energy is known as the
latent heat of condensation. It may be pointed out that the latent energy of evaporation does not raise the
temperature of the water vapour.
When condensation or sublimation takes place, the water vapour is converted into liquid or solid form. Then
the latent heat is released and it raises the temperature of the air. The scientists have proved byexperiments that
at constant temperature the amount of energy required to convert a given quantity of liquid into vapour is again
released when the process is reversed.
At 20°C temperature each gram of water vapour, when condensed into liquid water, releases 585 calories of
heat. When water is frozen into ice, each gram of it provides additional 80 calories.
f. Expansion and compression of the air:
Whenever air moves upward it passes through regions of successively lower pressure. Consequently the rising
air expands and cools adiabatically. In the same way, as the air descends, it comes under increasingly higher
pressures so that it compresses and is heated.
These temperature changes caused by a change of pressure alone that the rising or falling air is subjected to are
called adiabatic temperature changes. As a process leading to adiabatic cooling it is common whenever the
earth’s surface is warmer than the air above. Thus, the temperature changes brought about in the air aloft simply
due to changes in the air pressure are very important in the heating or cooling of the atmosphere.
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FACTORS CONTROLLING TEMPERATURE:
Latitude, altitude, cloud cover, distance from sea, winds and ocean currents, aspect, length of day are some of
the important factors that bring about spatial variations in temperature. These are the factors which determine
the temperature of a particular place on the
earth’s surface.
1. Latitude: Latitude is the distance (measured
in degrees) to the north and south of the
Equator. The further away the location is from
the equator, the smaller the angle at which the
sun’s rays strike the earth. Away from the
equator, the angle of incidence of the sun’s ray
is less than 90 degree, thus solar radiation is
spread over a larger area. Therefore less
intense heating takes place, causing
temperature to become lower. The smaller the
angle of incidence of the sun’s rays, the greater the distance through the atmosphere the rays have to pass.
More heat is absorbed by the atmosphere or reflected back into outer space, which results in less heat reaching
the Earth’s surface.
2. Altitude: Altitude is the height of a point above the sea level. Temperature decreases by 6.5 deg C for every
increase in 1,000 m increase in altitude. The air at high altitudes is thin. At higher altitudes, the air is made up of
a smaller concentration of gas, dust and water vapour than the dense air at sea level. Thin air is unable to
absorb heat as effectively as the dense air at sea level because it has a smaller concentration of gases to trap
heat. Thus places at higher altitudes have a lower temperature.
3. Cloud cover: Cloud cover refers to the amount of clouds over an area. Tropical areas with dense cloud
cover, due to high humidity in the air, experience a smaller difference in day and night temperatures. Temperate
areas with less cloud cover, due to low humidity in the air, experience a larger difference in day and night
temperatures. During the day, in tropical areas with more cloud cover, clouds absorb incoming solar insolation
from the Sun. Clouds also reflect part of the incoming solar radiation back into outer space. Thus less solar
radiation reaches the earth’s surface and the heating effect is less intense, lowering daytime temperatures.
However, during the day in temperate places with less cloud cover, the lack of cloud cover allows large
amounts of solar radiation to reach the Earth’s surface in the day, causing the temperature of the ground to rise
quickly, raising daytime temperatures. At night, in places with more cloud cover, clouds reflect heat radiated by
the ground back to the earth’s surface, preventing heat from escaping into outer space. This keeps the
temperature of the ground high at night.
At night, in places with few clouds, the lack of cloud cover allows heat from the earth to escape into outer
space easily, leading to a sharp drop in temperature of the ground, lowering night time temperatures.
4. Distance from sea: An inland location is further away from the sea, while a coastal location is close to the
sea. The land heats up and cools down more quickly than the sea. During the summer, the air over the land
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heats up quickly, while the air over the sea remains relatively cool because the sea gains heat much slower than
the land. Onshore winds blow cooler air towards the land, lowering the summer temperatures of the areas
along the coast. During winter, the air over the sea remains relatively warm compared to the air over the land
because the sea loses heat slower than the land. The onshore winds blow warmer air towards the land, raising
the winter temperatures of the coastal areas.
As a result of the maritime effect, the coastal areas are likely to experience cooler summers and warmer
winters. Hence, there is a smaller difference between summer and winter temperatures. As a result of the
continental effect, the sea does not influence the temperatures of places inland. Instead, these places are likely
to experience warmer summers and colder winters and hence have a large difference between summer and
winter temperatures.
5. Maritime effect continental effect: The maritime effect refers to the effect that large ocean bodies have
on the climate of coastal areas. It causes these places to have a smaller temperature range at an annual scale.
The continental effect refers to the effect that continental surfaces have on the climate of inland areas far away
from the sea. It causes these places to have a larger temperature range at an annual scale.
6. Winds and ocean currents: Wind is the horizontal movement of air from a region of high pressure to a
region of low pressure. Ocean currents modify the temperature of the winds, which blow over them. Prevailing
winds blowing inland from the sea help to moderate the temperature of adjacent land masses. A wind, which
has blown over a cold ocean current, will have its temperature lowered. Cold ocean currents originate from the
Poles and lower the temperature of the winds, thus lowering the temperature of the coastal countries they pass
through. Amount of rain in those coastal areas decreases. A wind, which has blown over a warm ocean current,
will have its temperature raised. Warm ocean currents carry water from the tropics to the poles and raise the
temperature of the winds, thus warming the coasts they pass through. Amount of rain in those coastal areas
increases.
7. Length of day: Temperatures generally increase with the length of day. In June (northern hemisphere
summer, southern hemisphere winter), the length of the day increases from the equator to the polar latitudes in
the northern hemisphere but decreases from the equatorial to the polar latitudes in the southern hemisphere. In
December (northern hemisphere winter, southern hemisphere summer),the length of day decreases from the
equatorial to the polar latitudes in the northern hemisphere but decreases from the equatorial to the polar
latitudes in the southern hemisphere.
As the number of hours of daylight increases, the season changes to summer, resulting in higher temperatures.
As the number of hours of daylight decreases the season changes to winter, resulting in lower temperatures.
8. Aspect: Aspect refers to the position of a mountain slope in relation to the direction of the Sun’s rays.
The effect of aspect on temperature is more marked in temperate latitudes. In tropical latitudes, the angle of the
mid day sun is high. The effect of aspect on temperature is less noticeable. In the northern hemisphere, the
south-facing slopes are warmer than the north-facing slopes. This is because south-facing slopes receive more
direct solar energy and are protected from polar cold winds. The sun’s rays reach them at a steeper angle, so
the heat is distributed over a smaller area. In the southern hemisphere, the north-facing slopes are warmer than
the south-facing slopes. This is because north-facing slopes receive more direct solar energy and are protected
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from polar cold winds. The sun’s rays reach them at a steeper angle, so heat is distributed over a smaller area.
TEMPERATURE ZONES
The earth can be generally divided into three broad temperature zones viz. Torrid Zone, Temperate Zone and
Frigid zone.
A. Torrid Zone: Torrid Zone is the tropical region. The temperature
remains high. Sun is directly overhead at least once during the year.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the overhead Sun moves north from
the equator until it reaches 23.5 °North (Tropic of Cancer) for the
June solstice after which it moves back south to the equator. The
year is consequently divided nearly into four equal parts by the two
times at which the sun crosses the equator (Equinoxes) and those
two at which it attains greatest declinations (Solstices).
The Torrid Zone forms the hottest region of the world with two
annual seasons namely a dry and a wet season. This zone includes
most of Africa, southern Asia, Indonesia, New Guinea, northern Australia, southern Mexico, Central America
and northern South America.
B. Temperate Zones: Temperate zones are the mid latitudinal areas, where the temperature is moderate.
There are two temperate areas viz. North and South. In the two Temperate Zones, consisting of the tepid
latitudes, the Sun is never directly overhead, and the climate is mild, generally ranging from warmto cool. The
four annual seasons, Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter occur in these areas. The North Temperate Zone
includes Great Britain, Europe, northern Asia, North America and northern Mexico. The South Temperate
Zone includes southern Australia, New Zealand, southern South America and South Africa.
C. Frigid Zones: The two Frigid Zones, or polar regions, experience the midnight sun and the polar night for
part of the year – the cliff of the zone experiences one day at the solstice when the Sun doesn’t rise or set for
24 hours, while in the centre of the zone (the pole), the day is literally one year long, with six months of daylight
and six months of night. Please note that the Frigid Zones are not the coldest parts of the earth, and are covered
with ice and snow. The coldest temperature on earth has been recorded a few degrees below the 90°N.
GLOBAL SURFACE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
If the Earth was a homogeneous body without the present land/ocean distribution, its temperature distribution
would be strictly latitudinal (Figure 7m-1). However,
the Earth is more complex than this being composed of
a mosaic of land and water. This mosaic causes
latitudinal zonation of temperature to be disrupted
spatially.
The following two factors are important in influencing
the distribution of temperature on the Earth’s surface:
Figure 7m-1: Simple latitudinal zonation of temperature.
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A. The latitude of the location determines how much solar radiation is received. Latitude influences the angle
of incidence and duration of day length.
B. Surface properties - surfaces with high albedo absorb less incident radiation. In general, land absorbs
less insolation that water because of its lighter color. Also, even if two surfaces have the same albedo, a
surface’s specific heat determines the amount of heat energy required for a specific rise in temperature per
unit mass. The specific heat of water is some five times greater than that of rock and the land surface. As a
result, water requires the input of large amounts of energy to cause a rise in its temperature.
Mainly because of specific heat, land surfaces behave quite differently from water surfaces. In general, the
surface of any extensive deep body of water heats more slowly and cools more slowly than the surface of a
large land body. Other factors influencing the way land and water surfaces heat and cool include:
 Solar radiation warms an extensive layer in water; on land just the immediate surface is heated.
 Water is easily mixed by the process of convection.
 Evaporation of water removes energy from water’s surface.
The following images illustrate the Earth’s temperature distribution patterns for an average January and July
based on 39 years of data (Figures 7m-2 and 7m-3). Note that the spatial variations of temperature on these
figures are mostly latitudinal. However, the horizontal banding of isotherms is somewhat upset by the fact that
water heats up more slowly in the summer and cools down more slowly in the winter when compared to land
surfaces. During January, much of the terrestrial areas of the Northern Hemisphere are below freezing (Figure
7m-2). Some notable Northern Hemisphere cold-spots include the area around Baffin Island Canada,
Greenland, Siberia, and the Plateau of Tibet. Temperatures over oceans tend to be hotter because of the
water’s ability to hold heat energy.
In the Southern Hemisphere, temperatures over the major landmasses are generally greater than 20° Celsius
with localized hot-spots in west-central Australia, the Kalahari Desert in Africa, and the plains of Bolivia,
Figure 7m-2: Mean January air temperature for the Earth’s surface, 1959-1997. (Source of Original Modified

Image: Climate Lab Section of the Environmental Change Research Group, Department of Geography, University of
Oregon - Global Climate Animations).
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Paraguay, and Argentina (Figure 7m-2). Subtropical oceans are often warmer than landmass areas near the
equator. At this latitude, land areas receive less incoming solar radiation because of the daily convective
development of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds. In the mid-latitudes, oceans are often cooler than
landmass areas at similar latitudes. Terrestrial areas are warmer because of the rapid heating of land surfaces
under frequently clear skies. Antarctica remains cold and below zero degrees Celsius due to the presence of
permanent glacial ice which reflects much of the solar radiation received back to space.
In July, the Northern Hemisphere is experiencing its summer season because the North Pole is now tilted
towards the Sun (Figure 7m-3). Some conspicuous hot-spots include the south-central United States,
Arizona and northwest Mexico, northern Africa, the Middle East, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
Temperatures over oceans tend to be relatively cooler because of the land’s ability to heat quickly. Two
terrestrial areas of cooler temperatures include Greenland and the Plateau of Tibet. In these regions, most of
the incoming solar radiation is sent back to space because of the presence of reflective ice and snow.
In the Southern Hemisphere, temperatures over the major landmasses are generally cooler than ocean surfaces
at the same latitude (Figure 7m-3). Antarctica is bitterly cold because it is experiencing total darkness. Note
that Antarctica is much colder than the Arctic was during its winter season (Figures 7m-2 and 7m-3). The
Arctic consists mainly of ocean. During the summer, this surface is able to absorb considerable quantities of
sunlight which is then converted into heat energy. The heat stored in the ocean is carried over into the winter
season. Antarctica has a surface composed primarily of snow and ice. This surface absorbs only a small
amount of the solar radiation during the summer. So it never really heats up. As a result, the amount of heat
energy stored into the winter season is minimal.
Figure 7m-3: Mean July air temperature for the Earth’s surface, 1959-1997.
Figure 7m-4 describes average annual global temperature data for the Earth for the period 1982-1994.

The patterns of temperature distribution on this figure are once again mostly latitudinal. However, the latitudinal
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banding is partially upset by the fact that water bodies are generally warmer than land surfaces. The image also
shows the effect of altitude (e.g., Himalayas and Andes mountains) and albedo (Greenland and Antarctica) on
surface air temperature.
Average Annual Global Temperature 1982-1994
Figure 7m-4: Average annual temperatures for the Earth’s surface (1982-94).
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

Lapse rate
The normal, lapse rate is uniform at a given level at all latitudes within the troposphere. At the tropopause, the
lapse rate stops at zero i.e. there is no change in temperature there. In the lower stratosphere, the lapse rate
remains constant for some height, while higher temperatures exist over the poles because this layer is closer to
earth at the poles.
Lapse rate is rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through the Earth’s atmosphere
(troposphere to be specific). The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with
elevation, zero when the temperature is constant with elevation and negative when the temperature increases
with elevation (temperature inversion). It averages about 6.5 °C per kilometre (18.8 °F per mile) in the
lower atmosphere (troposphere).
The lapse rate of non-rising air – commonly referred to as the normal, or Environmental, Lapse Rate
(ELR) is highly variable, being affected by radiation, convection, and condensation;
It differs from the adiabatic lapse rate, which involves temperature changes due to the rising or sinking of an
air parcel. The word adiabatic means that no outside heat is involved in the warming or cooling of the air
parcels.
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Dry adiabatic lapse rate: - If a parcel of air is lifted, its pressure is decreased, since pressure decreases with
height, and its temperature falls due to the expansion. If the air is dry and the process is adiabatic, the rate of
temperature fall is 1°C per100 meters
of lift (10°C per Kin), or 5 l/2°F per
1,000 feet of lift. If that parcel descends
again to higher pressure, its temperature
then INCREASES at the rate of 1°C
per 100 meters or 5 1/2°F per 1,000
feet. This is known as the dry adiabatic
lapse rate.
Moist (saturation) adiabatic lapse
rate: - When a mass of air is lifted, it
cools at the dry adiabatic lapse rate of 5
1/2°F per 1,000 feet as long as it
remains unsaturated (relative humidity
below 100percent). If the original moisture is being carried along with the mass as it ascends and it cools to its
saturation temperature, the relative humidity reaches 100 percent. Condensation takes place with further
cooling. For each gram of water condensed, about 597 calories of heat are liberated. This latent heat of
condensation is absorbed by the air, and the adiabatic cooling rate is decreased to 20 to 3°F per 1,000 feet
instead of 5 1/2°F per 1,000 feet. The process during
the saturated expansion of the air is called the
saturation adiabatic, the moist adiabatic, or the
pseudo adiabatic process. The pseudo adiabatic
process assumes that moisture falls out of the air as
soon as it condenses.
The difference between the normal lapse rate in the
atmosphere and the dry and moist adiabatic lapse
rates determines the vertical stability of the
atmosphere that is, the tendency of an air particle to
return to its original position or to accelerate away
from its original position after being given a slight
vertical displacement. For this reason, the lapse rate
is of prime importance to meteorologists in
forecasting certain types of cloud formations, the incidence of thunderstorms, and the intensity of atmospheric
turbulence.
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
Normally, as we go up in the atmosphere, the temperature decreases, but under specific conditions, a condition
opposite to this occurs. Sometimes, the temperature in the lower layers of air increases instead of decreasing
with elevation. This happens commonly along a sloping surface. Here, the surface radiates heat back to space
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rapidly and cools down at a faster rate than the upper layers. As a result the lower cold layers get condensed
and become heavy.
The sloping surface underneath makes them
move towards the bottom where the cold layer
settles down as a zone of low temperature while
the upper layers are relatively warmer. This
condition, opposite to normal vertical
distribution of temperature, is known as
Temperature Inversion. This phenomenon is
specially observed in the intermontane valleys. In
other words, the vertical temperature gets
inverted during temperature inversion.
Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion:
Temperature inversion takes place only under
certain specific conditions which includes-
1. Long nights, so that the outgoing
radiation is greater than the incoming
radiation.
2. Clear skies, which allow unobstructed
escape of radiation.
3. Calm and stable air, so that there is no
vertical mixing at lower levels.
Depending on the nature of underlying surface
and reasons for the temperature contrast, there
are four types of temperature inversion:
1. Surface Temperature Inversion: This is the most common type of temperature inversion and occurs even
on relatively plain surfaces. A rapid radiation of heat occurs in places where the air is still, clear and dry and the
winter nights are long. The temperature, as a consequence, falls rapidly and temperature inversion takes place.
This temperature inversion is not very deep and is destroyed as the sun rises.
2. Air Drainage Type of Inversion: This type of inversion occurs in a valley, where the dense, cold lower
level air slides or drains down a slope to settle down at the bottom of the valley. As a result the valley floor has
a lower temperature gradient than the upper layers, which are relatively warm.
3. Advectional type of Temperature Inversion: There are places where many types of airmasses meet.
The colder airmass, being heavy, settles down, while the warmer airmass, being light, rises over the colder
airmass. This creates temperature inversion. This types of inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather
changes.
4. Upper Surface Temperature Inversion: Sometimes massive upper layers descend and press the layers
below them. As a result the upper layers get warmed up and settle over the cold layers, and temperature
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inversion takes place. This keeps the atmosphere stable for a long time. Such a condition exists in dry
atmosphere. In the winters of mid-latitudinal continental areas, stable high pressure conditions are created, as
mentioned above, and create temperature inversion. This temperature inversion is called upper surface
temperature inversion because it takes place in the upper parts of the atmosphere.
ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION
Sometimes, the temperature of the air at the valley bottom reaches below freezing point, whereas the air at
higher altitude remains comparatively warm. As a result, the trees along the lower slopes are bitten by frost,
whereas those at higher levels are free from it. Due to inversion of temperature, air pollutants such as dust
particles and smoke do not disperse in
the valley bottoms.
Because of these factors, houses and
farms in intermontane valleys are usually
situated along the upper slopes,
avoiding the cold and foggy valley
bottoms. For instance, mulberry
planters in Suwa basin of Japan, coffee
growers of Brazil and apple growers
and hoteliers of mountain states of
Himalayas in India avoid lower slopes.
TEMPERATURE ANOMALY
Temperature anomaly is the difference between the long-term average temperature (sometimes called a
reference value) and the temperature that is actually occurring. In other words, the long-term average
temperature is one that would be expected; the anomaly is the difference between what you would expect and
what is happening.
Lines drawn on a world map joining places having the same thermal anomalies are called isanomals. The map
showing the thermal anomalies is known as an isonomalous map.
The northern hemisphere, where there are a larger percentage of land areas, is characterized by the largest
thermal anomalies. Since the southern hemisphere is more homogeneous because of the larger percentage of
oceans, the magnitude of deviation of the observed mean temperature from the normal temperature values for
the parallels of latitude is relatively smaller. Obviously, this is due to the fact that there is a great anomaly in the
distribution of land and water in both the hemispheres.
There are two types of thermal anomalies: (a) positive anomaly, and (b) negative anomaly. Thermal
anomalies are controlled by the seasons. In January the positive and negative anomalies are found over the
oceans and continents respectively in the northern hemisphere. Mainly due to the presence of warm ocean
currents, the greatest positive anomalies are observed in the eastern portions of middle-latitude oceans and the
western margins of the adjacent continental areas. It is a well-known fact that the North Atlantic Drift, which is
deflected poleward as a relatively warm current, keeps the western and north-western margins of Europe
warmer during the winter than the areas situated in the same latitudinal belt on the continental land mass of
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Eurasia. This factor alone accounts for the highest positive anomaly, which characterizes northeastern Europe
during the colder months of the year.
The entire Norwegian coast is warmer for its latitude in winter. On the other hand, the north-eastern Siberia,
because of the effect of Continentality, has extreme negative thermal anomaly during the winter. Verkhoyansk
has negative thermal anomaly of-25.6°C in January, while in the same month a place situated along the
Norwegian coast has a positive thermal anomaly of 25.6°C. To summarize, all the places situated along the
west coast of Europe are warmer, and the entire land areas of the continental interior are colder for their
latitudes in January.
The position regarding the distribution of thermal anomalies in July is reversed. Because of the summer-time
heating, the continents in northern hemisphere have a positive thermal anomaly in July. On the contrary, the
oceans have a negative anomaly in the same month. This is mainly due to the differential heating of land and
water.
An analysis of the distribution map of annual mean temperature for the world as a whole shows that the
continents show negative anomalies poleward from latitude 40°. Equatorward from the same latitude,
continents have positive anomalies.
However, in the southern hemisphere there is preponderance of oceans which results in a more homogeneous
water surface. The distribution of temperature in this water hemisphere seems to be controlled by the amount
of insolation received, a fact which makes the temperature distribution relatively less complicated. That is why
temperature deviations from the latitude normal are rather insignificant in the southern hemisphere.
Urban Climate serves the scientific and decision making communities with the publication of research on
theory, science and applications relevant to understanding urban climatic conditions and change in relation to
their geography and to demographic, socioeconomic, institutional, technological and environmental dynamics
and global change.
In the field of urban planning, the important role of urban climatology cannot be overemphasized. The
construction and design of new buildings demand that the full consideration should be given to the relationship
between climate and architecture. Besides, the field of urban climatology is mainly concerned with planning to
reduce urban thermal excesses and air pollution.
The application of climatology to urban planning begins with the selection of an urban centre. Along with this the
urban planner must take into account the timing and effects of urbanization on the various weather elements.
However, there are several restraints imposed on the successful application of the principles of urban
climatology in designing and planning a city. However, attempts should be made to analyse the stages by which
the principles of urban climatology may be conveniently introduced to the decision-making processes. The
aforesaid principles must combine the socio-economic and other factors to obtain the optimum climatic
environment.
In order to cope with the problem of air pollution and the thermal stresses, certain remedial measures have
been suggested. The most effective means of reducing the urban temperature excess is, indeed, the properly
spaced green areas in the city. It has been suggested that well-thought out plans of the vegetation areas in cities
would go a long way in improving the ventilation and circulatory systems thereof. Thus such vegetation areas or
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parks will prove helpful to keep under control the noise levels and also the air pollutants. Such vegetation areas
may also be used as recreation areas.
A careful selection of the building materials of different compositions and of different colours will have their
effects on albedo and heat absorption, thus they are able to create temperature differences within the city which
in turn encourage mixing and ventilation. Similarly water bodies in the vicinity of a city may help to minimise the
effect of maximum temperature. Besides, these water bodies may have aesthetic and recreation appeal.
Since there is a huge concentration of people and their economic activities in relatively smaller areas, it provides
opportunity to look into the matter of cultural modifications of climate. One of the most important factors is the
greater densities of atmospheric pollutants over cities. However, there are other factors such as surface
materials, surface shapes, and heat and moisture sources which make the urban areas different from the rural
areas, because they affect radiation, visibility, temperature, wind, humidity, cloudiness and precipitation etc.
Concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere above a city produces urban aerosols. These aerosols have their
own effects on several climatic elements in the city. For example, in winter and at high latitudes the aerosols
reduce the intensity of insolation in the cities. The aerosols are in greater concentrations when there is stability
in the lower layers of the atmosphere and there is calm. The urban aerosols are selective because they reduce
the proportion of ultraviolet radiation more than the long wave radiation. They also adversely affect the bright
sunshine hours and reduce horizontal visibility.
Because of the concentration of aerosols over the cities, the diurnal ranges of temperature are less over there
than in the countryside. In addition, the night time inversions over the urban settlements are weaker. To the
leeward side of the cities the rural inversions tend to intensify.
The impact of air pollution can be minimised by avoiding sitting pollution sources in more congested areas or in
areas prone to frequent low inversions. Large chimneys which are high penetrate the inversion layer. These high
chimneys should be built, as far as possible, downwind from residential and business districts.
The roughness of the city surface tends to intensify the frictional drag which produces turbulence. The mean
wind speed within the city is lower than in the nearly rural areas. The city should lie in a liner orientation across
the direction of prevailing winds. The development planning of a rapidly growing city makes the application of
climatology and meteorology more relevant.
URBAN HEAT ISLAND
The centre of a large city constitutes a “heat island”. The buildings, concrete, asphalt, and the human and
industrial activity of urban areas have caused cities to maintain higher temperatures than their surrounding
countryside. This increased heat is known as an urban heat island. The air in an urban heat island can be as
much as 20°F (11°C) higher than rural areas surrounding the city.
The temperatures are highest near the centre of a city and diminish slowly towards the suburbs. In the central
area of a metropolitan city the temperatures are 1 to 2 degrees warmer in the winter than the surrounding
countryside. The heat is generated by the concentration of objects and activities in the city, such as factories,
motor vehicles, and homes.
Warm air cools as it rises from an urban centre and begins to circulate. An urban dust dome is created by dust,
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soot, and smoke carried by the wind. It retards the outflow of heat from the city, further enhancing the heat
island effect. The particulates in the dust dome produce a level of rainfall about 10 percent higher in the city than
in the surrounding countryside. Cities also have 50 percent more fog in winter and 30 percent more in summer.
Each city’s urban heat island varies based on the city structure and thus the ranges of temperatures within the
island vary as well. Parks and greenbelts reduce temperatures while the Central Business District (CBD),
commercial areas, and even suburban housing tracts are areas of warmer temperatures. Every house, building,
and road changes the microclimate around it, contributing to the urban heat islands of our cities.
Los Angeles has been very much affected by its urban heat island. The city has seen its average temperature
rise approximately 1°F every decade since the beginning of its super-urban growth since the World War II era.
Other cities have seen increases of 0.2°-0.8°F each decade.
Normally the heat islands are larger and more intense over big cities, the relationship is not direct. The heat
island development is influenced by the spacing of buildings, and the various kinds of economic activities. Thus,
the intensity of a heat island depends on the density of buildings as well as that of population. Temperatures are
normally higher where buildings are closely built and where there are narrow lanes and streets.
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3. HEAT BUDGET OF THE EARTH
INTRODUCTION
Input is received in the form of short-wave solar energy. This is called insolation.
a. Insolation is solar radiation received in the Earth’s atmosphere or at its surface.
Only approximately 52 per cent of this insolation reaches the earth’s surface. The rest is absorbed by water
vapour, dust and clouds, or is reflected by the Earth’s surface and scattered by particles in the air. This
reflection is called the albedo.
b. Albedo refers to how reflective and bright something is. Snow has a high albedo, which is why skiers wear
sunglasses and sunscreen. Technically speaking, the albedo of an object is a ratio. It compares the amount of
light hitting the surface of the object to the amount of light that gets reflected back. The more light reflected, the
higher the albedo.
c. Reflected heat, in the form of long-wave radiation, is trapped in our atmosphere and keeps our planet warm.
This is known as the natural greenhouse effect. The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose heat. It
maintains its temperature. This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals
the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation.
Let us consider that the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While passing through
the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed. Only the remaining part reaches
the earth surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth’s surface. Of
these, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas
of the earth and 6 by other parts of the atmosphere. The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the
atmosphere and 51 units by the earth’s surface. The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial
radiation. Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are absorbed by the
atmosphere (6 units absorbed directly by the atmosphere. 9 units through convection and turbulence and 19
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units through latent heat of condensation). 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from insolation +34
units from terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back into space. Thus, the total radiation returning from the
earth and the atmosphere respectively is 17+48=65 units which balance the total of 65 units received from the
sun. This is termed the heat budget or heat balance of the earth. This explains why the earth neither warms
up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of heat that takes place.
LATITUDINAL HEAT BALANCE
There are variations in the amount of radiation received at the earth’s surface. Some part of the earth has
surplus radiation balance while the other part has deficit.
While discussing the terrestrial heat budget, it is made clear that the amount of incoming solar radiation is almost
equal to the amount of outgoing earth radiation for the earth as a whole. But when we consider the heat budget
of different latitudes, it is found that the terrestrial heat balance does not hold good for each latitude.
In fact, there is a great imbalance between different parts of the earth and the atmosphere as can be seen in
Table below. There is a pronounced excess of in-coming over outgoing radiation in low- latitudes and a
marked deficit in high latitudes.
In other words, at latitudes below 40° the total amount of solar radiation received at the surface far exceeds the
total amount of radiation lost to space by the earth. In case of higher latitudes, the situation is reversed, for in
these latitudes more heat is lost through radiation than is received.
But despite this fact, neither the tropics are getting progressively warmer, nor are Polar Regions getting
progressively colder. In view of the imbalance at high and low latitudes, it may look strange.
But one must not lose sight of a continuous large-scale transfer of heat from the tropics to high latitudes. This is
achieved mostly by atmospheric and oceanic circulations.
Amount of heat that must be transferred pole-ward to preserve the latitudinal heat balance.
It may be noted that most of the heat transfer takes place across the middle latitude region lying between
latitudes 30° and 50°. Nature has provided a mechanism of heat transfer from the tropics towards the poles in
the form of middle-latitude storms.
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°Lat. North 1019 cal per day °Lat. North 1019 cal per day

0 0 50 9.61
10 4.05 60 6.68
20 7.68 70 3.41
30 10.46 80 0.94
40 11.42 90 0.00
According to one estimate, about 75 per cent of heat transfer is carried out by atmospheric circulation and the
remaining 25 per cent by the ocean currents.
In fact, it is the latitudinal imbalance of heat that drives the wind and the ocean currents. It is only trough the
transfer of heat by winds and oceanic circulations that the latitudinal imbalances of energy are equalized and the
heat balance in the various latitudes of the earth is preserved.
To maintain a balance across the world, heat is transferred by three main methods:
a. Ocean currents - warm ocean currents move heat from the tropics to the poles while cold ocean
currents work in the opposite direction.
b. Trade winds - These transfer large amounts of heat from the tropics to the poles.
c. Storms - These tropical cyclones transfer large amounts of heat energy from the tropics (where they
develop) to the subtropics and temperate zones.
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4. PRESSURE BELTS OF THE WORLD
INTRODUCTION
Since air has mass, it also has weight. The pressure of air at a given place is defined as a force exerted in all
directions by virtue of the weight of all the air above it. Since air pressure is proportional to density as well as
temperature, it follows that a change in either temperature or density will cause a corresponding change in the
pressure.
The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere is
called the air or atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is measured in millibars and is measured using
a barometer. There are different kinds of barometers. The mercury barometer and the aneroid barometer are
two examples. The pressure exerted by a column of mercury that is 760 milli metres high is 1013.2 millibars.
This value is considered as normal atmospheric pressure. But the pressure changes from day to day and from
time to time, and is never static. If we consider the sea level pressure observed over the entire earth, it will be
seen that it varies from about 982 mb to 1033 mb.
The highest sea level pressure ever recorded was at Irkutsk in Siberia on 14 January, 1893, where the
observed pressure was 1075.2 mb. The lowest sea-level pressure ever recorded was observed in the eye of
a very destructive typhoon that visited Mariana Islands. The pressure was abnormally low (877 mb) there.
All the weather changes are closely related to pressure variations. It is customary to believe that high values of
air pressure produce clear and stable weather, while low atmospheric pressure brings in bad weather.
The distribution of atmospheric pressure is shown on a map by isobars. An isobar is an imaginary line drawn
through places having equal atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level. The spacing of isobars expresses the
rate and direction of pressure changes and is referred to as pressure gradient.
Close spacing of isobars indicates a steep or strong pressure gradient, while wide spacing suggests weak
gradient. The pressure gradient may thus be defined as the decrease in pressure per unit distance in the
direction in which the pressure decreases most rapidly.
However, it would be more logical
to generalize that a continually
rising air pressure is an indication of
fine and settled weather, and a
steadily falling tendency in the
barometer foretells the advent of
unsettled and cloudy weather. In
other words, despite the fact that
air pressure is closely tied to
various weather phenomena it is
true that the weather at a particular
station is largely controlled more by the pressure in adjoining areas, rather than the actual pressure recorded
over there.
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Observed Distribution of Pressure and Winds and Idealized Zonal Pressure Belts
As you might expect, Earth’s global wind patterns are associated with a distinct distribution of surface air
pressure. To simplify this discussion, we will first examine the idealized pressure distribution that would be
expected if Earth’s surface were uniform that is, composed of all sea or all smooth land.
(a) An imaginary uniform Earth with idealized zonal (continuous) pressure belts, (b) The real Earth with
disruptions of the zonal pattern caused by large landmasses. These disruptions break up pressure zones into
semi-permanent high- and low-pressure cells.
If the earth had a uniform surface, two latitudinally oriented belts of high and two of low pressure would exist.
Near the equator, the warm rising branch of the Hadley cells is associated with the pressure zone known as the
equatorial low. This region of ascending moist, hot air is marked by abundant precipitation. Because it is the
region where the trade winds converge, it is also referred to as the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ).
In the belts about 20° to 35° on either side of the equator, where the westerlies and trade winds originate and
go their separate ways, are the pressure zones known as the subtropical highs. These zones of high pressure
are caused mainly by the Coriolis deflection, which restricts the poleward movement of the upper-level branch
of the Hadley cells. As a result, a high-level pileup of air occurs around 20° to 35° latitude. Here a subsiding
air column and diverging winds at the surface result in warm and clear weather. Recall that many large deserts
lie near 30° latitude, within this zone of sinking air. Generally, the rate at which air accumulates in the upper
troposphere exceeds the rate at which the air descends and spreads out at the surface. Thus, the subtropical
highs exist throughout most of the year and are regarded as semi-permanent features of the general circulation.
Another low pressure region is situated at about 50° to 6O° latitude, in a position corresponding to the polar
front. Here the polar easterlies and westerlies clash to form a convergent zone known as the subpolar low.
This zone is responsible for much of the stormy weather in the middle latitudes, particularly in the winter.
Finally, near Earth’s poles are the polar highs, from which the polar easterlies originate. The high-pressure
centers that develop over the cold polar areas are generated by entirely different processes than those that
create the subtropical highs. The high-pressure zones in the subtropics result because the rate at which air piles
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up aloft exceeds the rate at which it spreads out at the surface. Stated another way, more air accumulates near
30° latitude than leaves these air columns. By contrast, the polar highs exhibit high surface pressure mainly
because of surface cooling. Because air near the poles is cold and dense, it exerts a higher than average
pressure.
SEMI-PERMANENT PRESSURE SYSTEMS: THE REAL WORLD
Up to this point, we have considered the global pressure systems as if they were continuous belts around Earth.
However, because Earth’s surface is not uniform, the only true zonal distribution of pressure exists along the
sub polar low in the Southern Hemisphere, where the ocean is continuous. To a lesser extent, the equatorial
low is also continuous. At other latitudes, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, where there is a higher
proportion of land compared to ocean, the zonal pattern is replaced by semi permanent cells of high and low
pressure.
The idealized pattern of pressure and winds for the “real” Earth is illustrated in. Although representative, the
pattern shown is always in a state of flux because of seasonal temperature changes, which serve to either
strengthen or weaken these pressure cells. In addition, the latitudinal position of these pressure systems moves
either pole ward or equator ward along with the seasonal migration of the zone of maximum solar heating. This
is particularly true of the low-pressure belt associated with the intertropical convergence zone. The position of
this thermally produced belt of low pressure is highly dependent on solar heating. As a consequence of these
factors, Earth’s pressure patterns vary in strength or location during the course of the year. A view of the
average global pressure patterns and resulting winds for the months of January and July are shown in. Notice
on these pressure maps that, for the most part, the observed pressure regimes are cellular (or elongated)
instead of zonal. The most prominent features on both maps are the subtropical highs. These systems are
centred between 20° and 35° latitude over all the larger subtropical oceans.
SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE:
Figures 2.14 and 2.15 shows the seasonal contrasts in world distribution of pressure.
Fig 2.14 Map showing distribution of pressure un January
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In January, the equatorial low pressure belt shifts a little south of its mean equatorial position, due to the
apparent southward movement of the sun. The lowest pressure pockets occur on the land masses of South
America, South Africa and Australia, because land masses become much hotter than the adjoining oceans.
Sub-tropical high pressure belt of the southern hemisphere is broken over the continents and remains confined
to the oceans only.
Its development is maximum in the eastern parts of the oceans where the cool ocean currents are effective. In
the northern hemisphere, a well-developed sub-tropical high pressure area extends over the continents. Finally,
sub-polar low of the southern hemisphere extends as a trough whereas in the northern hemisphere, there are
two cells of low presrure extending over the North Atlantic and the North Pacific. These are known as the
Icelandic low and the Aleutian low respectively. (Fig. 2.14)
In July, the equatorial low pressure belt shifts towards the north following the apparent movement of the sun.
This shift is maximum in Asia. The landmasses of the northern hemisphere become excessively hot and low
pressure areas develop over them. The sub-tropical high pressure belt of the southern hemisphere extends
continuously. In contrast, in the northern hemisphere, it is broken over the continents and remains confined to
the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans. Sub-polar low is deep and continuous in the southern
hemisphere, while in the northern hemisphere, there is only a faint oceanic low. (Fig. 2.15)
Fig 2.15 Map showing distribution of pressure un July
DIURNAL VARIATION OF PRESSURE

The atmospheric pressure shows a definite rhythm when observed diurnally. Insolational heating and terrestrial
radiation are mainly responsible for diurnal variations in pressure. During the equinoxes, the maxima occurs at
10 A.M. and 10 P.M. and the minima at 4 A.M. and 4 P.M. In the tropics, higher diurnal range occurs at places
located at sea level and a lower range occurs at places located at higher altitudes.
The continents experience a larger range during daytime and a smaller range during the night. The oceans and
coasts have a large diurnal range. The irregularities in the diurnal range occur due to cyclones, anti-cyclones
and other atmospheric disturbances. These irregularities are larger and more pronounced in mid-latitudes and
less pronounced in high latitudes.
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THE FACTORS THAT AFFECT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
a. Altitude - The main factor that affects the air pressure at a given location is the altitude (or height above sea
level) of that location. The maximum air density is at the earth’s surface; air density decreases with height away
from the surface of the earth (because the pull of the earth’s
gravity is less). The fewer number of gas molecules at higher
altitudes means fewer molecular collisions and a decrease in air
pressure. The effect of altitude on atmospheric pressure is so
large that meteorologists usually adjust local air pressure
measurements to what the air pressure would be if the station
were actually located at sea level, so that they can determine
changes in pressure which are due to weather patterns.
b. Temperature - When atmospheric air is heated (such as by
radiation from the sun), the air molecules become more active, which increases the space between
neighbouring molecules and reduces the air density. Lowering the air density decreases the amount of pressure
exerted by the air. So, higher the temperature, lower the air pressure and lower the temperature, greater the air
pressure.
c. Water vapour - Water vapor concentration affects atmospheric pressure because the molecular weight of
water (18 g/mol) is less than the average molecular weight of air (about 29 g/mol). When water evaporates and
enters the atmosphere as a gas, the water vapor molecules take the place of other gas molecules in the air. So,
a volume of wet (or humid) air weighs less than an equal volume of dry air. Therefore humid air is less dense and
exerts less pressure than dry air.
d. Wind patterns - Finally, atmospheric pressure can be influenced by wind patterns, which cause
convergence (moving together) and divergence (moving apart) of air at the earth’s surface. This combination of
factors makes air pressure an important parameter in predicting weather. In general weather becomes stormy
when air pressures fall (generally due to warmer, humid air and/or convergence of air masses at the surface of
the earth which cause convection and rising air) and becomes fair when air pressures rise (generally due to
drier, colder air and/or divergence of air masses).
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5. PLANETARY AND LOCAL WINDS
INTRODUCTION
Wind is the horizontal movement of air from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. Winds are
caused by differences in air pressure. These differences are caused by the uneven heating of the Earth’s
surface. Wind speed is measured by an anemometer. Winds are named by their direction (where they originate
from) and speed. A wind coming from the west is said to be a westerly wind, those blowing from the east called
easterlies. The Earth’s rotation deflects winds to the right of their flow in the Northern Hemisphere and to the
left to their flow in the southern Hemisphere.
VARIOUS TYPES OF WINDS
The winds at the surface may be classified into the following types.
I. Planetary winds:
The general distribution of winds throughout the lower atmosphere is known as planetary winds. Confined
within some latitudinal belts, these winds blow rather regularly throughout the year and are basically controlled
by the latitudinal pressure belts. There are three main planetary winds that constantly blow in the same direction
all around the world. They are also called prevailing or permanent winds.
a. Trade winds: Trade winds blow in a belt lying between 5°N-30°N in the northern hemisphere and 5°S-
30°S in the southern hemisphere. From the equator ward side of the Sub-tropical highs in the Northern
hemisphere air flows towards the Equatorial low but it is deflected right according to Ferrell’s law and as a
result instead of blowing as northerly wind, it bends westward to become North-east trade winds.
In the Southern hemisphere winds originating from the Sub-tropical high pressure and blowing towards the
Equatorial low pressure are similarly deflected westward to become the prevailing South-east trades. Trade
winds are noted for their consistency, both in force and direction in many areas especially over open seas and
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derive their name from the nautical expression ‘to blow trade’ meaning ‘to blow along a regular track’. Zones
of sub-tropical highs in latitudes about 30°-35°N and 30°-35°S are areas of descending air and are
characterized by calms light variable winds, comparatively dry air and quiet, stable weather conditions. These
zones of latitudes are called Horse latitude.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADE WINDS
They blow from Sub-tropical High Pressure to Equatorial Low Pressure.
(i) Since they are warm winds, they pick up moisture and are responsible for heavy rainfall on eastern
sides of tropical lands.
(ii) They are called North-East Trades in Northern Hemisphere and South East Trades in Southern
Hemisphere. The winds and pressure belts move a few degrees north and south along with the
movement of the overhead sun.
(iii) They have fixed velocity and are regular.
(iv) They are permanent or prevailing winds.
b. The Westerlies: The Westerly winds blow across latitudes 35°-60° of both hemispheres. The air streams
flowing pole wards from the Sub-tropical high pressure areas deflects eastward in the Northern hemisphere to
form South-westerlies. Similar winds in the Southern hemisphere are known as North-westerlies. Unlike the
trade winds, the westerlies are very variable in force and direction especially in the Northern hemisphere. In the
Southern hemisphere, on the other hand, the Westerlies blow with great strength and regularity throughout the
year over the almost uninterrupted expanse of ocean and have given the name Roaring forties to the region
specially between latitudes 40°S and 50°S. Sometimes the name is applied to the winds themselves as they
give a roaring sound on account of high speed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WESTERLIES
(i) They blow from Sub-tropical High Pressure to Sub-polar low.
(ii) They are very strong wands, and most often blow from the western side of land mass.
(iii) They are interspersed by cyclones and cause light drizzle.
(iv) They are stronger in the southern hemisphere as there is absence of land mass.
c. The Polar Easterlies
The wands that originate in the North and South Polar regions and blow towards Circum-polar Low Pressure
Zone are known as Polar Winds. They start from Polar High Pressure Zone, and originate from ice capped
land-mass in Arctic and Antarctic latitudes. In the Northern Hemisphere, they blow from the north-east, and
are called the North- East Polar Winds; and in the Southern Hemisphere, they blow from the south-east and
arc called the South-East Polar Winds. They are also deflected to the west in both hemispheres and hence are
known as Polar Easterlies.
Characteristics of Polar Winds
(i) They are very cold winds.
(ii) They are also referred to as Polar easterlies from the direction in which they blow.
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(iii) When they blow over oceans they become warm.
II. Periodic Winds
Periodic winds blow at regular intervals or in regular cycles. They are winds that result from localised
differences in pressure and temperature. For example, land and sea breezes, monsoons, mountain and valley
breezes.
a. Land and Sea Breezes: - They are caused by
differential rate of heating of the land and the sea. In
day time land gets heated faster than the adjoining
sea. This creates a low pressure zone on the land and
high pressure zone over the sea. Thus the winds blow
from sea to land and are called Sea Breezes. At night
reverse of this happens and winds blow from land to
sea and are called Land Breezes.
b. Mountain and Valley Breezes: - A diurnal wind
occurs in mountainous regions which are similar to
Land and Sea Breezes. During the day the slopes of
mountains are hot and air from valley flows up the
slopes. This is known as “Valley Breeze”. After
sunset the pattern is reversed and cold air slides from
mountain to valley and is called “mountain breeze”.
c. Monsoons: - They are periodic seasonal winds
blowing in the regions of South East Asia, Northern
Australia etc. The word ‘monsoon’ is derived from
the Arabic word Mausim meaning ‘season’. They
develop because of differences in heating conditions
of the continent and the oceans. They are divided into
two wind systems the Summer Monsoon and the
Winter Monsoon. Details about monsoons are given
in another chapter.
III. Local winds
Local winds occur on a small spatial scale, their
horizontal dimensions typically several tens to a few
hundreds of kilometres. They also tend to be short-
lived lasting typically several hours to a day. The local
difference in temperature and pressure causes local
winds. There are many such winds around the world,
some of them cold, some warm, some wet, some dry. There are many hazards associated with the winds. The
following list includes seasonal winds with local names:
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Loo: In the plains of northern India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from the west in
summer in the afternoons. It is known as loo. Its temperature invariably ranges between 45°C and 50°C. It
may cause sunstroke to people.
Foehn and Chinook: A strong warm wind develops on the leeward side of the Alps. Due to regional pressure
gradient, stable air is forced to cross the barrier. As the air ascends the southern slopes of the Alps, it expands
and cools. Condensation takes place when the air is saturated, causing rain and snowfall on the higher slopes.
However, on descending the northern slopes, the wind experiences an increase in pressure and temperature.
Due to this air is compressed and warmed. Most of its moisture is lost and it reaches the valley bottom as a dry
hot wind, called the Foehn. The
temperature of the wind is from
15°C to 20°C. The wind is of use
for melting snow and it hastens the
ripening of grapes.
Similar kind of wind in the USA and
Canada move down the west slopes
of the Rockies and are known as
Chinooks. The word chinook
literally means ‘snow eater’. It is
beneficial to ranches east of the
Rockies as it keeps the grasslands
clear from snow.
Mistral: - During winter, areas adjacent to highlands may experience a local cold wind which originates over
the snow capped mountains or highlands and blows down the valley. These winds have been given local
names. The most famous is the mistral that blows from the Alps over France towards the Mediterranean Sea.
Even though the skies are clear, the mistral brings down the temperature below freezing point. These local
winds often have a considerable effect on climatic conditions, notably on the temperature of a place.
The Crachin: The name given to the drizzly weather with low stratus, mist or fog which occurs from time to
time during the period January to April over the China Sea and in coastal areas between Shanghai and Cape
Cambodia. It occurs when cool, moist air from the north encounters warm, moist air, and it is intensified by
orographic lifting and/or by coastal convergence.
The Bise: A cold dry wind which blows from the north-east, north or north-west in the mountainous regions
of south eastern France and western Switzerland in winter months. The bise is accompanied by heavy cloud.
The Bora: The bora is a strong, cold and gusty north-easterly wind which descends to the Adriatic Sea from
the Dinaric Alps, the mountains behind the Dalmatian coast (the coast of Croatia). It is a winter phenomenon
that develops when a slow-moving depression is centred over the Plain of Hungary and western Balkans so
that winds are blowing from the east towards the Dinaric Alps. These mountains form a barrier which traps the
cold air to the east of them whilst the Adriatic coast remains comparatively mild. Gradually, though, the depth
of the cold air increases until the air flows over passes and through valleys to reach the Adriatic Sea.
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The bora begins suddenly and without warning and the cold air typically descends to the coast so rapidly that
it has little time to warm up. The bora can reach speeds of more than 100 km/h and has been known to
overturn vehicles and blow people off their feet.
The Harmattan: A dry and comparatively cool wind which blows from the east or north-east on the coast of
North Africa between Cabo Verde and the Gulf of Guinea during the dry season (November to March). It
brings dust and sand from the Sahara Desert, often in sufficient quantity to form a thick haze which hinders
navigation on rivers. Dust and sand are sometimes carried many hundreds of kilometres out to sea.
The Helm Wind: An easterly wind found in Cumbria, N. England, where the winds blow over Cross Fell and
then descend into the Eden Valley. A bank of cloud forms over the hill tops, and the roaring of the wind can be
heard as far away as Penrith.
The Khamsin: A hot, dry, dust-laden, southerly wind over Egypt, the Red Sea and eastern parts of the
Mediterranean Sea ahead of eastward-moving depressions. It occurs during the period February to June,
being most frequent in March and April. The Khamsin is a Sirocco wind, whose name comes from the Arabic
word for ‘fifty’, which is approximately the length of time the wind blows for. In the nineteenth Century, the
plague was worst in Egypt when the Khamsin was blowing.
The Kharif: A strong south-westerly wind which blows daily over the Gulf of Aden from about 22:00 hours
until about noon the following day. It occurs in June, July and August (during the south-west monsoon) and
frequently reaches gale force.
The Leste: A hot, dry, southerly wind which occurs in winter and spring between Madeira and Gibraltar and
along the coast of North Africa ahead of an advancing depression.
The Levanter: A moist wind which blows from the east over the Strait of Gibraltar. It is frequently
accompanied by haze or fog and may occur at any time of year, though it is most common in the period June to
October. A feature is the occurrence of a ‘banner cloud’ extending a kilometre or more downwind from the
summit of the Rock of Gibraltar. The strength of the Levanter does not normally exceed Beaufort Force. When
it is strong, however, complex and vigorous atmospheric eddies form in the lee of the Rock, causing difficult
conditions for yachtsmen and the pilots of aircraft. The levanter can also cause persistently foggy weather on
the coast of Spain.
The Levenche: A hot, dry, southerly wind which blows on the south-east coast of Spain ahead of an
advancing depression. It is typically laden with sand and dust, and its approach is often heralded by a belt of
brownish cloud on the southern horizon.
The Maestro: The name given to north-westerly winds over the Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea and coastal
regions of Sardinia and Corsica.
Norther: This name for a wind is used in more than one place. In Chile, a Norther is a northerly gale with rain.
It usually occurs in winter but occasionally occurs at other times of year. Typically, it can be identified by falling
air pressure, a cloudy or overcast sky, good visibility and water levels below normal along the coast. Over the
Gulf of Mexico and western parts of the Caribbean Sea, Northers are strong, cool, northerly winds which
blow mainly in winter. Over the Gulf of Mexico, they are sometimes humid and accompanied by precipitation,
but over the Gulf of Tehuantepec they are dry winds.
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Pampero: The name given to severe line squalls in Argentina and Uruguay, particularly in the Rio de la Plata
area. They are associated with marked cold fronts and are usually accompanied by rain, thunder and lightning,
a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of wind direction from northerly or north westerly to
southerly or south-westerly. They are most likely to occur during the period June to September.
Roaring forties: Strong westerly winds found in the Southern Hemisphere between 40 and 50 degrees
South. Sailing ships have always made use of them. The winds are much stronger in the Southern Hemisphere
because there is very little land to slow them down – only Tasmania, New Zealand and the very bottom of
South America.
The Zonda/Sondo: This term applies to two different phenomena. It usually refers to a dry and often dusty
föhn wind that occurs over the eastern slopes of the Andes in central Argentina in winter months. It is also the
name (or sondo) given to a hot, humid, northerly wind over the Pampas region of South America in advance of
an eastward-moving depression and preceding a pampero occurrence.
The Santa Ana: A hot, dry, strong, blustery, föhn-type wind which blows from the north-east or east over
southern California and carries with it large quantities of dust. It is most frequent in winter but may also occur
in spring or autumn. It may get its name from the Santa Ana Mountains or the Santa Ana Canyon but other
possibilities are that it derives from santanas, meaning ‘devil winds’, or the Spanish Satanás, meaning Satan.
These winds can cause a great deal of damage. As they are hot and dry, they cause vegetation to dry out, so
increasing the risk of wildfires; and once fires start the winds fan the flames and hasten the spread of the fires.
In spring, Santa Ana winds can cause considerable damage to fruit trees.
Shamal: Strictly, the shamal is any north-westerly wind over the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, but the term
usually refers not to the normal prevailing winds but to the squally gale-force winds accompanied by rain and
thunder which occur in winter.
The Scirocco/Sirocco: A hot, dry southerly wind which blows from the Sahara in northern Africa into the
southern Mediterranean. It picks up moisture as it crosses the Mediterranean and can reach Spain, France,
Italy and Greece bringing Saharan dust and hot, windy, damp weather, often with fog or low stratus cloud. In
spring, the Sirocco can bring gale force winds. There are many local names for the Sirocco, including chom,
arifi, Simoom, Ghibli, Chili, Khamsin, Solano, Leveche, Marin and Jugo.
The Solano: An easterly or south-easterly wind, with rain, which occurs in the Strait of Gibraltar and over
south-eastern coasts of Spain.
Southerly-buster: The name given to the violent squalls which are associated with well-defined active cold
fronts over coastal regions of southern and south-eastern Australia. They are accompanied by lightning,
thunder and gale-force winds and are similar to pamperos. They are most frequent in summer but may also
occur in spring and autumn.
Sumatra: These are characteristically squally local winds which occur over the Malacca Strait several times a
month during the period April to November. They are always accompanied by heavy rain from cumulonimbus
clouds and are almost always accompanied by lightning and thunder. They are initiated by katabatic winds and
therefore tend to occur at night.
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Tramontana: A cold, dry, northerly or north-westerly wind over the coast of Catolina and a cold, dry
northerly or north-easterly wind over the west coast of Italy and the north coast of Corsica. It is typically a
strong wind but does not often reach gale force.
Williwaw: A sudden, cold, violent wind found in Alaska and Cape Horn which blows from the mountains to
the sea.
Willy-Willy: A willy-willy is a dust storm over north-west Australia.
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6. MOISTURE
BASICS
a. Latent Heat
Whenever water changes state, heat is exchanged between water and its surroundings. When water
evaporates, heat is absorbed. Under certain conditions, heat may be added to a substance without an
accompanying rise in temperature. For example, when a glass of ice water is warmed, the temperature of the
ice-water mixture remains a constant 0°C (32°F) until all the ice has melted. If adding heat does not raise the
temperature, where does this energy go? In this case, the added energy went to break the molecular attractions
that bind water molecules into a crystalline structure.
Because the heat used to melt ice does not produce a temperature change, it is referred to as latent heat.
(Latent means hidden, like the latent fingerprints hidden at a crime scene.) This energy can be thought of as
being stored in liquid water and it is not released to its surroundings as heat until the liquid returns to the solid
state.
b. Evaporation
Heat is absorbed when ice is converted to liquid water. Heat is also absorbed during evaporation, the process
of converting a liquid to a gas (vapor). The energy absorbed by water molecules during evaporation is used to
give them the motion needed to escape the surface of the liquid and become a gas. This energy is referred to as
the latent heat vaporization. During the process of evaporation, it is the higher-temperature (faster-moving)
molecules that escape the surface. As a result, the average molecular motion (temperature) of the remaining
water is reduced- hence, the common expression “Evaporation is a cooling process.”
c. Condensation, the reverse process, occurs when water vapor changes to the liquid state. During
condensation, water-vapor molecules release energy (latent heat of condensation) in an amount equivalent
to what was absorbed during evaporation. When condensation occurs in the atmosphere, it results in the
formation of such phenomena as fog and clouds.
d. Sublimation is the conversion of a solid directly to a gas without passing through the liquid state.
Examples you may have observed include the gradual shrinking of unused ice cubes in the freezer and the rapid
conversion of dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) to wispy clouds that quickly disappear.
e. Deposition refers to the reverse process, the conversion of a vapor directly to a solid. This change
occurs, for example, when water vapor is deposited as ice on solid objects such as grass or windows. These
deposits are called white frost and hoar frost and are frequently referred to simply as frost. A household
example of the process of deposition is the “frost” that accumulates in a freezer
MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH THE ATMOSPHERE
The increasing demands on this finite resource have led scientists to focus on the continuous exchange of water
among the oceans, the atmosphere, and the continents. This unending circulation of Earth’s water supply
has come to be called the hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic cycle is a gigantic system powered by energy
from the Sun in which the atmosphere provides the vital link between the oceans and continents. Water from
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the oceans and, to a much lesser extent, from the continents, evaporates into the atmosphere. Winds transport
this moisture-laden air, often over great distances.
In summary, the hydrologic cycle depicts the continuous movement of water from the oceans to the
atmosphere, from the atmosphere to the land, and from the land back to the sea. The movement of water
through the cycle holds the key to the distribution of moisture over the surface of our planet and is intricately
related to all atmospheric phenomena. The details about hydrological cycle are discussed later in other chapter.
HUMIDITY - WATER VAPOR IN THE AIR

Water vapor is the most important gas in the atmosphere when it comes to understanding atmospheric
processes. Humidity is the general term used to describe the amount of water vapor in the air. There are
several methods to express the water-vapor content of the air, including (1) absolute humidity, (2) mixing ratio,
(3) vapor pressure, (4) relative humidity, and (5) dew point. Two of these methods, absolute humidity and
mixing ratio, are similar
i. Absolute Humidity is the mass of water vapor in a given volume of air (usually as grams per cubic
meter). As air moves from one place to another, changes in pressure and temperature cause changes
in its volume. When such volume changes occur, the absolute humidity also changes, even if no water
vapour is added or removed. Consequently, it is difficult to monitor the water-vapour content of a
moving mass of air if absolute humidity is the index being used. Therefore, meteorologists generally
prefer to employ mixing ratio to ex-press the water-vapour content of air.
ii. The mixing ratio is the mass of water vapour in a unit of air compared to the remaining mass of dry
air. Because it is measured in units of mass (usually grams per kilogram), the mixing ratio is not
affected by changes in pressure or temperature.
Neither the absolute humidity nor the mixing ratio, however, can be easily determined by direct
sampling. Therefore, other methods are also used to express the moisture content of the air. These
include vapour pressure, relative humidity, and dew point.
iii. Vapour Pressure and Saturation Another measure of the moisture content of the air is obtained
from the pressure exerted by water vapour. To understand how water vapour exerts pressure,
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imagine a closed flask containing pure water and overlaid by dry air. Almost immediately some of the
water molecules begin to leave the water surface and evaporate into the dry air above. The addition
of water vapour into the air can be detected by a small increase in pressure. This increase in pressure
is the result of the motion of the water-vapour molecules that were added to the air through
evaporation. In the atmosphere, this pressure is called vapour pressure and is defined as that part of
the total atmospheric pressure attributable to its water-vapour content.
Initially, many more molecules will leave the water surface (evaporate) than will return (condense).
However, as more and more molecules evaporate from the water surface, the steadily increasing
vapour pressure in the air above forces more and more water molecules to return to the liquid.
Eventually a balance is reached in which the number of water molecules returning to the surface
balances the number leaving. At that point the air is said to have reached an equilibrium called
saturation. When air is saturated, the pressure exerted by the motion of the water-vapour molecules
is called the saturation vapour pressure.
The saturation vapour pressure is temperature-dependent, such that at higher temperatures it takes
more water vapour to saturate air.
The other major factor determining which will dominate, evaporation or condensation, is the vapour
pressure in the air around the liquid. Recall from our example of a closed container that vapour
pressure determines the rate at which the water molecules return to the surface (condense). When
the air is dry (low vapour pressure), the rate at which water molecules return to the liquid phase is
low. However, when the air around a liquid has reached the saturation vapour pressure, the rate of
condensation will be equal to the rate of evaporation. Thus, at saturation there is neither a net
condensation nor a net evaporation. Therefore, all else being equal, net evaporation is greater when
the air is dry (low vapor pressure) than when the air is humid (high vapor pressure).
iv. Relative humidity is a ratio of the air’s actual water-vapor content compared with the amount of
water vapor required for saturation at that temperature (and pressure). Thus, relative humidity
indicates how near the air is to saturation rather than the actual quantity of water vapor in the air
When the relative humidity reaches 100 cent, the air is said to be saturated.
HOW RELATIVE HUMIDITY CHANGES
Because relative humidity is based on the air’s water-vapour content, as well as the amount of moisture
required for saturation, it can be changed in either of two ways. First, relative humidity can be changed by the
addition or removal of water vapor. Second, because the amount of moisture required saturation is a function
of air temperature, relative humidity varies with temperature. (Recall that the saturation vapour pressure is
temperature dependent, such that at higher temperatures, it takes more water vapor to saturate air than lower
temperatures.)
Humidity increases until saturation occurs (100 percent relative humidity). What if even more moisture is added
to this parcel of saturated air? Does the relative humidity exceed 100 percent? Normally, this situation does not
occur. Instead, the excess water vapor condenses to form liquid water.
The second condition that affects relative humidity is air temperature when the water-vapor content remains
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constant, a decrease in temperature results in an increase in relative humidity and an increase in temperature
causes a decrease in relative humidity.
v. Dew-Point Temperature
Another important measure of humidity is the dew-point temperature. The dew-point temperature, or simply
the dew point, is the temperature to which air needs to be cooled to reach saturation. Unlike relative humidity,
which is a measure of how near the air is to being saturated, dew-point temperature is a measure of the actual
moisture content of a parcel of air. Because the dew-point temperature is directly related to the amount of
water vapor in the air, and because it is easy to determine, it is one of the most useful measures of humidity.
Because the dew-point temperature is a good measure of the amount of water vapor in the air, it is the measure
of atmospheric moisture that appears on a variety of weather maps.
Adiabatic Temperature Changes Condensation occurs when water vapor is cooled enough to change to a
liquid. Condensation may produce dew, fog, or clouds. Although each type of condensation is different, all
require saturated air to form. As indicated earlier, saturation occurs either when sufficient water vapor is added
to the air or, more commonly, when the air is to its dew-point temperature.
Heat near Earth’s surface is readily exchanged between the ground and the air above. As the ground loses heat
evening (radiation cooling), dew may condense on the grass and fog may form in the air near the surface. Thus,
cooling that occurs after sunset accounts for some condensation. However, cloud formation often takes place
during warmest part of the day. Clearly some other mechanism must operate aloft that cools air sufficiently to
generate clouds. The temperature changes in which heat is neither added nor subtracted, are called adiabatic
temperature changes. They result when air is compressed or allowed to expand.
ADIABATIC COOLING AND CONDENSATION
Any time a parcel of air moves upward, it passes through regions of successively lower pressure. As a result,
ascending air expands and it cools adiabatically. Unsaturated air cools at a constant rate of 100C for every
1000 meters of ascent conversely, descending air comes under increasing pressure and is compressed and
heated 100C for every 1000 meters of descent. This rate of cooling or heating applies only to vertically moving
unsaturated air and is known as the dry adiabatic rate
(“dry” because the air is unsaturated).
If a parcel of air rises high enough, it will eventually cools to
its dew point. Here the process of condensation starts the
altitude at which a parcel of air reaches saturation and
cloud formation begins is called the lifting condensation
level. At the lifting condensation level an important thing
happens. The latent heat that was absorbed by the water
vapor it evaporated is liberated. Although the parcel will
continue to cool adiabatically, the release of this latent heat
slows the rate of cooling. In other words, when a parcel of
air ascends above the lifting condensation level, the rate of
cooling is reduced because the release of latent heat
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partially offsets the cooling due to expansion. This slower rate of cooling caused by the release of latent heat is
called the wet adiabatic rate of cooling (“wet” because the air is saturated).Because the amount of latent
heat released depends on the quantity of moisture present in the air, the wet adiabatic rate varies from 5°C per
1000 meters for air with a high moisture content to 9°C per 1000 meters for air with a low moisture content.
MOISTURE AND ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
Water vapor is an odorless, colorless gas that mixes freely with the other gases of the atmosphere. Unlike
oxygen and nitrogen-the two most abundant components of the atmosphere-water can change from one state
of matter to another (solid, liquid, or gas) at the temperatures and pressures experienced on Earth. By
comparison, nitrogen will not condense to a liquid unless its temperature is lowered to -196°C (-371 °F).
Because of this unique property, water freely leaves the oceans as a gas and returns again as a liquid.
MOISTURE AND CLOUD FORMATION

In general the tendency is for air to resist vertical movement. Therefore, air is located near the surface tends to
stay near the surface, and air aloft tends remain aloft. Exception to this rule, as we shall see, includes conditions
in the atmosphere that give air sufficient buoyancy to rise without the aid of outside forces. In many situations,
however, when you see clouds forming, there is some mechanical phenomenon at work that forces the air rise
(at least initially).
There are four mechanisms that cause air to rise which are as follows -
• Orographic lifting- air is forced to rise over a mountainous barrier.
• Frontal wedging- warmer, less dense air, is forced over cooler, denser air.
• Convergence- a pile-up of horizontal air
• Localized convective lifting- unequal surface heating causes localized pockets of air to rise
because of their buoyancy.
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a. OROGRAPHIC LIFTING
Orographic lifting occurs when elevated terrains, such as mountains, act as barriers to the flow of air as air
ascends a mountain slope, adiabatic cooling often generates clouds and copious precipitation.
Orographic lifting and rain shadow deserts, (a) Orographic lifting occurs where air is forced over a topographic
barrier.
In addition to providing lift, mountains remove additional moisture in other ways. By slowing the horizontal flow
of air, they cause convergence and retard the passage of storm systems. Moreover, the irregular topography of
mountains enhances the differential heating that causes some localized convective lifting. These combined
effects account for the generally higher precipitation associated with mountainous regions compared with
surrounding lowlands. By the time air reaches the leeward side of a mountain, much of its moisture has been
lost. If the air descends, it warms adiabatically, making condensation and precipitation even less likely. The
Gobi Desert of Mongolia, the Takla Makan of China, and the Patagonia Desert of Argentina are other
examples of deserts that exist because they are on the leeward sides of mountains.
Orographic lifting and the formation of rain shadow
deserts. From the cloud base to the top of the
mountain, water vapor within the rising air is
condensing to form more and more cloud droplets.
As a result, the windward side of the mountain range
experiences abundant precipitation. For simplicity,
we will assume that the air that was forced to the top
of the mountain is cooler than the surrounding air and
hence begins to flow down the leeward slope of the
mountain. As the air descends, it is compressed and
heated at the dry adiabatic rate upon reaching the
base of the mountain range, the temperature of the
descending air has risen to 40°C, or 10°C warmer than the temperature at the base of the mountain on the
windward side. The higher temperature on the leeward side is the result of the latent heat that was released
during condensation as the air ascended the windward slope of the mountain range.
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Two reasons account for the rain shadow commonly observed on leeward mountain slopes. First, water is
extracted from air in the form of precipitation on the windward side. Second, the air on the leeward side is
warmer than the air on the windward side. (Recall that whenever the temperature of air rises, the relative
humidity drops).
b. FRONTAL WEDGING
If orographic lifting were the only mechanism that forced air aloft, the relatively flat central portion of North
America would be an expansive desert instead of being as the nation’s breadbasket. Fortunately, this is not the
case In central North America, masses of warm and cold air collide producing a front. Here the cooler, denser
air acts as a barrier over which the warmer, less
dense air rises. This process, called frontal
wedging. Weather-producing fronts are
associated with storm systems called middle-
latitude cyclones. Because these storms are
responsible for producing a high percentage of
the precipitation in the middle latitudes.
Frontal wedging: - Colder, denser air acts as a
barrier over which warmer, less dense air rises.
c. CONVERGENCE
We saw that the collision of contrasting air
masses forces air to rise. In a more general
sense, whenever air in the lower troposphere
flows together, lifting results. This phenomenon is
called convergence. When air flows in from
more than one direction, it must go somewhere.
As it cannot go down, it goes up this, of course,
leads to adiabatic cooling and possibly cloud
formation. Convergence can also occur
whenever an obstacle slows or restricts
horizontal air flow (wind). We saw earlier that
mountains slow winds and cause convergence.
Further, when air moves from a relatively smooth
surface, such as the ocean, onto an irregular
landscape its speed is reduced. The result is a pileup of air (convergence).When air converges, the air
molecules do not simply squeeze closer together rather, there is a net upward flow.
Convergence, (a) When surface air converges, the column of air increases in height to allow for the decreased
area it occupies.
The Florida peninsula provides an excellent example of the role that convergence can play in initiating cloud
development and precipitation. On warm days, the airflow is from the ocean to the land along both coasts of
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Florida. This leads to a pileup of air along the coasts and general convergence over the peninsula. This pattern
of air movement and the uplift that results is aided by intense solar heating of the land. The result is that the
peninsula of Florida experiences the greatest frequency of
mid-afternoon thunderstorms in the United States More
important, convergence as a mechanism of forceful lifting is a
major contributor to the weather associated with middle-
latitude cyclones and hurricanes. The low-level horizontal
airflow associated with these systems is inward and upward
around their centers.
d. LOCALIZED CONVECTIVE LIFTING
On warm summer days, unequal heating of Earth’s surface may cause pockets of air to be warmed more than
the surrounding air. Consequently, the parcel of air which is warmer (less dense) than the surrounding air, will
be buoyed upward. These rising parcels of warmer air are called thermals. The phenomenon that produces
rising thermals is called localize convective lifting. When these warm parcels of air rise above the lifting
condensation level, clouds form, which on occasion produce mid-afternoon rain showers. The height of clouds
produced in this fashion is somewhat limited, for instability caused solely by unequal surface heating is confined
to, at most, the first few kilometers of the atmosphere. Also, the accompanying rains, although occasionally
heavy, are of short duration and widely scattered.
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7. FORMS OF CONDENSATION
INTRODUCTION
FORMS OF CONDENSATION AND PRECIPITATION
Views of Earth from space show that clouds are abundant. Covering up to 75 percent planet at any given time,
clouds play a prominent role in determining how much sunlight reaches Earth’s surface and how much is
reflected back to space. Furthermore amount and type of cloud cover strongly influences the amount of heat
that escapes the surface in the form of long wave radiation. In short, clouds play a central role in climate system.
CLOUD FORMATION
Clouds can be defined as visible aggregate of minute droplets of water, or tiny crystals of ice, or a mixture of
both. In addition to being prominent and sometimes spectacular features in the sky, clouds are of continual
interest to meteorologists because they provide a visible indication of what is going on in the atmosphere.
CONDENSATION ALOFT
Clouds are a form of condensation produced when water vapor condenses in the atmosphere. Clearly the
most important cloud-forming process is adiabatic cooling. Any time a parcel of air ascends, it passes through
regions of successively lower pressure. As a result, rising air expands and cools adiabatically. At a height called
the lifting condensation level, the ascending parcel has cooled to its dew-point temperature, and further ascent
(cooling) causes condensation.
Condensation occurs when water vapor changes to a liquid. The result of this process may be dew, fog, or
clouds. Although each type of condensation is somewhat different, they all form when two conditions are met.
First, for any form of condensation to occur, the air must be saturated (or nearly so). Saturation occurs most
often when air is cooled to its dew point. (Condensation may also occur when sufficient water vapor is added
to a layer of the atmosphere.) Second, there generally must be a surface on which the water vapor can
condense. When dew forms, objects at or near the ground, like blades of grass, serve this purpose.
When condensation occurs aloft, tiny particles known as cloud condensation nuclei serve as surfaces on
which water vapor condenses. Nuclei are important because, if they are absent, a relative humidity well in
excess of 100 percent is necessary to produce cloud droplets. (At very low temperatures-low kinetic
energies-water molecules will “stick together” in tiny clusters without the presence of condensation nuclei.)
Cloud condensation nuclei include microscopic dust, smoke, and salt particles, all of which are profuse in the
lower atmosphere. Consequently, in the troposphere the relative humidity seldom exceeds 100 percent.
GROWTH OF CLOUD DROPLETS
Particles that are the most effective sites for condensation are called hygroscopic (water-seeking) nuclei.
Some familiar food items, such as crackers and cereals, are hygroscopic, which is why they quickly absorb
moisture when exposed to humid air and become stale.
Over the ocean, salt particles are released into the atmosphere when sea spray evaporates. Because salt is
hygroscopic, water droplets begin to form around sea salt particles at relative humidity less than 100 percent.
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As a result, the cloud droplets that form on salt are generally much larger than those that grow on hydrophobic
(water-repelling) nuclei. Although hydrophobic particles are not efficient condensation nuclei cloud droplets
will form on them whenever the relative humidity reaches 100 percent.
Dust storms, volcanic eruptions, and pollen are major sources of cloud condensation nuclei on land. In
addition, hygroscopic nuclei are introduced into the atmosphere as a by-product of combustion (burning) from
such sources as forest fires, automobiles, and coal-burning furnaces. Because cloud condensation nuclei have
a wide range of affinities for water, cloud droplets of various sizes often coexist in the same cloud. This fact has
important consequences for the formation of precipitation.
Initially, the growth of cloud droplets is rapid. However, the rate of growth quickly diminishes because the
available water vapor consumed by the large number of competing droplet. The result is the formation of a
cloud consisting of billions of tiny water droplets, all, so small that they remain suspended in air. Even in very
moist air, the growth of cloud droplets by additional condensation is quite slow. Furthermore, the immense size
difference between cloud droplets and raindrops (it takes about a million cloud droplets to form a single
raindrop) suggests that condensation alone is not responsible for the formation of drops (or ice crystals) large
enough to fall to the ground without evaporating.
CLOUD CLASSIFICATION
Prior to the beginning of the nineteenth century, there were no generally accepted names for clouds. In 1803
Luke Howard, an English naturalist, published a cloud classification that met with great success and
subsequently served as the basis of our present-day system.
Clouds are classified on the basis of two criteria -.form and height. Three basic cloud forms are recognized:
a. Cirrus - Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments, mostly white patches or narrow
bands. They may have a fibrous (hair-like) and/or silky sheen appearance. Cirrus clouds are always
composed of ice crystals, and their transparent character depends upon the degree of separation of
the crystals.
b. Cumulus clouds consist of globular individual cloud masses. Normally they exhibit a flat base and
appear as rising domes or towers. Such clouds are frequently described as having a cauliflower-like
structure.
c. Stratus clouds are best described as sheets
or layers (strata) that cover much or all of the
sky. Although there may be minor breaks,
there are no distinct individual cloud units.
All clouds have one of these three basic forms or
combinations or modifications of them.
Looking at the second aspect of cloud classification-
height-three levels are recognized: high, middle, and
low. High clouds normally have bases above 6000
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meters (20,000 feet); middle clouds generally occupy heights from 2000 to 6000 meters; low clouds form
below 2000 meters (6500 feet). These altitudes are not hard and fast. They vary somewhat by season of the
year and by latitude. At high (poleward) latitudes or during cold winter months, high clouds generally occur at
lower altitudes. Further, some clouds extend vertically to span more than one height range. These are called
clouds of vertical development.
Ten basic cloud types are recognized internationally whose descriptions are given below:
HIGH CLOUDS
Three cloud types make up the family of high clouds (above 6000 meters/20,000 feet). They are cirrus,
cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus. Because of the low temperatures and small quantities of water vapor present at
high altitudes, all high clouds are thin and white and made up primarily of ice crystals. Cirrus clouds are
detached clouds composed of white, delicate, icy filaments. Winds aloft often cause these fibrous ice trails to
bend or curl.
Basic Cloud Types
Cloud family and height Cloud type Characteristics
High clouds-above 6000m Cirrus (Ci) Thin, delicate, fibrous, ice-
(20,000 ft) crystal clouds. Sometimes appear as hooked
filaments called "mares' tails" (cirrus
uncinus).
Cirrostratus (Cs) Thin sheet of white, ice-crystal clouds that
may give the sky a milky look. Sometimes
produces halos around the Sun and Moon.
Cirrocumulus (Cc) Thin, white, ice-crystal clouds. In the form
of ripples or waves, or globular masses all in
a row. May produce a "mackerel sky." Least
common of high clouds.
Middle clouds-2000-6000m Altocumulus (Ac) White to gray clouds often made up of
separate globules; "sheepback" clouds.
Altostratus (As) Stratified veil of clouds that is generally thin
and may produce very light precipitation.
When thin, the Sun or Moon may be visible
as a "bright spot," but no halos are
produced.
Low clouds-below 2000m Stratus (St) Low uniform layer resembling fog but not
resting on the ground. May produce drizzle.
Stratocumulus (Sc) Soft, gray clouds in globular patches or
rolls. Rolls may join together to make a
continuous cloud.
Nimbostratus (Ns) Amorphous layer of dark gray clouds. One
of the chief precipitation producing clouds.
Clouds of vertical development Cumulus (Cu) Dense, billowy clouds often characterized
by flat bases. May occur as isolated clouds
or closely packed.
Cumulonimbus (Cb) Towering cloud, sometimes spreading out
on top to form an "anvil head." Associated
with heavy rainfall, thunder, lightning, hail,
and tornadoes.
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Cirrostratus is a transparent, whitish cloud veil of fibrous or sometimes smooth appearance that may cover
much or all of the sky. This cloud is easily recognized when it produces a halo around the Sun or Moon. On
occasions, cirrostratus may be so thin and transparent that the clouds are barely discernible. With the approach
of a warm front, cirrostratus clouds generally thicken and grade into middle-level altostratus clouds.
Cirrocumulus clouds appear as white patches composed of ver small cells or ripples. Most often the masses
that make up these clouds have an apparent width similar to that of the Sun. Furthermore, these small globules,
which may be merged or separate, are often arranged in a regular pattern. This pattern is commonly called
“mackerel sky” because of the similarity to the pattern formed by fish scales.
High clouds generally are not precipitation makers. However, when cirrus clouds give way to cirrocumulus
clouds that cover even more of the sky, they may warn of impending stormy weather. The following mariner’s
saying is based on this observation: Mackerel scales and mares’ tails make lofty ships carry low sails.
MIDDLE CLOUDS
Clouds that appear in the middle altitude range (2000 to 6000 meters/6500 to 20,000 feet) have the prefix alto
as part of their name. There are two types: altocumulus and altostratus. Altocumulus tends to form in large
patches composed of rounded masses or rolls that may or may not merge. Because they are generally
composed of water droplets rather than ice crystals, the individual cells usually have a more distinct outline.
Altocumulus is most easily confused with two other cloud types: cirrocumulus (which are smaller and less
dense) and stratocumulus (which are larger).
Altostratus is the name given to a formless layer of grayish clouds covering all or a large portion of the sky.
Generally, the Sun is visible through these clouds as a bright spot, but with the edge of its disc not discernible.
However, unlike cirrostratus clouds, altostratus does not produce halos. Infrequent precipitation in the form of
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light snow or drizzle may accompany these clouds. Altostratus clouds are commonly associated with warm
fronts. As the front approaches, the clouds thicken into a dark gray layer of nimbostratus that is capable of
producing copious rainfall.
LOW CLOUDS
There are three members of the family of low clouds (below 2000 meters/6500 feet): stratus, stratocumulus,
and nimbostratus.
Stratus is a uniform layer that frequently covers much of the sky and, on occasion, may produce light
precipitation. When stratus clouds develop a scalloped bottom that appears as long parallel rolls or broken
globular patches, they are called stratocumulus clouds.
Nimbostratus clouds derive their name from the Latin nimbus, “rain cloud,” and stratus, “to cover with a layer”.
As the name implies, nimbostratus clouds are one of the chief precipitation producers. Nimbostratus clouds
form in association with stable conditions. We might not expect clouds to grow or persist in stable air, yet cloud
growth of this type is common when air is forced to rise, as along a front or near the center of a cyclone where
converging winds cause air to ascend. Such forced ascent of stable air leads to the formation of stratified cloud
layer that is large horizontally compared to its thickness. Precipitation associated with nimbostratus clouds is
generally light to moderate but of long duration and wide spread.
CLOUDS OF VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT
Some clouds do not fit into any one of the three height categories. Such clouds have their bases in the low
height range and extend upward into the middle or high altitudes; they are referred to as clouds of vertical
development. Vertically developed clouds are all closely related and are associated with unstable air. There are
two types, cumulus and cumulonimbus.
Cumulus clouds are individual masses that develop into vertical domes or towers, the tops of which often
resemble cauliflower. Cumulus clouds most often form on clear days when unequal surface heating causes
parcels of air to rise convectively above the lifting condensation level. This level is often apparent to an
observer because the flat cloud bottoms define it.
On days when cumulus clouds are present, we usually notice an increase in cloudiness into the afternoon as
solar heating intensifies. Furthermore, because small cumulus clouds (cumulus humilis) rarely produce
appreciable precipitation, and because they form on “sunny” days, they are often called “fair-weather clouds.”
Although cumulus clouds are associated with fair weather, they may, under the proper circumstances, grow
dramatically in height. Once upward movement is triggered, acceleration is powerful, and clouds with great
vertical extent are formed.
As the cumulus enlarges, its top leaves the low height range, and it is called a cumulus congestus. Finally, when
the cloud becomes even more towering and rain begins to fall, it becomes a cumulonimbus.
Cumulonimbus is dark, dense, billowy clouds of considerable vertical extent in the form of huge towers. In its
later stages of development, the upper part of a cumulonimbus turns to ice and appears fibrous. Furthermore,
the tops of these clouds frequently spread out in the shape of an anvil. Cumulonimbus towers extend from a few
hundred meters above the surface upward to 12 kilometers (7 miles) or, on rare occasions, 20 kilometers (12
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miles). These huge towers produce heavy precipitation with accompanying lightning and thunder and
occasionally hail.
FORMS OF CONDENSATION
FOGS
Fog is generally considered an atmospheric hazard. When it is light, visibility is reduced to 2 or 3 kilometers (1
or 2 miles).When it is dense, visibility may be cut to a few dozen meters or less, making travel byany mode not
only difficult but dangerous. Official weather stations report fog only when the visibility is reduced to kilometer
or less. Although arbitrary, this figure does permit a more objective criterion for comparing fog frequencies at
different locations.
Fog is defined as a cloud with its base at or very near the ground. Physically, there is basically no difference
between a fog and a cloud; their appearance and structure are the same. The essential difference is the method
and place of formation. Clouds result when air rises and cools adiabatically. Fog results from cooling or by the
addition of enough water vapor to cause saturation.
FOGS FORMED BY COOLING
When the temperature of a layer of air in contact with ground falls below its dew point, condensation produces
fog. Depending upon the prevailing conditions, the ground may become shrouded in radiation fog, advection
fog, or up-slope fog.
a. Radiation Fog - As the name implies, radiation fog results from radiation cooling of the ground and adjacent
air. It is a night time phenomenon requiring clear skies and a fairly high relative humidity. Under these
circumstances the ground and the air immediately above it will cool rapidly. Because the relative humidity is
high, just a small amount of cooling will lower the temperature to the dew point. If the air is calm, the fog may
be patchy and less than a meter deep. For radiation fog to be more extensive vertically, a light breeze of 3 to 5
kilometers (2 to 3 miles) per hour is necessary. Then the light wind creates enough turbulence to carry the fog
upward 10 to 30 meters (30 to 100 feet) without dispersing it.
Because the air containing the fog is relatively cold and dense, it drains down slope in hilly terrain. As a result,
radiation fog is thickest in valleys, whereas the surrounding hills are clear. Normally these fogs dissipate within
one to three hours after sunrise. Often the fog is said to “lift.”
However, it does not rise. Instead, the Sun warms the ground, which in turn heats the lowest layer of air first.
Consequently, the fog evaporates from the bottom up, giving the impression of lifting. The last vestiges of
radiation fog may appear to be a low stratus cloud layer.
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Radiation fog may also form when the skies clear after a rainfall. In these situations, the air near the surface is
close to saturation and only a small amount of radiation cooling is needed to promote condensation. Radiation
fog of this type often occurs around sunset and can make driving hazardous.
b. Advection Fog When warm and moist air is blown over a cold surface, it becomes chilled by contact and,
to a certain extent, by mixing with the cold air created by the cold surface below. If cooling is sufficient, the
result will be a blanket of fog called advection fog. The term advection refers to air moving horizontally.
Therefore, advection fogs are a consequence of air giving up heat to the surface below during horizontal
movement. A classic example is the frequent advection fog around San Francisco’s Golden Gate Bridge.
A certain amount of turbulence is needed for proper development of advection fog. Thus, winds between (and
30lkilo-meters (6 and 18 miles) per hour are usually associated with it. Not only does the turbulence facilitate
cooling through a thicker layer of air but it also carries the fog to greater heights. Unlike radiation fogs,
advection fogs are often thick (300 to 600 meters deep) and persistent.
Advection fog is a common wintertime phenomenon along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. There, comparatively
warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic moves over cold and occasionally snow-covered
surfaces to produce widespread foggy conditions. These fogs are frequently thick and produce hazardous
driving conditions.
c. Upslope Fog - As its name implies, upslope fog is created when relatively humid air moves up a gradual
sloping plain or, in some cases, up the steep slopes of a mountain. Because of the upward movement, air
expands and cools adiabatically (this is the only type of fog that forms adiabatically). If the dew point is
reached, an extensive layer of fog may form.
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FOGS FORMED BY EVAPORATION
When saturation occurs primarily because of the addition of water vapor the resulting fogs are called
evaporation fogs. Two types of evaporation fogs are recognized: steam fog and frontal (precipitation) fog.
d. Steam Fog - When cool air moves over warm water, enough moisture may evaporate from the water
surface to saturate the air immediately above. As the rising water vapor meets the cold air, it condenses and
rises with the air that is being warmed from below. Because the rising air looks like the “steam” that forms
above a hot cup of coffee, the phenomenon is called steam fog. It is fairly common occurrence over lakes and
rivers on clear, crisp mornings in the fall when the waters are still relatively warm while the air is rather cold.
Steam fog is often shallow, for as it rises, the water droplets evaporate as they mix with the unsaturated air
above.
During the winter, cold arctic air pours off the continents and ice shelves onto the comparatively warm open
ocean. The temperature contrast between the Warm Ocean and cold air has been known to exceed 30°C
(54°F). The result is an intense steam fog produced as the rising water vapor saturates a large volume of air.
Because of its source and appearance, this type of steam fog is given the name arctic sea smoke.
e. Frontal Fog - When frontal wedging occurs; warm air is lifted over colder air. If the resulting clouds yield
rain, and the cold air below is near the dew point, enough rain can evaporate to produce fog. A fog formed in
this manner is called frontal or precipitation fog. The result is a more or less continuous zone of condensed
water droplets reaching from the ground up through the clouds.
In summary, both steam fog and frontal fog result from the addition moisture, to a layer of air. As you saw, the
air is usually cool or cold and already near saturation. Thus, only a relatively modest amount of evaporation is
necessary to produce saturated conditions and fog.
The frequency of dense fog varies considerably from place to place. As might be expected, fog incidence is
highest in coastal areas, especially where cold currents prevail, as along the Pacific and New England coasts.
Relatively high frequencies are also found in the Great Lakes region and in the humid Appalachian Mountains
of the East. In contrast, fogs are rare in the interior of the continent, especially in the arid and semiarid areas of
the West.
DEW AND FROST
Clouds and fog are the most conspicuous and meteorologically important forms of condensation. Dew and
white frost must be considered minor by comparison. These common forms of condensation generally result
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from radiation cooling on clear, cool nights.
Dew is the condensation of water vapor on objects that have radiated sufficient heat to lower their temperature
below the dew point of the surrounding air. Because different objects radiate heat at different rates, dew may
form on some surfaces but not on others. An automobile, for example, may be covered with dew shortly after
sunset, whereas the concrete driveway surrounding the car remains free of condensation throughout the night.
Dew is a common sight on lawns in the early morning. In fact, the grass will frequently have a coating of dew
when nothing else does. Dew is more frequent on grass because the transpiration of water vapor by the blades
raises the relative humidity to higher levels directly above the grass. Therefore, only modest radiation cooling
may be necessary to bring about saturation and condensation.
Contrary to popular belief, white frost is not frozen dew. Rather, white frost (hoar frost) forms when the dew
point of the air is below freezing. Thus, frost forms when water vapor changes directly from a gas into a solid
(ice), without entering the liquid state. This process, called deposition produces delicate patterns of ice crystals
that frequently decorate windows in northern winters.

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8. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION
HOW PRECIPITATION FORMS?

Although all clouds contain water, why do some produce precipitation and others drift placidly overhead?
This seemingly simple question perplexed meteorologists for many years. Before examining the processes that
generate precipitation we need to examine a couple of facts.
First cloud droplets are very tiny 20 micrometers (0.02 millimeter), in a diameter. The small size of cloud
droplets results mainly because condensation nuclei are usually very abundant and the available water is
distributed among numerous droplets rather than concentrated into fewer large droplets.
Second, because of their small size, the rate at which cloud droplets fall is incredibly slow. An average cloud
droplet falling from a cloud base at 1000 meters would require several hours to reach the ground. However, it
would never complete its journey. This cloud droplet would evaporate before it fell a few meters from the cloud
base into the unsaturated air below. Two processes are responsible for the, formation of precipitation: the
Bergeron process and the collision-coalescence process.
PRECIPITATION FROM COLD CLOUDS
THE BERGERON PROCESS
The process that generates much of the precipitation in the middle latitudes is named the Bergeron process
for its discoverer, the highly respected Swedish meteorologist, Tor Bergeron. The Bergeron process, which
involves ice-crystal growth, depends on the coexistence of water vapor, liquid cloud droplets, and ice crystals.
To understand just how this mechanism operates, we must first examine two important properties of water.
First, cloud droplets do not freeze at 00C as expected. In fact, pure water suspended in air does not freeze
until it reaches a temperature of nearly -400C (-400F. water in the liquid state below 00C (320F) is referred
to as supercooled. Supercooled water will readily freeze if it impacts an object, which explains why airplanes
collect ice when they pass through a liquid cloud made up of supercooled droplets. This is also explains why
the stuff we call freezing rain or glaze falls as a liquid but then turns to a sheet of ice when it strikes the pavement
or a tree branch.
In addition, supercooled droplets will freeze on contact with solid particles that have a crystal form closely
resembling that of ice (silver iodide is an example). These materials also are called freezing nuclei. The need
for freezing nuclei to initiate the freezing process is similar to the requirement for condensation nuclei in the
process of condensation.
In contrast to condensation nuclei, however, freezing nuclei are sparse in the atmosphere and do not generally
become active until the temperature reaches -100C (140F) or below. Thus, at temperatures between 0 and -
100C, clouds consist mainly of supercooled water droplets. Between -10 and -200C, liquid droplets coexist
with ice crystal, and below -200C (-40F), clouds generally composed entirely of ice crystal-for example, high
altitude cirrus clouds.
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This brings us to a second important property of water. The saturation vapor pressure above ice crystal is
somewhat lower than above super cooled liquid droplets. This occurs because ice crystals are solid, which
mean that the individual water molecules are held together more tightly than those forming a liquid droplet. As
a result, it is easier for water molecules to escape from the super cooled liquid droplets. Consequently, when air
is saturated (100 percent relative humidity) with respect to liquid droplets, it is supersaturated with respect to
ice crystals.
With this information in mind, we can now explain how the Bergeron process produces precipitation. Visualize
a cloud at a temperature of -10°C (14°F), where each ice crystal is surrounded by many thousands of liquid
droplets. Because the air was initially saturated (100 percent) with respect to liquid water it will be
supersaturated (over 100 percent) with respect to the newly formed ice crystals. As a result of this
supersaturated condition, the ice crystals collect more water molecules than they lose by sublimation. Thus,
continued evaporation from the liquid drops provides a source of water vapor to feed the growth of ice
crystals.
FIGURE: The Bergeron process. Ice crystals grow at the expense of cloud droplets until they are large enough
to fall. The size of these particles has been greatly exaggerated.
Because the level of super saturation with respect to ice can be great, the growth of snow crystals is generally
sufficiently rapid to generate crystals large enough to fall. During their descent, these crystals enlarge as they
intercept cloud drops that freeze on them. Air movement will sometimes break up these delicate crystals, and
the fragments will serve as freezing nuclei for other liquid droplets. A chain reaction develops and produces
many snow crystals, which, by accretion, will form into larger masses called snowflakes. Large snowflakes
may consist of 10 to 30 individual crystals.
In summary, the Bergeron process can produce precipitation throughout the year in the middle latitudes,
provided at least the upper portions of clouds are cold enough to generate ice crystals. The type of
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precipitation (snow, sleet, rain, or freezing rain) that reaches the ground depends on the temperature profile in
the lower few kilometers of the atmosphere. When the surface temperature is above 40C (39°F), snowflakes
usually melt before they reach the ground and continue their descent as rain. Even on a hot summer day a heavy
downpour may have begun as a snowstorm high in the clouds overhead.
PRECIPITATION FROM WARM CLOUDS

THE COLLISION-COALESCENCE PROCESS
A few decades ago meteorologists believed that the Bergeron process was responsible for the formation of
most precipitation except for light drizzle. Later it was discovered that copious rainfall is often associated with
clouds located well below the freezing level (called warm clouds), especially in the tropics. Clearly, a second
mechanism also must trigger precipitation.
Researchers discovered the collision-coalescence process Research has shown that clouds made entirely of
liquid droplets must contain some droplets larger than 20 micrometers (0.02 millimeters) if precipitation is to
form. The; large droplets form when “giant” condensation nuclei are present, or when hygroscopic particles
exist (such as sea salt). Because the rate at which drops fall is size-dependent, these “giant” droplets fall most
rapidly.
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As the larger droplets fall through cloud, they collide with the smaller, slower droplets and coalesce. Becoming
larger in the process, they fall even more rapidly (or, in an updraft they rise more slowly) and increase their
chances of collision and rate of growth. Because of the huge number of collisions required for growth to
raindrop size, clouds that have great vertical thickness and contain large cloud droplets have the best chance of
producing precipitation. Updrafts also aid this process because they allow the droplets to traverse the cloud
repeatedly, colliding with more droplets.
As raindrops grow in size, their fall velocity increases. This in turn increases the frictional resistance of the air,
which causes the drop’s “bottom” to flatten out. As the drop approaches 4 millimeters in diameter, it develops
a depression as shown in. Raindrops can grow to a maximum of 5 millimeters when they fall at the rate of 33
kilometers (20 miles) per hour. At this size and speed, the water’s surface tension, which holds the drop
together, is surpassed by the frictional drag of the air. At this point the depression grows almost explosively,
forming a do not like ring that immediately breaks apart. The resulting breakup of a large raindrop produces
numerous smaller drops that begin anew the task of sweeping up cloud droplets.
The collision-coalescence process is not that simple, however. First, as the larger droplets descend, they
produce an airstream around them similar to that produced by an automobile when driven rapidly down the
highway. The air-stream repels objects, especially small ones.
Next, collision does not guarantee coalescence. Experimentation has indicated that the presence of
atmospheric electricity may be the key to what holds these droplets together once they collide. If a droplet with
a negative charge should collide with a positively charged droplet, their electrical attraction may bind them
together.
From the preceding discussion, it should be apparent that the collision-coalescence mechanism is most efficient
in environments where large cloud droplets are plentiful. It turns out that the air over the tropics, particularly the
tropical oceans, is ideal. Here the air is very humid and relatively clean, so fewer condensation nuclei exist
compare to the air over more populated regions. With fewer condensation nuclei to compete for available
water vapor (which is plentiful), condensation is fast-paced and produces comparatively few large cloud
droplets. Within developing cumulus clouds, the largest drops quickly gather smaller droplets to generate the
warm afternoon showers associated with tropical climates.
In the middle latitudes the collision-coalescence process may contribute to the precipitation from a large
cumulonimbus cloud by working in tandem with the Bergeron process-particularly during the hot, humid
summer months. High in these towers the Bergeron process generates snow that melts as it passes below the
freezing level. Melting generates relatively large drops with fast fall velocities. As these large drops descend,
they overtake and coalesce with the slower and smaller cloud droplets that comprise much of the lower regions
of the cloud. The result can be a heavy downpour.
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION : - Because atmospheric conditions vary greatly both geographically and
seasonally, several different forms of precipitation are possible. Rain and snow are the most common and
familiar forms, but others listed in the table below, important as well. The occurrence of sleet, glaze, and hail
often associated with important weather events. Although limited in occurrence and sporadic in both time and
these forms, especially glaze and hail, may on occasion considerable damage.
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Types of Precipitation
Type Approximate size State of water Description
Mist 0.005 to 0.05 mm Liquid Droplets large enough to be felt on the
face when air is moving 1 meter/
second. Associatedwith stratus
clouds.
Drizzle Less than 0.5 mm Liquid Small uniform drops that fall from
stratus clouds, generally for several
hours.
Rain 0.5 to 5 mm Liquid Generally produced by nimbostratus
or cumulonimbus clouds. When
heavy, size can be highly variable
from one place to another.
Sleet 0.5 to 5 mm Solid Small, spherical to lumpy ice particles
that form when raindrops freeze
while falling through a layer of
subfreezing air. Because the ice
particles are small, any damage is
generally minor. Sleet can make travel
hazardous.
Glaze Layers 1 mm to 2 cm thick Solid Produced when supercooled
raindrops freeze on contact with solid
objects.Glaze can form a thick
coating of ice having sufficient
weight to seriously damage trees and
power lines.
Rime Variable accumulations Solid Deposits usually consisting of ice
feathers that point into the wind.
These delicate frostlike
accumulations form as supercooled
cloud or fog droplets encounter
objects and freeze on contact.
Snow 1 mm to 2 cm Solid The crystalline nature of snow allows
it to assume many shapes, including
six sided crystals, plates, and needles.
Produced in supercooled clouds
where water vapor is deposited as ice
crystals that remain frozen during
their descent.
Hail 5 mm to 10 cm or larger Solid Precipitation in the form of hard,
rounded pellets or irregular lumps of
ice. Produced in large convective,
cumulonimbus clouds, where frozen
ice particles and supercooled water
coexist.
Graupel 2 mm to 5 mm Solid Sometimes called "soft hail," graupel
forms as rime collects on snow
crystals to produce irregular masses
of "soft" ice. Because these particles
are softer than hailstones, they
normally flatten out upon impact.
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a. Rainfall
In meteorology the term rain is restricted to drops of water that fall from a cloud and have a diameter of at least
0.5 millimeter. (This excludes drizzle and mist, which have smaller droplets.) Most rain originates in either
nimbostratus clouds or in towering cumulonimbus clouds that are capable of producing unusually heavy
rainfalls known as cloudbursts. No matter what the rainfall intensity is, the size of raindrops rarely exceeds
about 5 millimeters. Larger drops cannot survive, because surface tension, which holds the drops together, is
exceeded by the frictional drag of the air. Consequently, large raindrops regularly break apart into smaller ones.
Much of the world’s rainfall begins as snow crystals or other solid forms such as hail or graupel. Entering the
warmer air below the cloud, these ice particles often melt and reach the ground as raindrops. In some parts of
the world, particularly the subtropics, precipitation often forms in clouds that are warmer than 0°C (32°F).
These rains frequently occur over the ocean where cloud condensation nuclei are not plentiful and those that do
exist vary in size. Under such conditions, cloud droplets can grow rapidly by the collision-coalescence process
to produce copious amounts of rain.
Fine, uniform drops of water having a diameter less than 3.5 millimeter are called drizzle. Drizzle and small
raindrops generally are produced in stratus or nimbostratus clouds where precipitation may be continuous for
several hours, or on rare occasions for days.
Precipitation containing the very smallest droplets able to reach the ground is called mist. Mist can be so fine
that the tiny droplets appear to float and their impact is almost imperceptible.
As rain enters the unsaturated air below the cloud, it begins to evaporate. Depending on the humidity of the air
and size of the drops, the rain may completely evaporate before reaching the ground. This phenomenon
produces virga, which appear as streaks of precipitation falling from a cloud that extend only part of the way to
Earth’s surface.
TYPES OF RAINFALL
Rain is the most common form of precipitation. For rainfall, it is necessary that moist air must ascend, saturate
and condense. Therefore, rainfall is classified on the basis of the conditions under which large masses of moist
air are actually induced to rise to higher elevations. There are three possible ways in which an air mass may be
forced to rise, and each of these produces its own characteristic type of rainfall. Thus, the following three types
of rainfall are based on the types of ascent and the rainfall characteristics: -
i. Convectional rainfall
ii. Orographic rainfall
iii. Cyclonic or Frontal rainfall
i. Convectional rainfall : - In this type of rainfall, the actuating force is the thermal convection of warm and
moist air masses. Therefore in order to cause rainfall, two conditions are necessary: (1) the intense heating of
the surface so as to expand and raise the lower layer of the atmosphere, and (2) abundant supply of moisture
in the air to provide it with a high relative humidity. Solar radiation is the main source of heat to produce
convection currents in the air. Since convectional precipitation is a warm weather phenomenon, it is generally
accompanied by thunder, lightning and local winds. Convectional rainfall is entirely in the form of rain. There
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may be occasional hail associated with this type of rain.
Under favourable conditions it occurs in the low-latitudes and in the temperate zones. The doldrums invariably
gets this type of rain. In this belt of calms lying between the north and south trade winds, the mid-day witnesses
the formation of clouds, followed in the afternoon or evening by the occurrence of showery rainfall. The clouds
dissolve away late in the night, and the morning sky is clear. According to W.M. Davis, the large amount of
equatorial rainfall is due not only to the activity of the convectional processes on which it depends, but also and
largely to the rapid decrease of the capacity for water vapour when air cools at high temperatures prevailing
round the equator.
Since convectional rainfall is largely due to the heating of the earth’s surface, the most favourable conditions for
its occurrence are always found in the summer months and in the warmer parts of the day. Though intense
heating of land surfaces is of great importance, it
should not be taken to be the only factor. Vertical air
currents and turbulence as well as surface
obstructions such as hills, mountains, etc. may provide
the initial upward push for the air that already tends to
be unstable. This type of rainfall is of a very short
duration and consists of heavy showers.
Convective rainfall is less effective for crop growth
than the steady rain. This is so because much of it is
drained off in the form of surface drainage, and little
remains for entering the soil. Slope wash and gullying are a menace to the loose soil. However, in the temperate
regions, it is most effective in promoting the growth of plants. The main reason is that in the mid latitudes this
type of rainfall occurs in warm seasons when the vegetation is very active. This type of rainfall is peculiar in that
it gives the maximum rainfall with the minimum cloudiness. Clouds involved in this type of rainfall are generally
cumulonimbus or clouds with great vertical development.
ii. Orographic Rainfall : - Orographic rainfall occurs due to ascent of air forced by mountain barriers.
According to Foster, orographic rainfall is that which results from the cooling of moisture-laden air masses
which are lifted by contact with the elevated land masses. This type of rainfall is commonly found on the
windward sides of mountain ranges lying across the path of prevailing terrestrial winds where those winds pass
from the relatively warmer ocean to the land. After striking the high land, the air is forced to rise and thereby
cooled. The moisture, therefore, is condensed and precipitated as rain or snow. However, the process of
orographic rainfall is not that simple.
Once the air has been initially pushed upward and condensation starts, the stage has been set for the origin of
convection currents. Beyond the condensation level, the latent heat of condensation reduces the adiabatic
lapse rate and the ascending air becomes unstable and continues its ascent until its temperature equals that of
the surrounding air. The mountain barriers produce only the trigger effect.
Orographic rainfall occurs far inland also where the elevated land masses rise above the surrounding country in
the path of moisture-bearing air masses. It usually takes the form of either rain or snow. Wherever the mountain
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ranges obstruct the path of moisture-bearing winds and force them to ascend, the maximum rainfall always
occurs on the windward slope. On the other side of these physical barriers, the amount of rainfall abruptly
decreases. Thus, on the leeward slopes of these mountain ranges, there always exists a relatively dry area,
which is known as the rain shadow area.
There are many extensive regions that are found in rain shadows. The cause of these rain shadows may easily
be found out. The moist air ascends on the windward side and its moisture is precipitated, but on crossing the
peak of the range, no lifting occurs. Hence there is only a little rainfall, residual of the previous condensation.
Another reason for the existence of rain- shadow areas is that the descending wind is heated by compression
and becomes more unfavourable for precipitation. In India the south-west monsoon gives copious rainfall on
the windward slope of the Western Ghats, whereas on the leeward side there are extensive rain shadow areas.
Another salient feature of orographic rainfall is the inversion of rainfall. An air stream approaching the mountain
ranges is given uplift by the air masses lying close to them. Therefore the amount of rainfall starts increasing
some distance away from the mountains. There is a continuous increase in rainfall on the windward slope upto
a certain height beyond which it starts diminishing. This is called the ‘inversion of rainfall’. The cause can be
easily discovered. A larger fraction of the moisture of the ascending air mass is precipitated upto a certain
altitude, so that by the time the air currents reach the peak, the moisture content is completely depleted.
In mountainous regions, rainfall is not entirely due to the direct effect of uplift, but there are indirect effects as
well. In day time, there are convectional currents set up in the air because of the heating of mountain slopes and
valleys. Besides, the belt of heaviest rainfall is determined by the latitude, season and exposure. In the
Himalayan ranges the elevation at which maximum condensation takes place is estimated to be about 1200
meters. Because of their location in the higher latitudes, the maximum condensation in the Alps occurs at about
2000 meters. It may also be noted that the effect of orographic uplift is felt some distance away from the
physical barrier, such as a mountain range or a steep escarpment of a plateau. This is so because the mass of
stagnant air in front of the barrier has a blocking effect, and the rain-bearing wind has to ascend the wind block.
iii. Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall : - Cyclonic or frontal rainfall occurs due to ascending of moist air and
adiabatic cooling caused by convergence of two extensive air masses. Whenever there is lifting of the air
masses with entirely different physical properties, the atmosphere becomes unstable. When this happens, the
stage for large-scale condensation and precipitation has been set. If an additional process is in operation so that
the rain drops of the required size are formed, the precipitation results.
Cyclonic rainfall in tropical regions. When currents of air with differing temperature and moisture content
meet at an angle, the warm and moist air will be forced to rise over the heavier air (which always remains in the
lower position). In addition, when air masses from different directions converge toward a centre, as is always
the case in cyclonic circulation, some of the air is forced up. In both these cases of convergence, cloudiness and
precipitation result.
In tropical regions, where there is no marked contrast in the temperature and humidity of the converging air
masses, the lifting is almost vertical and is generally accompanied by convection. In such a condition,
convergence provides the initial impetus to the upward movement of convectively unstable air masses and
causes cumulonimbus clouds and heavy showers.
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Frontal rainfall in temperate regions. In temperate regions, the zones of contact between relatively warm and
cold air masses are known as fronts. Frontal rainfall occurs when the warm and moist air gradually rises above
the front created by contact with the wedge of cold
air. In stable air convergence is generally attended by
stratiform clouds providing a gray overcast sky and
steady long-continued rainfall. However, the principal
cause of frontal rainfall is the mixing of air along the
fronts.
Frontal rainfall along the warm fronts is usually in the
form of drizzle. Another characteristic of this type of
rainfall is that it is widespread and of long duration.
When associated with cold fronts, it is always in the form of thunder-showers and is of a very short duration. In
Europe and North America, most of the winter rainfall is frontal in origin. Winter rainfall in the northern part of
India is a typical example of cyclonic rainfall.
b. Snow
Snow is precipitation in the form of ice crystals (snowflakes) or, more often, aggregates of ice crystals. The
size, shape, and concentration of snowflakes depend to a great extent on the temperature at which they form.
At very low temperatures, the moisture content of air is small. The result is the generation of verylight and fluffy
snow made up of individual six-sided ice crystals. By contrast, at temperatures warmer than about -5°C
(23°F), the ice crystals join together into larger clumps consisting of tangled aggregates of crystals. Snowfalls
consisting of these composite snowflakes are generally heavy and have a high moisture content, which makes
them ideal for making snowballs.
c. Sleet and Glaze
Sleet is a wintertime phenomenon and refers to the fall of small particles of ice that are clear to translucent. An
above-freezing air layer must overlie a subfreezing layer near the ground. When the raindrops, which are often
melted snow, leave the warmer air and encounter the colder air below, they freeze and reach the ground as
small pellets of ice roughly the size of the raindrops from which they formed.
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On some occasions, when the vertical distribution of temperatures is similar to that associated with the
formation of sleet, freezing rain or glaze results instead. In such situations the subfreezing air near the ground is
not thick enough to allow the raindrops to freeze. The raindrops, however, do become supercooled as they fall
through the cold air and turn to ice. The result can be a thick coating of ice having sufficient weight to break tree
limbs, to down power lines, and to make walking and driving extremely hazardous.
d. Hail
Hail is precipitation in the form of hard, rounded pellets or irregular lumps of ice. Large hailstones, when cut in
half, often reveal nearly concentric shells of differing densities and degrees of opaqueness. The layers of ice
accumulate as the hailstone travels up and down in a strong convective cloud.
The destructive effects of large hailstones are well
known, especially to farmers whose crops have been
devastated in a few minutes and to people whose
windows, roofs, and cars have been damaged.
Hail is produced only in large cumulonimbus clouds
where updrafts can sometimes reach speeds
approaching 160 kilometers (100 miles) per hour, and
where there is an abundant supply of supercooled
water. Hailstones begin as small embryonic ice pellets
that grow by they encounter a strong updraft, they may
be carried upward again and begin the downward
journey anew. Each trip through the supercooled
portion of the cloud might be represented by an
additional layer of ice. Hailstones can also form from a
single descent through an updraft. Either way, the
process continues until the hailstone encounters a
downdraft or grows too heavy to remain suspended by the thunderstorm’s updraft.
Hailstones may contain several layers that alternate between clear and milky ice. High in the clouds, rapid
freezing of small, supercooled water droplets traps air bubbles, which cause the milky appearance. By
contrast, the clear ice is produced in the lower and warmer regions of the clouds where colliding droplets wet
the surface of the hailstones. As these droplets slowly freeze, they produce relatively bubble-free clear ice.
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e. Rime
Rime is a deposit of ice crystals formed by the freezing of super cooled fog or cloud droplets on objects whose
surface temperature is below freezing. When rime forms on trees, adorns them with its characteristic ice
feathers, which can be spectacular to behold. In these situations, object such as pine needles act as freezing
nuclei, causing the super cooled droplets to freeze on contact. On occasions when the wind is blowing, only the
windward surfaces of object will accumulate the layer of rime.
FACTORS CONTROLLING DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION
a. Latitude: Latitudinal belts of atmospheric convergence and divergence exercise maximum control over the
distribution of precipitation. As noted earlier, adiabatic cooling of air masses is the most important causative
factor of precipitation and condensation. Upward movement of air is possible in the zones of convergence of
air streams. That is why the convergence zones are the belts of maximum precipitation. On the contrary, in
latitudes where subsidence and divergence are pronounced, areas of minimum precipitation are found. Since
there are other factors besides horizontal convergence which force the air masses to rise, the zonal
arrangement of the distribution of precipitation is disturbed. These additional factors include convection, land
form barriers, etc. Since the equatorial belt of calm or the doldrums represents the convergence zone of north
and south trade winds, the latitudinal belt of maximum precipitation is found near the equator. Along with the
seasonal shifting of doldrums, the trade wind convergence zone moves north or south of the equator.
In the subtropical high pressure belts, there is subsidence of air which gives rise to anticyclonic conditions on
the surface of the earth. This is, therefore, the zone of minimum rainfall. In these latitudes, the atmospheric
stability does not encourage the cloud formation, so that there is no precipitation.
From the subtropical high pressure belt poleward there are belts of westerlies in both the hemispheres. In these
belts the cold polar winds meet the warm moist tropical air masses along the polar fronts. These fronts witness
the formation of a number of cyclones and anticyclones. Annual average precipitation in the mid-latitude
convergence zone varies from 100 to 125 centimeters. In the belt of polar easterlies, because of subsidence
there is much less precipitation. Moreover, low temperature diminishes the moisture holding capacity of air
which also accounts for the lesser amount of precipitation. From 75° north and south latitudes poleward the
mean annual precipitation decreases to about 25 centimeters.
b. Continents and Oceans: The distribution of land and water imposes an important influence upon
precipitation in the middle and high latitudes. Though situated in the same latitudes, the continents receive less
precipitation than the oceans, for the continental air masses are drier than the maritime air masses. Though 71
per cent of the earth’s surface is water and only 29 per cent land, it has been estimated that 19 per cent of the
earth’s total annual precipitation falls on land surfaces and the remaining 81 percent on the oceans.
Interior locations on the continents, being far away from the source of oceanic moisture, receive relatively less
precipitation than coastal areas.
The coastal areas which lie directly in the path of moisture- laden on-shore winds naturally get greater rainfall.
On the other hand, such coastal areas as have off-shore winds are deprived of the oceanic moisture and so get
scanty rainfall. Wherever the coastal areas are flanked by mountain ranges, the favourable winds yield larger
amount of precipitation on the windward slopes than on the leeward side. Similarly, warm ocean currents are
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conducive to greater precipitation on the adjacent lands, whereas the cold currents produce only fogs.
The effect of continents on the distribution of precipitation is very distinct in the vast land mass of Asia. Because
of their interior locations, the countries of Iran, Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia constitute a long and extensive
dry belt extending upto the great desert of Sahara in Africa. Similarly, the dry areas of North Mexico and
south-western U.S.A. are typical examples of the effect of continentality. In the southern hemisphere, the
western parts of sub-tropical regions of Australia, South Africa and South America have deserts mainly
because of the effect of continentality. However, the eastern parts of sub-tropical high pressure belts have
moist climates, because the moisture-bearing trade winds bring in the oceanic influence and produce plenty of
rainfall.
c. Mountain Barriers: Mountain barriers force the moisture- bearing winds to ascend, so that condensation
and precipitation occur. The precipitation is concentrated on the windward slopes, and a rain shadow is
produced on the leeward. All over the world, wherever the prevailing winds blowing from the oceans to the
land are blocked by mountain ranges or plateaus, copious rainfall results on the windward slopes. Even in
tropical regions, orographic lifting is one of the main factors for record annual rainfalls. However, upper-air
subsidence, as in trade wind inversion, is not conducive to precipitation at high altitudes.
The summer monsoon in India produces heavy rainfall on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. The areas to
the north of the Himalayan ranges are deprived of precipitation. Similarly, the western slopes of the Western
Ghats receive about 200 to 250 centimeters of precipitation from the south-west monsoon, while the state of
Karnataka and other adjoining areas being in the rain-shadow receive only a meagre rainfall and remain
practically dry. The Atlas Mountains of Africa, the Andes Mountain ranges along the coasts of Chile and
Argentina, the Southern Alps of New Zealand and the mountain ranges of Western North America offer the
best examples of the effects of mountain barriers on precipitation distribution. The vertical distribution of
precipitation is also controlled by the mountains, which has already been discussed in connection with
orographic precipitation.
GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION
GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION
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There exists a complex pattern for the distribution of precipitation. In general, regions influenced by high
pressure, is associated with subsidence and divergent winds, experiencing dry conditions. Conversely, regions
under the influence of low pressure and its converging winds and ascending air receive ample precipitation.
The inherent nature of the air is also important in determining precipitation potential. Because cold air has a low
capacity for moisture compared with warm air, we would expect a latitudinal variation in precipitation, with low
latitudes receiving the greatest amounts of precipitation and high latitudes receiving the least.
In addition to Latitudinal variation in precipitation, the distribution of land and water complicates the
precipitation pattern. Large landmasses in the middle latitudes commonly experience decreased precipitation
toward their interiors. For example, central North America and central Eurasia receive considerably less
precipitation than do coastal regions at the same latitude. Furthermore, the effects of mountain barriers.
Windward mountain slopes receives abundant precipitation, whereas leeward slopes and adjacent lowlands
are usually deficient in moisture.
ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION
The equatorial regime is centered over the equatorial low throughout most of the year. In this region, where the
trade winds converge (ITCZ), heavy precipitation is experienced in all seasons. Poleward of the equatorial low
in each hemisphere laid the belts of subtropical high pressure. In these regions, subsidence contributes to the
dry conditions found there throughout the year. Between the wet equatorial regime and the dry subtropical
regime lies a zone that is influenced by both pressure systems. Because the pressure systems mi-grate
seasonally with the Sun, these transitional regions receive most of their precipitation in the summer when they
are under the influence of the ITCZ. They experience a dry season in the winter when the subtropical high
moves equatorward.
The mid-latitudes receive most of their precipitation from travelling cyclonic storms. This region is the site of the
polar front, the convergent zone between cold polar air and the warmer westerlies. It is along the polar front
that cyclones are frequently generated. Because the position of the polar front migrates freely between
approximately 30° and 70° latitude, most mid latitude areas receive ample precipitation. But the mean position
of this zone also moves north and south with the Sun, so that a narrow belt between 30° and 40° latitude
experiences a marked seasonal fluctuation in precipitation.
In winter, this zone receives precipitation from numerous cyclones as the position of the polar front moves
equatorward. During’ the summer, however, this region is dominated by subsidence associated with the dry
subtropical high.
The Polar Regions are dominated by cold air that holds little moisture. Throughout the year, these regions
experience only meagre precipitation. Even in the summer, when temperatures rise, these areas of ice and snow
are dominated by high pressure that blocks the movement of the few cyclones that do travel poleward.
DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION OVER THE CONTINENTS
The most notable anomaly in the zonal distribution of precipitation occurs in the subtropics. Here we find not
only many of the world’s great deserts but also regions of abundant rainfall. This pattern results because the
subtropical high-pressure centers that dominate the circulation in these latitudes have different characteristics
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on their eastern and western flanks .Subsidence is most pronounced on the eastern side of these oceanic highs,
and a strong temperature inversion is encountered very near the surface and results in stable atmospheric
conditions. The upwelling of cold water along the west coasts of the adjacent continents cools the air from
below and adds to the stability on the eastern sides of these highs.
Because these anticyclones tend to crowd the eastern side of an ocean, particularly in the winter, we find that
the western sides of the continents adjacent to these subtropical highs are arid. Centered at approximately 25°
north or south latitude on the western side of their respective continents, we find the Sahara Desert of North
Africa, the Namib of southwest Africa, the Atacama of South America, the deserts of the Baja Peninsula of
North America, and the Great Desert of Australia.
On the western side of these highs, however, subsidence is less pronounced, and convergence with associated
rising air appears to be more prevalent. In addition, as this air travels over a large expanse of warm water, it
acquires moisture through evaporation that acts to enhance its instability. Consequently, the eastern regions of
subtropical continents generally receive ample precipitation throughout the year. Southern Florida is a good
example.
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9. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
INTRODUCTION
Hydrological cycle is the cyclic movement of water containing basic continuous processes like evaporation,
precipitation and runoff as Runoff – > Evaporation – > Precipitation – > Runoff. This is a continuous cycle
which starts with evaporation from the water bodies such as oceans.
This is a gigantic system powered by energy from the
Sun in which the atmosphere provides the vital link
between the oceans and continents. The hydrologic
cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the
surface of the ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and
water vapor condenses to form clouds. Moisture
is transported around the globe until it returns to the
surface as precipitation.
Once the water reaches the ground, one of two
processes may occur; 1) some of the water may
evaporate back into the atmosphere or 2) the water
may penetrate the surface and become groundwater.
Groundwater either seeps its way to into the oceans,
rivers, and streams, or is released back into the
atmosphere through transpiration. The balance of
water that remains on the earth’s surface is runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers and streams and is carried
back to the oceans, where the cycle begins again. In addition to evaporation from the soil, lakes, and streams,
some water that infiltrates the ground is absorbed by plants through their roots. They then release it into the
atmosphere, a process called transpiration.
Although transpiration is an important process in some regions, most water vapor enters the atmosphere
through evaporation. Because the total amount of water vapor in the entire global atmosphere remains about
the same, the average annual precipitation over Earth must be equal to the quantity of water evaporated. In
other words, all of the water vapor that enters the atmosphere must eventually leave.
PROCESS TO UNDERSTAND HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Process of hydrological cycle starts with oceans. Water in oceans, gets evaporated due to heat energy
provided by solar radiation and forms water vapor. This water vapor moves upwards to higher altitudes
forming clouds. Most of the clouds condense and precipitate in any form like rain, hail, snow, sleet. And a part
of clouds is driven to land by winds. Precipitation, while falling to the ground, some part of it evaporates back
to atmosphere.
Portion of water that reaches the ground, enters the earth’s surface infiltrating various strata of soil and
enhancing the moisture content as well as water table. Vegetation sends a portion of water from earth’s surface
back to atmosphere through the process of transpiration. Once water percolates and infiltrates the earth’s
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surface, runoff is formed over the land, flowing through the contours of land heading towards river and lakes
and finally joins into oceans after many years. Some amount of water is retained as depression storage.
Further again the process of this hydrological cycle continues by blowing of cool air over ocean, carrying water
molecules, forming into water vapor then clouds getting condensed and precipitates as rainfall. Similarly, then
water gets percolated into soil, increasing water table then formation of runoff waters heading towards water
bodies. Thus the cyclic process continues.
Table - 1 : Inventory of water at the Earth’s surface

Reservoir Volume (cubic km x 1,000,000) Percent of Total
Oceans 1370 97.25
Ice Caps and Glaciers 29 2.05
Groundwater 9.5 0.68
Lakes 0.125 0.01
Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001
Streams and Rivers 0.0017 0.0001
Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004
Water is continually cycled between its various reservoirs. This cycling occurs through the processes
of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, sublimation, transpiration, melting,
and groundwater flow. On average water is renewed in rivers once every 16 days. Water in the atmosphere is
completely replaced once every 8 days. Slower rates of replacement occur in large lakes, glaciers, ocean
bodies and groundwater. Replacement in these reservoirs can take from hundreds to thousands of years. Some
of these resources (especially groundwater) are being used by humans at rates that far exceed their renewal
times. This type of resource use is making this type of water effectively non-renewable.
However, for the continents, precipitation exceeds evaporation. Conversely, over the oceans, evaporation
exceeds precipitation. Because the level of the world ocean is consistent runoff from land areas must balance
the deficit of precipitation over the oceans. In summary, the hydrologic cycle depicts the continuous movement
of water from the oceans to the atmosphere, from the atmosphere to the land, and from the land back to the
sea. The movement of water through the cycle holds the key to the distribution of moisture over the surface of
our planet and is intricately related to all atmospheric phenomena.
HUMANS AND THE WATER CYCLE
We are becoming increasingly aware of our impacts on nature, but unfortunately many of the things we do have
become so ingrained in our way of life that it is hard to change. Different countries use different amounts of
water, but we all tend to use them in the same ways, and some of these actions can impact on the water cycle –
generating hydroelectricity, irrigation, deforestation and the greenhouse effect, as well as motor vehicle use and
animal farming.
i. Hydroelectricity
Most of New Zealand’s electricity is generated using hydro dams. This involves changing the stored
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gravitational energy of water held behind the dam into electrical energy that can be used. While this is a non-
polluting renewable way to generate electricity, it does have environmental impacts – especially when
mismanaged.
Rivers must be dammed, which can affect the function of the river both upstream and downstream – lakes are
usually formed from the water accumulating above the dam and a build-up of silt can occur, while the amount
of water is reduced further downstream. This can be problematic for any plants and animals that may find
themselves with too much or too little water, and migrating fish cannot get through the dams.
Seriously mismanaged dams can result in droughts downstream, with smaller streams completely drying up,
leaving areas of unwatered land. People then have to look at ways of getting more water into these dry areas.
ii. Irrigation
As the human population has increased, so have our demands on the land. We need more food, and to make
food, we need water. Irrigation is the artificial watering of land that does not get enough water through rainfall.
Irrigation is used substantially by most countries, some more than others. Arid (dry) lands require far more
water, as do countries that have large intensive farming communities.
The problem with irrigation is that it removes water from its natural source and often causes leaching and run-
off where it is used. This removal of nutrients results in farmers using more fertilisers to keep their pastures
productive while the waterways become polluted. Another problem is that salt is brought up from lower levels
(salination).
iii. Deforestation
The removal of trees (deforestation) is having a major impact on the water cycle, as local and global climates
change.
Normally, trees release water vapour when they transpire, producing a localised humidity. This water vapour
then evaporates into the atmosphere where it accumulates before precipitating back to the Earth as rain, sleet
or snow. Deforestation in one area can therefore affect the weather in another area because if trees are cut
down, there is less water to be evaporated into the atmosphere and subsequently less rain.
At a local level, the land becomes drier and less stable. When it rains, instead of the water being soaked up,
there is increased run-off and leaching. Areas can become more prone to both droughts and flooding,
impacting on plants and animals, and also humans living near deforested areas.
iv. Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon of Earth’s atmosphere trapping a range of gases, which in turn
capture infrared radiation to keep our Earth at a moderate temperature range compared to the other planets in
our solar system.
Some scientists believe that human activity such as the burning of fossil fuels has an effect on the overall
increase of the Earth’s temperature. Raising the Earth’s temperature may mean that there is an increase
of evaporation, melting of ice or other processes of the water cycle that adversely affect the climate on Earth.
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v. Nature of Science
As societies change, so do scientific priorities. Water was once simply a commodity for human use and
manipulation. Now, science and society have a greater awareness of how our actions impact nature.
THE BLUE PLANET
Earth is known as the ‘blue planet’ because it is covered with water and from space it is seen as bright blue.
Water occurs in many forms on Earth, and it is naturally present in all three phases of matter: liquid water
(oceans, lakes and streams), solid (ice caps and glaciers) and gas (water vapor in the atmosphere). Earth is
the only planet we know of in our solar system that humans can live on. No other planet has oceans, other life
forms, and enough oxygen to comfortably breathe.
EARTH - WHAT IT’S ALL ABOUT
About 71 per cent of the Earth is covered with water. Earth is the only planet where water can exist in liquid
form on the surface. Earth is the fifth largest planet and the third planet from the Sun with
only Mercury and Venus being closer. How water moves through the water cycle, which is the natural cycling
of water through places and phases on Earth, affects weather, land features, global temperatures and drinking
water supplies.
It’s about 24,920 miles around Earth at the equator. That means it would take 33,000,000 people holding
hands to reach all the way around. The land on Earth is made of several plates and at one time all of these
plates were joined together, making it possible to walk from one side of the Earth to the other. Plates are
individual pieces that are always moving so the land keeps drifting apart slowly. Today there are seven distinct
land masses known as continents.
Earth - Fun Facts
 A thousand tons of meteor dust falls to Earth every day.
 Only 11 percent of the Earth’s surface is used to grow food.
 Wind carries over 100 million tons of sand grains around the Earth every year. That means if you live
in the United States, you could have sand from the Gobie desert in China reach you.
 Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The entire continent is made of ice.
WATER DISTRIBUTION
When you look at an image of Earth, it’s easy to understand that 70% of its surface is covered with water. This
is because all that blue you see is water in the oceans - about 97% of all the water on Earth! Ocean water is
very salty, much too salty for us to drink, so in the oceans it stays.
The distribution of water on the Earth’s surface is extremely uneven. Only 3% of water on the surface is fresh;
the remaining 97% resides in the ocean. Of freshwater, 69% resides in glaciers, 30% underground, and less
than 1% is located in lakes, rivers and swamps. Looked at another way, only one percent of the water on the
Earth’s surface is usable by humans, and 99% of the usable quantity is situated underground.
So we still have 1% of all the water on Earth left to distribute. About 30% of Earth’s freshwater (approximately
0.6% of all water on Earth) is found as groundwater. This is one resource we do take advantage of it where we
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get much of our water for drinking and irrigating
agricultural crops.
Surface water, which is all the lakes, rivers and
streams on Earth, makes up about 0.3% of all the
freshwater (about 0.009% of all water on Earth).
Think about all the large rivers we have on our
planet, like the Nile, the Amazon, the Colorado
and the Mississippi. All of these rivers and all of
their streams don’t even add up to 1% of Earth’s
total water! And what’s even more amazing is that
of all the surface water, rivers make up only 2%.
Most surface water is found in lakes, which constitute more than 85% of all surface water.
There is even more water to be accounted for, such as soil moisture, which is water that is in the ground but
above groundwater, and water vapor in the atmosphere. All of this other water, including all those big clouds
you see in the sky, makes up less than 1% of all the freshwater on Earth.
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10. ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
INTRODUCTION
The global atmospheric circulation and its seasonal variability is driven by the uneven solar heating of the
Earth’s atmosphere and surface. Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air by which heat is
distributed on the surface of the Earth. The wind belts and the jet streams girdling the planet are steered by
three convection cells: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell, and the Polar cell.
Winds are generated by pressure differences that arise because of unequal heating of Earth’s surface. Global
winds are generated because the tropics receive more solar radiation than Earth’s Polar Regions. Thus, Earth’s
winds blow in an unending attempt to balance inequalities in
surface temperatures. Because the zone of maximum solar
heating migrates with the seasons-moving northward during
the Northern Hemisphere summer and southward as winter
approaches-the wind pattern that make up the general
circulation also migrate latitudinally.
Wind movement in the atmosphere may be classified into 3
broad categories: Primary, secondary and tertiary
circulation. Primary circulation includes the planetary wind
system which is related to the general arrangement of the
pressure belts on the earth surface. Trade winds, westerlies,
and the polar easterlies together form the primary
circulation. Secondary circulation consists of air masses,
cyclones, anti-cyclones, and monsoons. Tertiary includes all
the local winds which are produced by local causes.
LARGE- AND SMALL-SCALE CIRCULATION
Macroscale Winds: The largest wind patterns, called macroscale winds, are exemplified by the westerlies
and trade winds. These planetary-scale flow patterns extend around the entire globe and can remain essentially
unchanged for weeks at a time.
A somewhat smaller macroscale circulation is called synoptic scale, or weather-map scale. Two well-known
synoptic scale systems are the individual traveling cyclones and anti-cyclone that appear on weather maps as
areas of low and high pressure, respectively. These weather producers are found in the middle latitudes where
they move from west to east as part of the larger westerly flow. Furthermore, these rotating systems usually
persist for days or occasionally weeks and have a horizontal dimension of hundreds to thousands of kilometers.
Anticyclones, in contrast, are areas of subsidence associated with outward flow near the surface. Somewhat
smaller macroscale systems are the tropical cyclones and hurricanes that develop in late summer and early fall
over the warm tropical oceans. Airflow in these systems is inward and upward as in the larger mid-latitude
cyclones. However, the rate of horizontal flow associated with hurricanes is usually more rapid than that of their
more poleward cousins.
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Mesoscale Winds generally last for several minutes and may exist for hours. These middle-size phenomena
are usually less than 100 kilometers (62 miles) across. Further, some mesoscale winds-for example,
thunderstorms and tornadoes-also have a strong vertical component Land and sea breezes, as well as
mountain and valley winds, also fall into this category Microscale Winds The smallest scale of air motion is
referred to as microscale circulation. These small, often chaotic winds normally last for seconds or at most
minutes. Examples include simple gusts which hurl debris into the air and small, well-developed vortices such
as dust devils.
Time Scales for Atmospheric Motions

Scale Time scale Distance scale Examples
Macroscale
Planetary Weeks or longer 1000-40,000 km Westerlies and trade winds
Synoptic Days to week’s 100-5000 km Mid-latitude cyclones, anticyclones, and hurricanes
Mesoscale Minutes to hours 1-100 km Thunderstorms, tornadoes, and land-sea breeze
Microscale Seconds to minutes <1 km Turbulence, dust devils, and gusts
GLOBAL CIRCULATION
Our knowledge of global winds comes from two sources: the pattern of pressure and winds observed
worldwide and theoretical studies of fluid motion.
SINGLE-CELL CIRCULATION MODEL
One of the first contributions to the classical model of global circulation came from George Hadley in 1735.
Hadley was well aware that solar energy drives the winds. He proposed that the large temperature contrast
between the poles and the equator creates one large convection cell in each hemisphere (Northern and
Southern).
In Hadley’s model, intensely heated equatorial air rises
until it reaches the tropopause, where it begins to
spread toward the poles. Eventually, this upper-level
flow would reach the poles, where cooling would cause
it to sink and spread out at the surface as equatorward-
moving winds. As this cold polar air approached the
equator, it would be reheated and rise again. Thus, the
circulation proposed by Hadley has upper-level air
flowing poleward and surface air moving equatorward.
Although correct in principle, Hadley’s model does not
take into account the fact that Earth rotates on its axis.
(Hadley’s model would better approximate the
circulation of a non-rotating planet.) As Earth’s pressure and wind patterns became better known, it was clear
that the single-cell model (in each hemisphere) could not create the global circulation that was actually
observed. Consequently, the Hadley model was replaced by a model that better fit observations.
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THREE-CELL CIRCULATION MODEL
Three north-south circulation cells in each hemisphere:
The three-cell model of the northern hemisphere meridional circulation (also called the tri-cellular meridional
circula-tion). This model was prepared by Palmen in 1951, when more complete upper air data were made
available during and after the World War II.
The model makes it clear that there are two possible ways of transporting heat and momentum; (a) by
circulation in the vertical plane’ as depicted in the model showing three distinct meridional cells in the northern
hemisphere, and (b) by horizontal circulations.
In the zones between the equator and roughly 30° lat north and south, the circulation closely resembles the
name used by Hadley for the whole Earth. Consequently, the name Hadley cell is generally applied. Near the
equator, the warm rising air that releases latent heat during the formation of cumulus towers is believed to
provide the energy to drive Hadley cells. The clouds also provide the rainfall that maintains the lush vegetation
of the rain forests of southeast/equatorial Africa, and South America’s Amazon Basin.
As the flow aloft in Hadley cells moves poleward, it begins to subside in a zone between 20 and 35 degree
latitude. Two factors contribute to this general subsidence: (1) As upper-level flow moves away from the
stormy equatorial region, where the release of latent hear of condensation keeps the air warm and buoyant,
radiation cooling increases the density of the air. Satellites that monitor radiation emitted in the upper
troposphere record considerable outward-emitted radiation over the tropics. (2) Because the Coriolis force
becomes stronger with increasing distance from the equator, the poleward-moving upper air is deflected into a
nearly west-to-east flow by the time it reaches 25 degree latitude. Thus, a restricted poleward flow of air
ensues. Stated another way, the Coriolis force causes a general pileup of air (convergence) aloft. As a result,
general subsidence occurs in the zone located between 20 and 35degree latitude.
This subsiding air is relatively dry, because it has released its moisture near the equator. In addition, the effect
adiabatic heating during descent further reduces the, relative humidity of the air. Consequently, this zone of
subsidence is the site of the world’s subtropical deserts. The Sahara Desert of North Africa and the Great
Australian Desert are located in these regions of sinking air. Because winds are generally weak and variable
near the center of this zone of descending air, this region is popularly called the horse latitudes.
From the center of the horse latitudes, the surface flow splits into a poleward branch and an equatorward
branch. The equatorward flow is deflected by the Coriolis force to form the reliable trade winds, so called
because they enabled early sailing ships to trade between continents. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trades
blow from the northeast} where they provided the sail power for exploration of the New World in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries. In the Southern Hemisphere, the trades are from the south east. The trade winds
from both hemispheres meet near the equator in a region that has a weak pressure gradient. This region is
called the doldrums. Here light winds and humid conditions provide the monotonous weather that is the basis
for the expression “down in the doldrums.”
In the three-cell model the circulation between 30° and 6O7 latitude (north and south) is more complicated
than that within the Hadley cells. The net surface flow is poleward, and because of the Coriolis force, the winds
have a strong westerly component. These prevailing westerlies were known to Benjamin Franklin, perhaps the
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first American weather forecaster, who noted that storms migrated from west to east across the colonies.
Franklin also observed that the westerlies were much more sporadic and, therefore, less reliable than the trade
winds for sail power. We now know that it is the migration of cyclone across the mid-latitudes that disrupts the
general westerly flow at the surface. Because of the importance of the mid-latitude circulations in producing our
daily weather, we will consider the westerlies in more detail in a later section.
Atmospheric circulation - Tri-cellular model
Relatively little is known about the circulation in high (polar) latitudes. It is generally understood that subsidence
near the poles produces a surface flow that moves equator-ward and is deflected into the polar easterlies of
both hemispheres. As these cold polar winds move equatorward, they eventually encounter the warmer
westerly flow of the mid-latitudes. The region where the flow of warm air clashes with cold air has been named
the polar front. The significance of this region will be considered later.
EVEN MORE MESSY : THE REAL WORLD
Many features of the 3 cell model can be observed in the earth’s general circulation. Nevertheless, the
presence of continents, mountains, and ice fields alters the general circulation from the ideal 3-cell model. Semi
permanent high and low pressure systems persist throughout long periods of the year
 During winter, highs form over land; lows over oceans. Vice versa during summer. Consistent with
differences in surface temperature.
 Bermuda high and Pacific high form near 30 degrees north, in response to air convergence aloft
(particularly true during NH summer).
 Features change from winter to summer.
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KEY CONCEPTS IN UNDERSTANDING THE GENERAL CIRCULATION
1. Driven by differential solar heating between the equator and poles. Atmospheric general circulation
acts to move heat poleward.
2. In Hadley cell, warmer fluid rises and moves poleward.
3. Ferrel cell is driven by heat and momentum fluxes by eddies.
4. In the Northern Hemisphere, a fluid is deflected to the right as it moves; in the Southern Hemisphere,
it is deflected toward the left.
5. Pole to Pole Hadley cell is unstable in the presence of rotation; hence the 1-cell model breaks down.
6. Rotation yields trade winds; surface westerlies in NH; upper tropospheric jets.
CLIMATIC SIGNIFICANCE OF MERIDIONAL CIRCULATION
Even though the general circulation pattern on the earth’s surface is principally zonal and not meridional, yet the
meridional component of the surface wind system is very significant in the latitudinal heat balance of the earth.
According to Kendrew, the most effective channels of meridional exchange of heat and momentum are made
available by the pressure irregularities as well as the high and low pressure centers. The areas of convergence
and divergence play dominant roles in meridional circulation.
It may be noted that intertropical convergence zone is the most important and uninterrupted belt of
convergence on the surface of earth. In the subtropical high-pressure belt there are numerous areas of
divergence which make significant contribution to meridional circulation.
Areas of strong convergence and divergence of mean surface wind over the oceans produce innumerable
complexities in the climates of the world. It is the closed centers of high and low pressure which virtually control
air movement around them.
This results in the formation of many cellular circulations, some of which are cyclonic, while others are
anticyclonic. These cellular circulations are superimposed on the zonal airflow pattern on the earth’s surface.
Despite the intricacies of the circulation pattern the zonal circulation predominates.
The areas of divergence and convergence are known as centers of action, for it is along boundaries that most
of the cyclones and anticyclones move out from one region to another.
THE WESTERLIES
Prior to World War II, upper-air observations were scarce. Since then, aircraft and radiosondes have
provided a great deal of data about the upper troposphere. Among the most important discoveries was that
airflow aloft in the middle latitudes has a strong west-to-east component, thus the name westerlies.
Why Westerlies?
In the case of the westerlies, it is the temperature contrast between the poles and equator that drives these
winds. Because cold air is more dense (compact) than warm air, air pressure decreases more rapidly in a
column of cold air the in a column of warm air. Surfaces (planes) over the equator, where temperatures are
higher, air pressure decreases more gradually than over the cold Polar Regions. Consequently, at the same
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altitude above Earth’s surface, higher pressure exists over the tropics and lower pressure is the norm above the
poles. Thus, the resulting pressure gradient is directed from the equator (area of higher pressure) toward the
poles (area of lower pressure).
Once the air from the tropics begins to advance poleward in response to this pressure-gradient force the
Coriolis force comes into play to change the direction of airflow. in the Northern Hemisphere the Coriolis force
causes winds to be deflected to the right. Eventually, a balance is reached between the poleward directed
pressure-gradient force and the Coriolis force to generate a wind with a strong west-to-east component .such
winds” are called geostrophic winds. Because the equator-to-pole temperature gradient is typical over the
globe, a westerly flow aloft should be expected, and on most occasions it is observed.
It can also be shown that the pressure gradient increases with altitude; as a result, so should wind speeds. This
increase in wind speed continues only to the tropopause, where starts to decrease upward into the
stratosphere.
Idealized pressure gradient that develops aloft because of density differences between cold polar air and warm
tropical air. Notice that the poleward-directed pressure-gradient force is balanced by an equatorward-
directed Coriolis force. The result is a prevailing flow from west to east, which is called the westerlies.
JET STREAMS
High speed, confined rivers of air called jet streams are most common in the vicinity of the tropopause. They
can be of benefit to flights travelling in the same direction but hinder those travelling against the flow. They are
frequently associated with turbulence. These high-speed air currents have widths that vary from less than 100
kilometers (60 miles) to over 500 kilometers (300 miles) and are generally a few kilometres thick. Wind
speeds are frequently in excess of 200 kilometers (120 miles) per hour but rarely exceed 400 kilometers (240
miles) per hour.
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has defined a jet stream as a strong narrow current,
concentrated along a quasi horizontal axis in the upper troposphere or in the stratosphere, characterised by
strong vertical and lateral wind shears and featuring one or more velocity maxima. The speed of the wind must
be greater than 60 knots. Jets are fast moving ribbons of air high up in the atmosphere. They are
responsible for transporting highs and lows. They affect precipitation and temperatures, and they
mark boundaries between massive air masses.
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The seasons of the year, location of low and high pressure systems and air temperature all affect when and
where a jet stream travels. Jet streams form a border between hot and cold air. Because air temperature
influences jet streams, they are more active in the winter when there are wider ranges of temperatures between
the competing Arctic and tropic air masses.
Temperature also influences the velocity of the jet stream. The greater the difference in air temperature, the
faster the jet stream, which can reach speeds of up to 250 mph (402 kph) or greater, but average about 110
mph (177 kph).
Both the Northern and Southern hemispheres have jet streams, although the jet streams in the north are more
forceful. Each hemisphere has two primary jet streams - a polar and a subtropical. The polar jet streams form
between the latitudes of 50 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator, and the subtropical jet stream is
closer to the equator and takes shape at latitudes of 20 to 30 degrees.
While the polar and subtropical jet streams are the best known and most studied, other jet streams can form
when wind speeds are above 58 mph (93.3 kph) in the upper atmosphere at about 6 miles (9.6 kilometers) to
9 miles (14.5 kilometers) above the surface.
The jet streams of most relevance to aviation are the:
a. Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ);
b. Middle- Latitude Jet Stream called the Polar Front Jet Stream (PFJ).
a. Subtropical Jet Stream
The subtropical jet stream is usually observed at about 40,000 feet (200 hPa), approximately vertically above
the axis of the subtropical surface high pressure belt. This is located on average near latitude 30. It moves
poleward in summer and equatorward in winter. The subtropical jet stream is not associated with a front in the
lower troposphere.
Due to the weak summer-time temperature gradient, the subtropical jet is relatively weak during the warm
season. Somewhat slower than the polar jet, this west-to-east flowing current is centred at 250 latitude at an
altitude of about 13 kilometres (8 miles).
During the summer, easterly jets are formed in tropical regions, typically in a region where dry air encounters
more humid air at high altitudes. Low level jets can form wherever low level winds are squeezed together,
typically between an oncoming front and a high pressure cell.
b. Polar Jet Stream
Polar front jet stream, also called polar front jet or mid latitude jet stream, a belt of powerful upper-level winds
that sits atop the polar front. The winds are strongest in the tropopause, which is the upper boundary of the
troposphere, and move in a generally westerly direction in mid latitudes. The vertical wind shear which extends
below the core of this jet stream is associated with horizontal temperature gradients that extend to the surface.
As a consequence, this jet manifests itself as a front that marks the division between colder air over a deep
layer and warmer air over a deep layer. The polar front jet can be baroclinically unstable and break up into
Rossby waves.
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ORIGIN OF THE POLAR JET STREAM
What is the origin of these distinctive, energetic winds that exist within the slower, general westerly flow?
The key is that large temperature contrasts at the surface produce steep pressure gradients aloft and hence
faster upper air winds. Jet streams are located in regions of the atmosphere where large horizontal temperature
differences occur over short distances. These large temperature contrasts occur along linear zones called
fronts. The best-known jet stream occurs along a major frontal zone called the polar front and is appropriately
named the polar jet stream. Because this jet stream occurs mainly in the middle latitudes it is also known as
the mid latitude jet stream. The polar front is situated between the cool winds of the polar easterlies and the
relatively warm westerlies. Instead of flowing nearly straight west-to-east, the polar jet stream usually has a
meandering path. Occasionally, it flows almost due north-south.
Sometimes it splits into two jets that may, or may not, rejoin. Like the polar front, this jet is not continuous
around the globe. Because the location of the polar jet roughly coincides with that of the polar front, its
latitudinal position migrates with the seasons. Thus, like the zone of maximum solar heating, the jet moves
northward during summer and southward in winter. During the cold winter months the polar jet stream may
extend as far south as 30 degree north latitude. With the coming of spring, the zone of maximum solar heating,
and therefore the jet, begins a gradual northward migration. By midsummer, its average position is about 50
degree north latitude, but it may penetrate much farther poleward.
As the polar jet shifts northward, there is a corresponding change in the region where outbreaks of severe
thunderstorms and tornadoes occur. The polar jet stream plays a very important role in the weather of the mid-
latitudes. In addition to supplying energy to the circulation of surface storms, it also directs their paths of
movement. Consequently, determining changes in the location and flow pattern of the polar jet is an important
part modern weather forecasting.
WAVES IN THE WESTERLIES
It is important to remember that the mid-latitude jet stream is an integral part of the westerlies. It is not a
dramatic anomaly like a hurricane. In fact, the jet stream can be more accurately described as the fast core of
the overall westerly flow the westerlies follow wavy paths that have rather long wavelengths. Much of our
knowledge of these large-scale motions is attributed
to C. G. Rossby, who first explained the nature of
these waves. The longest wave patterns (called
Rossby waves) have wavelengths of 4000 to 6000
kilometers, so that three to six waves will fit around
the globe. Although the air flows eastward along this
wavy path, these long waves tend to remain
stationary or move slowly.
Idealized airflow of the westerlies at the 500-
millibar level. The five long-wavelength undulations,
called Rossby waves compose this flow. The jet
stream is the fast core of this wavy flow.
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Although much remains to be learned about the wavy flow of the westerlies, its basic features are understood
with some certainty. Among the most obvious characteristics of the flow aloft are its seasonal changes. The
summer-to-winter change in wind speed is a consequence of the seasonal contrasts of the temperature
gradients. The steep temperature gradient across the middle latitudes in winter corresponds to a stronger flow
aloft. In addition to seasonal changes in the strength of its flow, the position of the polar jet stream also shifts
from summer to winter. With the approach of winter, the jet migrates equator ward. As summer nears, it moves
back toward the poles.
JET STREAMS AND THE WEATHER
Jets streams play a key role in determining the weather because they usually separate colder air and warmer air.
Jet streams generally push air masses around, moving weather systems to new areas and even causing them to
stall if they have moved too far away.
While they are typically used as one of the factors in predicting weather, jet streams don’t generally follow a
straight path the patterns are called peaks and troughs so they can shift, causing some to point at the poor
forecasting skills of meteorologists.
Climatologists say that changes in the jet streams are closely tied to global warming, especially the polar jet
streams, because there is a great deal of evidence that the North and South poles are warming faster than the
remainder of the planet. When the jets streams are warmer, their ups and downs become more extreme,
bringing different types of weather to areas that are not accustomed to climate variations. If the jet stream dips
south, for example, it takes the colder air masses with it.
Jet streams also have an impact on air travel and are used to determine flight patterns. An airplane can travel
much faster, and save fuel, by getting “sucked up” in the jet stream. That can also cause a bumpy flight, because
the jet stream is sometimes unpredictable and can cause sudden movement, even when the weather looks calm
and clear.
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11. ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND INSTABILITY
THE CRITICAL WEATHER MAKER: ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

A parcel of air can be thought of as having a thin flexible cover that allows it to expand but prevents it from
mixing with the surrounding air if the parcel were cooler than the surrounding environment, it would be more
dense; and if allowed to do so, it would sink to its original position. Air of this type, called stable air. This
resists vertical movement.
But if the rising parcel were warmer and hence less dense than the surrounding air, it would continue to rise until
it reached an altitude where its temperature equalled that of its surroundings this type of air is classified as
unstable air.
Atmospheric instability and cloud development
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TYPES OF STABILITY
The stability of the atmosphere is determined by measuring the air temperature at various heights. Recall that
this measure is called the environmental lapse rate. The environmental lapse rate is the actual temperature of the
atmosphere, as determined from observations made by radiosondes and aircraft. Adiabatic temperature
changes are changes in temperature that a parcel of air would experience if it moved vertically through the
atmosphere.
There are three fundamental conditions of the atmosphere: Absolute stability, Absolute instability and
Conditional instability.
A. Absolute Stability: - Prevails when the environmental lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse
rate. The most stable conditions occur when the temperature of a layer of air actually increases with altitude.
When such a reversal occurs, a temperature inversion exists. Many circumstances can create temperature
inversions. Temperature inversions frequently occur on clear nights as a result radiation cooling at Earth’s
surface. Under these conditions an inversion is created because the ground and the air next to it will cool more
rapidly than the air aloft.
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Temperature inversions also occur in winter when warm air from the Gulf of Mexico invades the cold, snow-
covered surface of the midcontinent. Anytime there is warmer air over cooler air, the resulting layer is extremely
stable and less appreciable vertical mixing. Because of this, temperature inversions are responsible for trapping
pollutants in a narrow zone near Earth’s surface.
B. Absolute Instability: - A layer of air is said to exhibit absolute instability when the environment lapse
rate is greater than the dry adiabatic rate. The ascending parcel of air is always warm than its environment
and will continue to rise because of own buoyancy. Absolute instability occurs most often during the warmest
months and on clear days when solar heating is intense. Under these conditions the lowermost layer of the
atmosphere is heated to a much higher temperature than the air loft. This results in a steep environmental lapse
rate and a very unstable atmosphere.
C. Conditional Instability: - This situation prevails when moist air has an environmental lapse rate
between the dry and wet adiabatic rates (between about 5= and 10°C per 1000 meters). Simply stated,
the atmosphere is said to be conditionally unstable when it is stable with respect to an unsaturated parcel of air,
but unstable with respect to a saturated parcel of air with their lease of latent heat above the lifting condensation
level, the parcel becomes warmer than the surrounding air. From this point along its ascent, the parcel will
continue to rise without an outside force.
Thus, conditional instability depends on whether or not the rising air is saturated. The word “conditional” is
used because the air must be forced upward before it reaches the level where it becomes unstable and rises on
its own.
In short, the stability of air is determined by measuring the temperature of the atmosphere at various heights
(environmental lapse rate). In simple terms, a column of air is deemed unstable when the air near the bottom of
this layer is significantly warmer (less dense) than the air aloft, indicating steep environmental lapse rate. Under
these conditions, the air actually turns over because the warm air below rises and displaces the colder air aloft.
Conversely, the air is considered to be stable when the temperature decreases gradually with increasing
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altitude. The most stable conditions occur during temperature inversion when the temperature actually
increases with height. Under these conditions, there is very little vertical air movement.
STABILITY AND DAILY WEATHER

When stable air is forced aloft, the clouds that form are widespread and have little vertical thickness compared
with their horizontal dimension. Precipitation, if any, is light to moderate. In contrast, clouds associated with
unstable air are towering and are usually accompanied by heavy precipitation. Thus, on a dreary and overcast
day with light drizzle, stable air was forced aloft. Conversely, on a day when cauliflower-shaped clouds appear
to be growing as if bubbles of hot air were surging upward, we can be relatively certain that the atmosphere is
unstable. Instability is enhanced by the following:
1. Intense solar heating warming the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
2. The heating of an air mass from below as it passes over a warm surface.
3. General upward movement of air caused by processes such as orographic lifting, frontal wedging,
and convergence.
4. Radiation cooling from cloud tops.
Most processes that alter stability result from temperature changes caused by horizontal or vertical movement,
although daily temperature changes are important too. In general, any factor that increases the environmental
lapse rate renders the air more unstable, whereas a factor that reduces the environmental lapse rate increases
the air’s stability. The role of stability in determining our daily weather cannot be overemphasized. The air’s
stability, or lack of it, determines to a large degree whether clouds develop and produce precipitation and
whether that precipitation will come as a gentle shower or a violent downpour. In general, when stable air is
forced aloft, the associated clouds have little vertical thickness, and precipitation, if any, is high. In contrast,
clouds associated with unstable air are towering and are frequently accompanied by heavy precipitation.
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12. AIR MASSES
AIR MASSES
 Introduction
 Definition
 Source regions
 Modification of an Air Mass
 Classification of Air Masses
 Characteristics of different Air Masses
 Previous year questions
Why to study Air Masses?
 Important and inseparable part of planetary wind system.
 Important for the better understanding of various atmospheric disturbances.
 Play an important role in removing the latitudinal imbalances in heat.
 Responsible for bringing about changes in the day to day weather.
 Play a dominant role in producing different types of climate.
What is an Air Mass?
Air Mass is an extremely large body of air whose properties of temperature and moisture content (humidity),
at any given altitude, are fairly similar in any horizontal direction.
 Can cover hundreds of thousands of square miles.
 There can be small variations
When this air moves out of its region of origin it will carry these temperature and moisture conditions elsewhere,
eventually affecting a large portion of a continent. In this process, they not only modify the weather of the area
then they occupy but they are also modify to a certain extent by the surface over which they are moving. The
horizontal uniformity of an air mass is not complete because it may extend through 20 degrees or more of
latitude and cover hundreds of thousands to millions of square kilo-meters. Consequently, small differences in
temperature and humidity from one point to another at the same level are to be expected. Still, the differences
observed within an air mass are small in comparison to the rapid rates of change experienced across air-mass
boundaries.
Because it may take several days for an air mass to traverse an area, the region under its influence will probably
experience generally constant weather conditions, a situation called air-mass weather. Certainly, some day-to-
day variations may exist, but the events will be very unlike those in an adjacent air mass.
Many significant middle-latitude disturbances originate along the boundary zones that separate different air
masses.
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SOURCES REGION
The areas of the globe where air masses from are called source regions. A source region must have certain
temperature and humidity properties that can remain fixed for a substantial length of time to affect air masses
above it. Air mass source regions occur only in the high or low latitudes; middle latitudes are too variable.
 Where do air masses form?
 What factors determine the nature and degree of uniformity of an air mass?
These two basic questions are closely related, because the site where an air mass forms vitally affects the
properties that characterize it.
Areas in which air masses originate are called source regions. Because the atmosphere is heated chiefly from
below and gains its moisture by evaporation from Earth’s surface, the nature of the source region largely
determines the initial characteristics of an air mass.
An ideal source region must meet two essential criteria. First, it must be an extensive and physically uniform
area. A region having highly irregular topography or one that has a surface consisting of both water and land is
not satisfactory.
The Second criterion is that the area be characterized by a general stagnation of atmospheric circulation so that
air will stay over the region long enough to come to some measure of equilibrium with the surface. In general,
it means regions dominated by stationary or slow-moving anticyclones with their extensive areas of calms or
light winds.
Regions under the influence of cyclones are not likely to produce air masses because such systems are
characterized by converging surface winds. The winds in lows are constantly bringing air with unlike
temperature and humidity properties into the area. Because the time involved is not long enough to eliminate
these differences, steep temperature gradients result, and air-mass formation cannot take place.
MODIFICATION OF AN AIR MASS
In its source region an air mass gains properties which are characteristic of the underlying surface. It may be
cold or warm and it may be dry or moist. As air moves from its source region the air is modified due to
variations in the nature of the underlying surface. Two processes, acting either independently or together, may
modify an air mass.
An air mass moving over the sea is said to have a maritime track. This air mass will typically increase its
moisture content, particularly in its lowest layers, by evaporation of water from the sea surface (as seen in the
above diagram). On the other hand, and air mass moving over the land (with a continental track) will remain
relatively dry.
A cold air mass flowing away from its source region over a warmer surface will be warmed from below making
the air more unstable in its lowest layers. A warm air mass flowing over a colder surface is cooled from below
and becomes stable in its lowest layers. In its source region an air mass gains properties which are
characteristic of the underlying surface. It may be cold or warm and it may be dry or moist.
There are two principal types of air masses modification:
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a. Thermodynamic modifications
b. Mechanical modifications.
Modifications resulting from the temperature difference between an air mass and surface below, or evaporation
of water into the air mass from below or into the intermediate layers by precipitation from the overlying layers
of the air, condensation or precipitation by extracting moisture from the air mass or addition or loss of latent
heat of condensation accompanying the condensation and precipitation etc. are included in the thermodynamic
modifications. An air mass which is cooler than the ground surface is bound to be heated from below. This
factor leads to instability creating chances for precipitation and condensation. For example, when cA and cP air
moves over the ocean in winter, in a matter of days, cold, dry, and stable continental air is transformed into an
unstable mP air mass. On the other hand, an air mass moving over a colder surface is cooled from below. A
surface inversion that creates stability of the air mass often develops. These conditions oppose the cloud
formation and precipitation. Any clouds that do form will be of the stratus variety with a light to moderate
precipitation.
Capital letters W and K standing for warm and cold represent such modifications of the initial properties of an
air mass. W represents warmer air mass cooled from below and K means air mass heated from below. These
letters W and K gives an indication of the stability of an air mass and hence, the weather that might be
expected.
In addition to thermodynamic modifications, upward and downward movements induced by cyclones and
anticyclones or topography can also affect the stability of an air mass. Such modifications are often called
mechanical or dynamic and are usually independent of the changes caused by surface cooling or heating. For
example, significant modification can result when an air mass is drawn into a low pressure area. Here
convergence and lifting dominate and the air mass is rendered more unstable. Conversely, the subsidence
associated with anticyclones acts to stabilize an air mass. Similar alterations in stability occur when an air mass
is lifted over highlands or descends the leeward side of a mountain barrier. In the first case, the air’s stability is
reduced; in the second case, the air becomes more stable
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR MASSES
The classification of an air mass depends on the latitude of the source region and the nature, of the surface in the
area of origin-ocean or continent. The latitude of the source region indicates the temperature conditions within
the air mass, and the nature of the surface below strongly influences the moisture content of the air.
Pettersen has classified air masses into the
following five major categories on the basis of their
of their source regions: 1. Tropical air masses, 2.
Polar air masses, 3. Equatorial air masses, 4. Arctic
air masses, 5. Antarctic air masses.
But according to Byers, there are only three major
categories of air masses i.e. arctic, polar, and
tropical air masses.
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Trewartha, on the basis of geographical location of air masses classifies them into the following two broad
categories: polar (P) and tropical (T).
He further subdivides the two air masses into two types on the basis of the nature of the surface of their source
regions i.e. land and water - the lowercase letter m (for maritime) and the lowercase letter c (for continental).
Because maritime air masses over oceans, they have a relatively high water-vapor co compared to continental
air masses that originate over masses.
When this classification scheme is applied, the following air
masses can be identified:
cA continental arctic
cP continental polar
cT continental tropical
mT maritime tropical
mP maritime polar
Besides the above classification when various
thermodynamic and mechanical modifications of air masses
are taken into consideration a more elaborate classification
consisting of the following sixteen types is obtained:
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13. FRONTOGENESIS
INTRODUCTION
Fronts are boundary surfaces that separate air masses of different densities. One air mass is usually warmer
and often contains more moisture than the other. However, fronts can form between any two contrasting air
masses. When the vast of air masses are considered, these 15- to 200-kilometer (9- to 120-mile-) wide bands
of discontinuity are relatively arrow. On the scale of a weather map, they are normally thin enough to represent
as a broad line.
Above the ground the frontal surface slopes at a low angle so that warmer air overlies cooler air, as shown in
the figure bellow. In the ideal case the air masses on both sides of the front would be in the same direction and
at the same speed. Under this condition the front would act simply as a barrier that travels along with the air
masses. Generally, however, the distribution, of pressure across a front is such that one air mass moves faster
relative to the frontal boundary than does the other. Thus, one air mass actively advances into another and
“clashes” with it. The Norwegian meteorologists visualized these zones of air-mass interactions as analogous to
battle lines and tagged them “fronts,” like battlefronts. It is along these zones of conflict that mid-latitude
cyclones develop and produce much of the precipitation and severe weather in the belt of the westerlies.
As one air mass moves into another, limited mixing occurs along the frontal surface, but for the most part, the
air masses retain their identity as one is displaced upward over the other.
No matter which air mass is advancing, it is always the warmer, less dense air that is forced aloft, whereas the
cooler, denser air acts as a wedge on which lifting takes place. The term overrunning is generally applied to
warm air gliding up along a cold air mass.
FRONTOGENESIS AND FRONTOLYSIS
It was Tor Bergeron who for the first time used the term ‘Frontogenesis’ for the creation of new fronts. Later
on, the term was extended to include the process of regeneration of the old and decaying fronts.
Thus, Frontogenesis, a Latin derived word, means ‘creation of altogether new fronts’ or ‘the regeneration of
decaying fronts already in existence.’ Frontolysis, on the contrary, means the destruction or dying of a front.
It would not be out of place to mention that fronts do not come into existence all of a sudden; rather they
appear only after the processes of Frontogenesis have been in operation for quite some time.
In the same way, the act of weakening or vanishing of the existing fronts is not accomplished suddenly. The
process of frontolysis must continue for some time in order to destroy an existing front.
Frontogenesis is likely to occur when the wind blows in such a way that the isotherms become packed along
the leading edge of the intruding air mass. Convergence of the wind toward a point or contraction toward a line
augments the process of frontogenesis.
On the contrary, divergence of the wind from a point or dilation from a line is helpful to the process of
frontolysis. Frontolysis, therefore, is likely to occur when fronts move into regions of divergent air flow. That is
why on crossing the subtropical high-pressure regions, the fronts generally disappear.
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To summarize, when contrasting air masses have convergent movement, the frontogenesis occurs. The
temperature contrast in the converging air masses is another most important prerequisite for the process of
frontogenesis to occur.
The fronts come into existence only when the above two conditions are fulfilled simultaneously. In other words,
the convergence of air masses with different temperatures and densities is conducive to frontogenesis.
On the contrary, when the air masses move away from each other or when the temperature contrast between
the adjacent air masses diminishes due to one reason or the other the fronts dissipate or start decaying.
According to Byers, either of the above two conditions may lead to frontolysis.
The regions of cyclonic wind-shift or cyclonic wind shear witness the creation of new fronts. Most of the fronts
are associated with troughs of low pressure.
Contrarily, the areas of anticyclonic wind shear do not allow the formation of fronts. Even the pre-existing
fronts degenerate in such areas.
CLASSIFICATION OF FRONTS
a. Warm Fronts
When the surface (ground) position of a front moves so that warm air occupies territory formerly covered by
cooler air, it is called a warm front (as shown in the figure below). On a weather map, the surface position of a
warm front is shown by a red line with red semicircles protruding into the cooler air. East of the Rockies,
maritime tropical (mT) air often enters the United States from the Gulf of Mexico and overruns receding cool
air. As the colder air retreats, friction with the ground greatly slows the advance of the surface position of the
front compared to its position aloft. Stated another way, less dense, warm air has a hard time displacing
heavier, cold air. Consequently, the boundary
separating these air masses acquires a very gradual
slope. The slope of a warm front (height compared to
horizontal distance) average only about 1:200. This
means that if you travelled 200 kilometers (120 miles)
ahead of the surface location of a warm front, the
frontal surface would be only 1 kilometer (0.6 miles)
overhead.
(a) Idealized clouds and weather associated
with a warm front. During most of the year,
warm fronts produce light-to-moderate
precipitation over a wide area.
(b) During the warm season, when conditionally
unstable air is forced aloft, cumulonimbus
clouds and thunderstorms often arise.
As warm air ascends the retreating wedge of cold air, it expands and cools adiabatically, causing moisture in the
ascending air to condense into clouds that often produce precipitation. The first sign of the approaching warm
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front is cirrus clouds. These high clouds
form where the overrunning warm air has
ascended high up the wedge of cold air,
1000 kilometers (600 miles) or more
ahead of the surface front. Another
indication of an approaching warm front
is provided by aircraft contrails. On a
clear day, when these condensation trails
persist for several hours, you can be fairly
certain that comparatively warm, moist
air is ascending overhead.
As the front nears, cirrus clouds grade
into cirrostratus that gradually blends into
denser sheets of altostratus. About 300
kilometers (180 miles) ahead of the front,
thicker stratus and nimbostratus clouds
appear and precipitation commences.
Because of their slow rate of advance and very gentle slope, lifting associated with warm fronts has a large
horizontal component. As a result, warm fronts tend to produce light-to-moderate precipitation over a wide
area for an extended period. But this is not always the case. If, for example, the overriding air mass is relatively
dry (low dew-point temperatures), there will be minimal cloud development, and no precipitation. By contrast,
during the hot summer months, very moist air is commonly associated with an approaching warm front. If this
conditionally unstable air is lifted sufficiently it will freely rise on its own, producing towering cumulonimbus
clouds and thunderstorms.
As you can see from the above figure, the precipitation associated with a warm front occurs ahead of the
surface position of the front. Some of the rain that falls through the cool air below the clouds evaporates. As a
result, the air directly beneath the cloud base often becomes saturated and a stratus cloud deck develops.
These clouds occasionally grow rapidly downward, which can cause problems for pilots of small aircraft that
require visual landings. One minute pilots may have adequate visibility and the next be in a cloud mass (frontal
fog) that has the landing strip “socked in.” Occasionally during the winter, a relatively warm air mass is forced
over a body of subfreezing air. When this occurs, it can create hazardous driving conditions. Raindrops
become super cooled as they fall through the subfreezing air. Upon colliding with the road surface they flash-
freeze to produce the icy layer called glaze.
When a warm front passes, temperatures gradually rise. As you would expect, the increase is most apparent
when a large contrast exists between adjacent air masses. Moreover, a wind shift from the east to the
southwest is generally noticeable. The moisture content and stability of the encroaching warm air mass largely
determine the time period required for clear skies to return. During the summer, cumulus and occasionally
cumulonimbus clouds are embedded in the warm unstable air mass that follows the front. These clouds may
produce precipitation, which ran be heavy but is usually scattered and of short duration.
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Element Before Warm Front During Passage of After Warm Front
Passes Warm Front Passes
Pressure Usually falling Reaches minimum and slight rise
then remains steady
Temperature Cool to cold warms steadily Becomes slowly warmer
Wind Generally from south Direction varies. Speed Direction usually shifts
to southeast increase as front passes to south to southwest
Clouds High level clouds, Usually overcast Decrease in coverage amount
(Ci then Cs), begin conditions with May have scattered stratocumulus
increasing, predominantly stratus and type and occasionally
ollowed by Altostratus, nimbostratus type clouds cumulonimbus type in summer
then Nimbostratus and months
stratus with occasional
cumulonimbus clouds near
front in summer. Fog
often occurs near
and ahead of front.
Precipitation Light to moderate rain, Possibly light drizzle or Usually none or light showers
snow, sleet or drizzle no precipitation
Visibility Poor to near zero in fog Poor but slowly Fair, may lower in hazy areas.
and precipitation improving as front passes
Dew Point Steadily rises as Remains steady Rises in warm, moist air behind
precipitation evaporates front and then remains steady
into cool air
ahead of front
b. Cold Fronts
When cold, continental polar air; advances into a region occupied by warmer air, the zone of discontinuity is
called a cold front. As with warm fronts, friction slows the surface position of a cold front compared to its
position aloft. Thus, the cold front steepens as it moves. On the average, cold fronts are about twice as steep
as warm fronts, having a slope of perhaps 1:100. In addition, cold fronts advance at speeds around 35 to 50
kilometers (20 to 35 miles) per hour compared to 25 to 35 kilometers (15 to 20 miles) per hour for warm
fronts. These two differences, steepness of
slope and rate of movement, largely account
for the more violent nature of cold-front
weather, compared to the weather generally
accompanying a warm front. The arrival of a
cold front is sometimes preceded by
altocumulus clouds. As the front
approaches, generally from the west or
northwest, towering clouds can often be
seen in the distance. Near the front, a dark
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band of ominous clouds foretells the ensuing weather. The forceful lifting of warm, moist air along a cold front
is often so rapid that the released latent heat increases the air’s buoyancy. The heavy downpours and vigorous
wind gusts associated with mature cumulonimbus clouds frequently result. Because a cold front produces
roughly the same amount of lifting as a warm front, but over a shorter distance, the precipitation intensity is
greater but of shorter duration.
In addition, a marked temperature drop and wind shift from the southwest to the northwest usually
accompanies the frontal passage. The sharp temperature contrast and sometimes violent weather along cold
fronts are symbolized on a weather map by a blue line with blue triangular points extending into the warm air
mass.
Most often the weather behind a cold front is dominated by subsiding air within a continental polar air mass.
Thus, the drop in temperature is accompanied by clearing that begins soon after the front passes. Although
subsidence causes adiabatic heating aloft, the effect on surface temperatures is minor. In winter the long,
cloudless nights that often follow the passage of a cold front allow for abundant radiation cooling that reduces
surface temperatures.
Element Before Cold Front During Passage of After Cold Front

Passes Cold Front Passes
Pressure Falling; either steady or Reaches minimum and Continues to rise
unsteady and then begins rising
Temperature Relatively warm Drops quickly Drops steadily
Wind Generally from south Increase in speed, often Direction usually shifts
to southeast gusty. Direction begins to west to northwesterly
shifting
Clouds High level clouds, Overcast, or nearly so, Decrease in coverage amount
(Ci then Cs), begin with Cumulus and Fair weather Cu may develop
increasing, Cumulonimbus present behind front
Bases lower as mid level
and low level clouds
begin developing. May
have convective types
(Cu and CB) develop
ahead of front
Precipitation May have scattered Maximum precipitation, Usually none or light showers
showers associated with usually of a showery
few Cu and Cb. nature, either rain or snow,
with lightning, thunder Precipitation ends
and hail if Cb’s are present
Visibility Fair to poor in haze Drops quickly to very poor Quickly improves as
in showers precipitation ends
Dew Point Relatively high Drops quickly as dryer air Drops steadily
to southeast behind front moves in
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When a cold front moves over a relatively warm surface, radiation emitted from Earth can heat the lower
atmosphere enough to produce shallow convection. This in turn may generate low cumulus or stratocumulus
clouds behind the front. However, subsidence aloft renders these air masses quite stable. Any clouds that form
will not develop great vertical thickness and will seldom produce precipitation. One exception is lake-effect
snow where the cold air behind the front acquires both heat and moisture when it traverses a comparatively
warm body of water.
c. Stationary Fronts
Occasionally, the airflow on both sides of a front is neither toward the cold air mass nor toward the warm air
mass, but almost parallel to the line of the front. Consequently, the surface position of the front does not move,
or moves very slowly. This condition is called a stationary front. On weather map, stationary fronts are shown
with blue triangular points on one side of the line and red semicircles on the other. Because overrunning usually
occurs along stationary fronts, gentle to moderate precipitation is likely. Stationary fronts may remain over an
area for several days, in which case flooding is possible.
d. Occluded Fronts
The fourth type of front is the occluded front. Here a rapidly moving cold front overtakes a warm front, as
shown. As the cold air wedges the warm front upward a new front forms between the advancing cold air and
the air over which the warm front is gliding. The weather of an occluded front is generally complex. Most
precipitation is associated with the
warm air being forced aloft. When
conditions are suitable, however, the
newly formed front is capable of
initiating precipitation of its own.
As you might expect, there are cold-
type occluded fronts and warm-type
occluded fronts. In the occluded front
shown in below figure, the air behind
the cold front is colder than the cool air
it is overtaking. This is the most
common type of occluded front east of
the Rockies and is called a cold-type
occluded front.
It is also possible for the air behind the
advancing cold front to be warmer
than the cold air it is overtaking. These
warm-type occluded fronts frequently
occur along the Pacific Coast, where
milder maritime polar air invades more
frigid polar air that had its origin over the continent.
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Note that in the warm-type occluded front, the warm air aloft (and hence the precipitation) often precedes the
arrival of the surface front. This situation is reversed for the cold-type occluded front, where the front aloft (and
its associated precipitation) lags behind the surface front. Also note that cold-type occluded fronts frequently
resemble cold fronts in the type of weather
generated.
Because of the complex nature of occluded fronts,
they are often drawn on weather maps as either warm
or cold fronts, depending on what kind of air is the
aggressor. In those cases when they are drawn as an
occluded front, a purple line with alternating purple
triangles and semicircles pointing in the direction of
movement is employed.
e. Drylines
Classifying fronts based only on the temperature
differences across the frontal boundary can be
misleading. Humidity also influences the density of air,
with humid air being less dense than dry air, all other
factors being equal. The front that develops is usually
labeled a cold front, even though the advancing air
may not be any colder than the air it displaces.
Simply, the drier air is denser and forcefully lifts the
moist air in its path, just like a cold front. The passage of this type of frontal boundary is noticed as a sharp drop
in humidity, without an appreciable drop in temperature.
A related type of boundary, called a dryline, develops over the southern Great Plains. This occurs when dry,
continental tropical (cT) air originating over the American Southwest meets moist, maritime tropical (mT) air
from the Gulf of Mexico. Basically a spring and summer phenomenon, drylines most often generate a band of
severe thunderstorms along a line extending from Texas to Nebraska that moves eastward across the Great
Plains. A dryline is easily identified by comparing the dew point temperatures of the cT air west ofthe boundary
with the dew points of the mT air mass to the east.
In summary, because cold fronts are the aggressor, the lifting along a cold front tends to be more concentrated
and forceful than along a warm front. Hence, the precipitation associated with a cold front usuallyoccurs in a
narrower zone and is more intense than that associated with a warm front.
OCCLUSION: THE BEGINNING OF THE END
Usually, the position of the cold front advances faster than the warm front and begins to close (lift) the warm
front, as shown in. This process, known as occlusion, forms an occluded front, which grows in length as it
displaces the warm sector aloft. As occlusion begins, the storm often intensifies. Pressure at the storm’s center
falls, and wind speeds increase. In the winter, heavy snowfalls and blizzard like conditions are possible during
this phase of the storm’s evolution.
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As more of the sloping discontinuity (front) is forced aloft, the pressure gradient weakens. In a day or two the
entire warm sector is displaced, and cold air surrounds the cyclone at low levels. Thus, the horizontal
temperature (density) difference that existed between the two contracting air masses has been eliminated. At
this point the cyclone has exhausted its source of energy. Friction slows the surface flow, and the once highly
organized counter clockwise flow ceases to exist.
A simple analogy may help you visualize what is happening to the cold and warm air masses in the preceding
discussion.
Imagine a large water trough that has a vertical divider set rating the tank into two equal parts. Half of the tank
is filled with hot water containing red dye, and the other half is filled with blue-colored ice water. Now imagine
what happens when the divider is removed. The cold, dense water will flow under the less dense warm water,
displacing it upward. This rush of water will come to a halt as soon as all of the warm water displaced toward
the top of the container. In a similar manner a middle-latitude cyclone dies once all of the warm air is displaced
aloft and the horizontal discontinuity between the air masses no longer exists.
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14. TEMPERATE AND TROPICAL CYCLONES
INTRODUCTION
The cyclones are irregular wind movements involving closed air circulation around a low pressure centre. This
closed air circulation is caused by atmospheric disturbances over and above the earth’s surface, coupled with
the earth’s ‘rotation which imparts to these disturbances a whirling motion. Cyclones are associated with
destructive and violent disturbances, such as heavy squalls and torrential rainfall.
The term cyclone refers to a wide variety of broad, low pressure system with cyclonic rotation that is counter
clockwise if the system is in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The low-
pressure center is also referred to as the ‘eye’ of the storm, which is well known for being eerily calm
compared with the areas under the spinning ‘arms’ of the storm. Cyclones usually exhibit nearly circular
isobars. If isobars are oblong or elongate with the lowest pressure near the center we call them troughs. As air
enters an area of low pressure from all directions, the Coriolis Effect bends the direction of the wind to the right
of its path. This creates a counter clockwise rotation around the low and convergence near the center of the
system. As the air collides near the center it is forced aloft where divergence takes air away from the center of
the system. The upper-level divergence is necessary for the system to be maintained as an area of low
pressure. Without the divergence, the system would fill with air and the horizontal pressure differences would
be equalized causing the system to dissipate.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CYCLONES
The cyclones level down inequalities of pressure and wind movement over the globe. They play an important
role in the complex process of heat exchange between various latitudinal zones. Cyclones have a bearing over
the phenomenon of precipitation, especially in mid-latitude regions, by lifting up the moist air from oceans and
taking it into the surrounding landmasses.
The cyclonic wind movements are anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere. The cyclones are often characterised by existence of an anticyclone between two cyclones.
Depending on their area of origin and principal tracks followed, the cyclones can be either tropical or
temperate/extra-tropical.
From the locational point of view, cyclones are classified into two principal types as
a. Temperate cyclones
b. Tropical cyclones
a. TEMPERATE CYCLONES OR EXTRA –TROPICAL OR WAVE CYCLONE
Temperate cyclones, also called as extra tropical cyclones or wave cyclones or simply depression are
atmospheric disturbances having low pressure in the centre and increasing pressure outward. It is active over
mid-latitudinal region between 35° latitude and 65° latitude in both hemispheres. It is a type of storm system
formed in middle or high latitudes, in regions of large horizontal temperature variations called frontal zones.
These systems receive their energy by warm and cold air masses interacting in a wave formation. The
development is determined by upper atmospheric motion. The polar fronts created due to these two air
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masses responsible for origin and “development of temperate cyclones. After their formation, temperate
cyclones move in easterly direction under the influence of westerly winds combined with Coriolis force and
control the weather conditions in the middle latitudes.
Unlike tropical cyclones which are produced and developed mainly over the sea, temperate cyclones are
produced both on land and on sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones are limited to a small area and usually travel
from east to west, the temperate cyclones occupy areas measuring a couple of thousands of kilometres and
move from west to east. In a temperate cyclone, wind speed is low and all the sectors of the cyclone have
different temperatures. The rainfall is slow and continues for many days.
FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPERATE CYCLONE
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT:
The fickleness and variability of weather characteristics caused by atmospheric disturbances that move from
west to east in the belt of prevailing westerlies gave an incentive to the weather scientists to make investigations
and researches.
Fitzroy was pioneer in the field who in 1863 explained that most of the extra tropical cyclones originated
because of the interaction of air masses having different physical properties.
His investigations revealed that the subtropical regions produced warm and humid air currents, and the cold
and dry air streams had their source regions in the polar and Arctic regions.
It must be appreciated that the concept of the involvement of air masses in the formation of temperate
depressions was altogether new, and in a way laid the foundation of further investigations into the causes of
their origin and structure. Those were the days when weather observing stations were few and scattered. There
was dearth of a systematic accumulation of observational data.
With the publication of ‘Weather’ by Abercromby in 1887, a new era of scientific and systematic investigations
began. He prepared a diagram of a model extra tropical cyclone in which weather characteristics observed in
its different sectors were depicted.
But the then weather scientists laid greater emphasis on the descriptive analysis of weather disturbances, and
the physical processes responsible for their origin were completely ignored.
In 1911, Shaw and Lempfert took the lead and started the unfinished task of finding out the exact causes of the
origin of temperate cyclones along with the lines shown by Abercromby. These investigators accorded a more
scientific background to the theories propounded by Fitzroy.
It was toward the end of World War I that the Norwegian meteorologists, V. Bjerknes, his son J. Bjerknes and
associates, collected systematic synoptic observations to study the structure of a number of cyclones over
Europe.
A. Polar-Front Theory (Norwegian Cyclone Model)
Mid-latitude cyclones are low-pressure systems with diameters often exceeding 1000 kilometers (600 miles)
that travel from west to east across the planet. Lasting from a few days to more than a week, these weather
systems have a counter clockwise circulation pattern with a flow inward toward their centers. Most mid-
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latitude cyclones have a cold front and a warm front extending from the central area of low pressure. Surface
convergence and upward flow initiate cloud development that frequently produces precipitation.
As early as the 1800s, it was known that cyclones were the bearers of precipitation and severe weather. Thus,
the barometer was established as the main tool in “forecasting” day-today weather changes. However, this
early method of weather prediction largely ignored the role of air-mass interactions in the formation of these
weather systems. Consequently, it was not possible to determine the conditions under which cyclone
development was favorable.
The first encompassing model to consider the development and intensification of a mid-latitude cyclone was
constructed by a group of Norwegian scientists during World War I. Included in this group were Vilhelm
Bjerknes (pronounced Bee-YURK-ness), his son Jacob Bjerknes, Jacob’s fellow student Halvor Solberg and
Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron. In 1921 the
work of these scientists resulted in a publication
outlining a compelling model of how mid-latitude
cyclones progress through stages of birth, growth,
and decay. These insights, which marked a turning
point in atmospheric science, became known as
the polar-front theory-also referred to as the
Norwegian cyclone model.
According to this theory, the warm-humid air
masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air
masses from the poles and thus a polar front is
formed as a surface of discontinuity. Such conditions occur over sub-tropical highs, sub-polar lows and along
the tropopause. The cold air pushes the warm air upwards from underneath. Thus a void is created because of
lessening of pressure. The surrounding b air rushed in to occupy this void and coupled with the earth’s rotation,
a cyclone is formed which advances with the westerlies. This theory has six specific stages of formation and
development.
1) The ‘stationary front’ is the first stage and occurs when two highs are separated by a trough of low
pressure and therefore, a stationary front. High pressure systems and the air masses around them
rotate in an anti-cyclonic motion which creates a zone in the trough of two separate air masses
travelling parallel to each other but in the opposite direction. This creates what is known as wind
shear and begins to make the air rotate cyclonically due to the friction created.
2) The ‘frontal wave’ is the second stage and shows the cyclonically rotating air of the stationary front.
This rotation now causes the cooler air to advance on one side and warmer air to advance on the
other, creating one warm and one cold front. These two fronts are separated by a low pressure core
and begin taking the shape of a wave.
3) The ‘open wave’ stage creates a defined warm sector which is advancing with the warm front but
also being taken over by the cold front which is moving faster due its higher density. This warm sector
is the source of energy for the Cyclone and is the key in the continuation and formation of the
Cyclone.
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4) The ‘mature’ stage is normally the most powerful stage of the Cyclone with winds and
precipitation being at their maximum. The cold front has further eroded away at the warm sector
forming a small occlusion at the junction between the two fronts. The pressure at the junction has also
dropped significantly creating a large pressure gradient, this is the cause of high winds flowing
cyclonically inwards, or converging.
5) The ‘advanced occlusion’ is the fifth stage and is the beginning of the end for the Cyclone. The cold
front has advanced too far into the warm sector causing the occluded front to increase in length. This
puts further distance between the warm -sector and the low pressure centre and essentially cuts off
the supply of energy to the system. The storm has not dissipated yet but it has reached its peak and
has begun to decline in strength.
6) The ‘cut-off Cyclone’ is the sixth and final stage of the Cyclone. The low pressure system has
separated from the wave and the wave returns to a stationary front as before. The Cyclone has lost
most, if not all, of its strength and cannot obtain any more energy to re-intensify. It becomes a regular
low pressure system drifting away from the wave.
B. Thermodynamic Theory by Lampert and Shaw:
According to this theory, in sub-tropical areas, an overcrowding of vertical currents releases the surplus energy
upwards which, after meeting the upper cool air, converts into an eddy. This eddy tends to settle down as an
inverted ‘V’ shaped cyclone.
The temperate cyclones occur mostly in winter, late autumn and spring. They are generally associated with
rainstorms and cloudy weather.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEMPERATE CYCLONE
SIZE AND SHAPE
The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical and shaped like an inverted ‘V’. They stretch from 500 km to 600
km. They may go upto 2500 km over North America. They have a height of 8 to 11 km.
WIND VELOCITY AND STRENGTH
These aspects of a temperate cyclone vary with season, location and from cyclone to cyclone, and the wind is
directed a little to the right of the centre, rather than into it. The wind strength is more in eastern and southern
portions, more over North America compared to Europe. The wind velocity increases with the approach but
decreases after the cyclone has passed.
ORIENTATION AND MOVEMENT
Since these cyclones move with the westerlies, they are oriented east-west. If the storm front is east-west, the
centre moves swiftly eastwards. If the storm front is directed northwards, the centre moves towards the north,
but after two or three days, the pressure difference declines and the cyclone dissipate. In case the storm front
is directed southwards, the centre moves quite deep southwards even upto the Mediterranean region
(sometimes causing the Mediterranean cyclones).
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STRUCTURE OF THE TEMPERATE CYCLONE
The north-western sector is the cold sector and the north-eastern sector is the warm sector. As one moves
eastwards in the northern sector, dark nimbus clouds and altostratus are followed by cirrostratus higher up with
cirrus clouds finally at the storm front. In the eastern sector, the extent of cloudiness and rainfall is limited. This
sector is generally dominated by cumulonimbuses which cause heavy downpour, thunderstorm, lightning and
hailstorm.
DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATE CYCLONE

The favourite breeding grounds of temperate cyclones are mentioned below.
1. Over USA and Canada, extending over Sierra
Nevada, Colorado, Eastern Canadian Rockies and the
Great Lakes region. 2. Mexican Gulf. 3. The belt
extending from Iceland to Barents Sea and continuing
over Russia and Siberia. 4. Winter storms over Baltic
Sea. 5. Mediterranean basin extending upto Russia and
even upto India in wint ers (called west ern
disturbances). 6. The Antarctic frontal zone.
Idealized Weather of a Mid-Latitude Cyclone
As stated earlier, the Norwegian model is a useful tool
for examining weather patterns of the middle latitudes. Cloud patterns typically associated with a mature
middle-latitude cyclone. The middle section is a map view. Note the cross-section lines (F-G, A-E). Above the
map is a vertical cross section along line F-G. Below the map is a cross-section along A-E.
Guided by the westerlies aloft, cyclones generally move eastward. Therefore, we can expect the first signs of
a cyclone’s arrival to appear in the western sky. In the region of the Mississippi Valley, however, cyclones often
begin a more north-easterly trajectory and occasionally move directly northward. Typically, a mid-latitude
cyclone requires two to four days to pass completely over a region. During that period, abrupt changes in
atmospheric conditions may occur, particularly in the winter and spring when the greatest temperature
contrasts occur across the middle latitudes.
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First, imagine the change in weather as you move from right to left along profile A-E. At point A the sighting of
high cirrus clouds is the first sign of the approaching cyclone. These high clouds can precede the surface front
by 1000 kilometers (600 miles) or more, and they are normally accompanied by falling pressure. As the warm
front advances, a lowering and thickening of the cloud deck is noticed. Within 12 to 24 hours after the first
sighting of cirrus clouds, light precipitation usually commences (point B). As the front nears, the rate of
precipitation increases, a rise in temperature is noticed, and winds begin to change from an easterly to a
southerly flow.
With the passage of the warm front, the
area is under the influence of the maritime
tropical air mass of the warm sector (point-
C). Generally, the region affected by this
part of the cyclone experiences relatively
warm temperatures, southerly winds, and
clear skies, although fair-weather cumulus
or altocumulus clouds are not uncommon.
The rather pleasant weather of the warm
sector passes quickly in the spring and is
replaced by gusty winds and precipitation
generate along the cold front. The
approach of a rapidly advancing cold front
is marked by a wall of rolling black clouds (point D). Severe weather accompanied by heavy precipitation and
occasionally hails or a tornado is common at this time of year.
The passage of the cold front is easily detected by a wind shift. The warm flow from the south or southwest is
replaced by cold winds from the west to northwest, resulting in a pronounced drop in temperature. Also, rising
pressure hints of the subsiding cool, dry air behind the cold front. Once the front passes, the skies clear quickly
as cooler air invades the region (point E). A day or two of almost cloudless deep blue skies are often
experienced, unless another cyclone is edging into the region.
A very different set of weather conditions prevails in the portion of the cyclone that contains the occluded front
along profile F-G. Here temperatures remain cool during the passage of the storm. The first hints of the
approaching low-pressure center are a continual drop in air pressure and increasingly overcast conditions. This
section of the cyclone most often generates snow or icing storms during the coldest months. Moreover, the
occluded front usually moves more slowly than the other fronts. Thus, the entire wishbone-shaped frontal
structure shown in the above figure rotates counter clockwise so that the occluded front appears to “bend over
backward.” This effect adds to the misery of the region influenced by the occluded front, for it remains over the
area longer than the other fronts.
b. What is a Tropical Cyclone?
Tropical Cyclones are low pressure systems that form over warm tropical waters and have gale force winds
(sustained winds of 63 km/h or greater and gusts in excess of 90 km/h) near the centre. Technically they are
defined as a non-frontal low pressure system of synoptic scale developing over warm waters having organised
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convection and a maximum mean wind speed of 34 knots or greater extending more than half-way around near
the centre and persisting for at least six hours. The ideal conditions for the development of tropical cyclones
are:
(i) Quiet air
(ii) High temperature
(iii) Highly saturated atmospheric conditions.
Such conditions exist over the equatorial doldrums, especially in western margins of oceans, which have great
moisture carrying capacity because the trade winds continuously replace the saturated air. Also, the whirling
motion is enhanced when the doldrums are farthest from the equator. This happens during the autumnal equinox
(August-September).
These are the most intense cyclones in terms of both pressure (in all cyclones, a lower pressure means a
stronger storm) and wind speed. They generally develop in summer season in the vicinity of Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone over warm ocean surface.
In the northern hemisphere, where cyclones occur in the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean and north eastern Pacific
Ocean they are called hurricanes and those in the South China Sea and regions of Asia are called typhoons,
Cyclones in the Indian Ocean and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.
Drawing energy from the sea surface and maintaining its strength as long as it remains over warm water, a
tropical cyclone generates winds that exceed 119 km (74 miles) per hour. In extreme cases winds may exceed
240 km (150 miles) per hour, and gusts may surpass 320 km (200 miles) per hour. Accompanying these strong
winds are torrential rains and a devastating phenomenon known as the storm surge, an elevation of the sea
surface that can reach 6 metres (20 feet) above normal levels. Such a combination of high winds and water
makes cyclones a serious hazard for coastal areas in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The
conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:
(i) Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C;
(ii) Presence of the Coriolis force;
(iii) Small variations in the vertical wind speed;
(iv) A pre-existing weak-low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation;
(v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.
The gale force winds can extend hundreds of kilometres from the cyclone centre. If the sustained winds around
the centre reach 118 km/h (gusts in excess 165 km/h). then the system is called a severe tropical cyclone.
The circular eye or centre of a tropical cyclone is an area characterised by light winds and often by clear
skies. Eye diameters are typically 40 km but can range from under 10 km to over 100 km. The eye is
surrounded by a dense ring of cloud about 16 km high known as the eye wall which marks the belt of strongest
winds and heaviest rainfall. Tropical cyclones can persist for many days and may follow quite erratic paths.
They usually dissipate over land or colder oceans.
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TYPES OF THE TROPICAL CYCLONES
There are three kinds of Tropical cyclones:
a. Tropical Depression: A tropical depression is a system with low pressure enclosed within few
isobars and with the wind speed of 60 kmph. It lacks marked circulation.
b. Tropical Storm: It is a system with several closed isobars and a wind circulation of 115 kmph.
c. Tropical Cyclone: It is a warm core vortex circulation of tropical origin with small diameter, circular
shape and occurs in oceanic areas.
TROPICAL CYCLONE STRUCTURE
Cross section of a typical hurricane
The main parts of a tropical cyclone are the rain bands, the eye, and the eye wall. Air spirals in toward the
centre in a counter-clockwise pattern in the northern hemisphere (clockwise in the southern hemisphere), and
out the top in the opposite direction. In the very center of the storm, air sinks, forming an “eye” that is mostly
cloud-free.
THE EYE
The hurricane’s center is a relatively calm, generally clear area of sinking air and light winds that usually do not
exceed 15 mph (24 km/h) and is typically 20-40 miles (32-64km) across. An eye will usually develop when
the maximum sustained wind speeds go above 74 mph
(119 km/h) and is the calmest part of the storm.
Around 74 mph (119 km/h) the strong rotation of air
around the cyclone balances inflow to the center, causing
air to ascend about 10-20 miles (16-32 km) from the
center forming the eyewall. This strong rotation also
creates a vacuum of air at the center, causing some of the
air flowing out the top of the eyewall to turn inward and
sink to replace the loss of air mass near the center. This
sinking air suppresses cloud formation, creating a pocket
of generally clear air in the center. People experiencing an
eye passage at night often see stars.
THE EYEWALL
Where the strong wind gets as close as it can is the eyewall. The eyewall consists of a ring of tall thunderstorms
that produce heavy rains and usually the strongest winds. Changes in the structure of the eye and eyewall can
cause changes in the wind speed, which is an indicator of the storm’s intensity. The eye can grow or shrink in
size, and double (concentric) eyewalls can form.
In intense tropical cyclones, some of the outer rainbands may organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that
slowly moves inward and robs the inner eyewall of its needed moisture and momentum. During this phase, the
tropical cyclone is weakening. Eventually the outer eyewall replaces the inner one completely and the storm
can be the same intensity as it was previously or, in some cases, even stronger.
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RAINBANDS
Curved bands of clouds and thunderstorms that trail away from the eye wall in a spiral fashion. These bands are
capable of producing heavy bursts of rain and wind, as well as tornadoes. There are sometimes gaps in
between spiral rain bands where no rain or wind is found.
In fact, if one were to travel between the outer edge of a hurricane to its center, one would normally progress
from light rain and wind, to dry and weak breeze, then back to increasingly heavier rainfall and stronger wind,
over and over again with each period of rainfall and wind being more intense and lasting longer.
The annular zone is characterised by suppressed cloudiness, fairly high temperature and low humidity
conditions. The outer connective band, found at the edge of the cloudmass, has external fringe of deep
convective clouds. These are produced due to the instability of air consequent upon converging air movement.
A belt of limited cloud cover is found, away from the main cloud mass.
LIFE OFA CYCLONE
A circulation system goes through a sequence of stages as it intensifies into a mature tropical cyclone. The
storm begins as a tropical disturbance, which typically occurs when loosely organized cumulonimbus clouds
in an easterly wave begin to show signs of a weak circulation. Once the wind speed increases to 36 km (23
miles) per hour, the storm is classified as a tropical depression. If the circulation continues to intensify and the
wind speeds exceed 63 km (39 miles) per hour, then the system is called a tropical storm. Once the maximum
wind speed exceeds 119 km (74 miles) per hour, the storm is classified as a tropical cyclone.
INTENSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONE
The dynamics of a tropical cyclone rely on the exterior of a storm being cooler than its core, so it is necessary
that the temperature of the atmosphere drop sufficiently rapidly with height. The warm, saturated air rising in the
centre of the circulation tends to keep rising as long as the surrounding air is cooler and heavier. This vertical
movement allows deep convective clouds to develop.
The rising air in the core also draws in some air from the surrounding atmosphere at altitudes of around 5,000
metres (16,000 feet). If this external air is relatively humid, the circulation will continue to intensify. If it is
sufficiently dry, then it may evaporate some of the water drops in the rising column, causing the air to become
cooler than the surrounding air. This cooling will result in the formation of strong downdrafts that will disrupt the
rising motion and inhibit development.
For the development of the rapid rotation characteristic of tropical cyclones, the low-pressure centre must be
located at least 500 km (300 miles) away from the Equator. If the initial disturbance is too close to the Equator,
then the effect of the Coriolis force will be too small to provide the necessary spin. The Coriolis force deflects
the air that is being drawn into the surface low-pressure centre, setting up a cyclonic rotation. In the Northern
Hemisphere the direction of the resulting circulation around the low is counter clockwise, and in the Southern
Hemisphere it is clockwise.
A final requirement for the intensification of tropical cyclones is that there must be little change in the wind speed
with height above the surface. If the winds increase too much with altitude, the core of the systemwill no longer
be vertically aligned over the warm surface that provides its energy.
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The area being warmed and the surface low-pressure centre will move apart, and the positive feedback
mechanism described above will be suppressed. Conditions in the tropics that encourage the development of
tropical cyclones include a typically minor north-to-south variation in temperature. This relative lack of a
temperature gradient causes wind speed to remain relatively constant with height.
DISSIPATION
Tropical cyclones dissipate when they can no longer extract sufficient energy from warm ocean water. As
mentioned above, a tropical cyclone can contribute to its own demise by stirring up deeper, cooler ocean
waters. In addition, a storm that moves over land will abruptly lose its fuel source and quickly lose intensity.
A tropical cyclone that remains over the ocean and moves into higher latitudes will change its structure and
become extra-tropical as it encounters cooler water. The transformation from a tropical to an extra-tropical
cyclone is marked by an increase in the storm’s diameter and by a change in shape from circular to comma- or
v-shaped as its rainbands reorganize. An extra-tropical cyclone typically has a higher central pressure and
consequently has lower wind speeds. Extra-tropical cyclones, which are fuelled by a north-to-south variation
of temperature, weaken and dissipate in a few days.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CYCLONE
Tropical Cyclones are climatological phenomena that occur across the globe. They have certain characteristics
that distinguish it from other atmospheric disturbances. These are:
The foremost characteristic is that Tropical Cyclones are most violent, most awesome and most disastrous of
all the atmospheric disturbances. The average speed is 120 kmph. Although it may vary from 32 kmph to 200
kmph or more. At times it reaches 400 kmph also.
They have closed isobars. The pressure gradient is very sharp. More closely spaced isobars represents greater
velocity of the storm and vice-versa. The pressure at the center is extremely low. The winds from the
surrounding area are drawn towards this low-pressure core called the “eye” of the cyclone.
Tropical cyclones develop over oceans and seas
only. They are most violent and vigorous over
water. On landfall, their velocity decreases due
to friction, and as the source of energy is cut off,
they dissipate soon. Thus they affect the coastal
areas only.
The movement of tropical cyclone is affected by
the prevailing wind system. Normally they move
from east to west under the influence of trade
winds. They are seasonal in nature and occur
during a specific period of the year only.
Where and when do tropical cyclones occur?
Tropical cyclones form between approximately 5° and 30° latitude and initially move westward (owing to
easterly winds) and slightly towards the poles. Many tropical cyclones eventually drift far enough from the
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equator to move into areas dominated by westerly winds (found in the middle latitudes). These winds tend to
reverse the direction of the tropical cyclone to an eastward path. As the tropical cyclone moves polewards it
picks up forward speed and may reach 30 m.p.h. or more. An average tropical cyclone can travel about 300
to 400 miles a day, or about 3,000 miles before it dies out.
AREAS AFFECTED BY TROPICAL CYCLONES
Tropical cyclones which occur in the Atlantic region and affect the Caribbean and USA usually comprise less
than 15% of global tropical cyclone activity. Tropical cyclones also occur in various parts of the Pacific Ocean,
and can affect coastal regions of Mexico, south-east Asia, north-east Australia and the south Pacific islands.
Those that form in the Indian Ocean can affect India, Bangladesh, north-west Australia, some parts of east
Africa and Indian Ocean islands such as Mauritius and Madagascar.
In the northern hemisphere most tropical cyclones occur between June and November with a peak in
September. However, in the western North Pacific it is not unusual to have the occasional tropical cyclone
outside of this period. In the southern hemisphere the season usually lasts from November to April. Tropical
cyclones are occasionally observed in the South Atlantic, but this is a very rare occurrence. The map above
shows the areas of the world affected by tropical cyclones.
WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH TROPICAL CYCLONE
The approaching of a tropical cyclone is marked by cirrus clouds of the eye of the cyclone and then dark
nimbus clouds cover the sky and heavy downpour begins. These downpours are evenly distributed around the
centre and continue till the arrival of the tail with sleet and clear weather. But just the tail comes; there is lightning
and thunder accompanied by calm, oppressive weather. The wind forms an upward moving spiral, so there are
no marked wind shifts. The after effect is felt in the form of a fall in temperature and rise in pressure.
TROPICAL CYCLONE AS DISASTER
Each year beginning around June 1st, the Gulf and East Coast states are at great risk for tropical cyclones.
While most people know that tropical cyclones can contain damaging wind, many do not realize that they also
produce several other hazards, both directly and indirectly.
i. Storm Surge and Tides
Potentially, the most destructive phenomenon associated with tropical cyclones that make landfall is the storm
surge. Storm surge is a raised dome of water about 60 to 80 km across and typically about 2 to 5 m higher than
the normal tide level. If the surge occurs at the same time as a high tide then the area inundated can be quite
extensive, particularly along low-lying coastlines.
Storm surge is simply water that is pushed toward the shore by the force of the winds swirling around the
storm. This advancing surge combines with the normal tides to create the hurricane storm tide, which can
increase the average water level 15 feet (4.5 m) or more.
The level of surge in a particular area is also determined by the slope of the continental shelf. Ashallow slope off
the coast will allow a greater surge to inundate coastal communities. Storm tides, waves, and currents in
confined harbors severely damage ships, marinas, and pleasure boats.
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ii. Wind and Squalls

Hurricanes are known for their damaging wind. They are rated in strength by their wind also. However, when
the NWS’s National Hurricane Center issues a statement concerning the wind and category, that value is for
sustained wind only. This hurricane scale does not include gusts or squalls.
Gusts are short but rapid bursts in wind speed and are primarily caused by turbulence over land mixing faster
air aloft to the surface. Squalls, on the other hand, are longer periods of increased wind speeds and are
generally associated with the bands of thunderstorms which make-up the spiral bands around the hurricane.
Based on observations made during damage investigations conducted by the Wind Science and Engineering
Research Center at Texas Tech University, researchers realized that much of the damage in windstorms is
caused by flying debris. They found, based on damage investigations, sections of wooden planks are the most
typical type of debris observed due to tornado.
iii. Inland Flooding
Flooding from Tropical Storm: In addition to the storm surge and high winds, tropical cyclones threaten with
their torrential rains and flooding. Even after the wind has diminished, the flooding potential of these storms
remains for several days.
It is common to think the stronger the storm the greater the potential for flooding. However, this is not always
the case. A weak, slow moving tropical storm can cause more damage due to flooding than a more powerful
fast moving hurricane. This was very evident with Tropical Storm Allison in June 2001.Allison, the first named
storm of the 2001 Atlantic Hurricane Season, devastated portions of Southeast Texas, including the Houston
Metro area and surrounding communities, with severe flooding. In addition to the storm surge, tropical
cyclones can, and usually do, cause several types of flooding.
FLASH FLOODING
Flash floods are rapid occurring events. This type of flood can begin within a few minutes or hours of excessive
rainfall. The rapidly rising water can reach heights of 30 feet (10 m) or more and can roll boulders, rip trees
from the ground, and destroy buildings and bridges.
URBAN/AREA FLOODS
Urban/Area floods are also rapid events although not quite as severe as a flash flood. Still, streets can become
swift-moving rivers and basements can become death traps as they fill with water. The primary cause is due to
the conversion of fields or woodlands to roads and parking lots.
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RIVER FLOODING
River floods are longer term events and occur when the runoff from torrential rains, brought on by decaying
hurricanes or tropical storms, reach the rivers. A lot of the excessive water in river floods may have began as
flash floods. River floods can occur in just a few hours and also last a week or longer.
iv. Tornadoes
Tropical cyclones can also produce tornadoes that add to the storm’s destructive power. Tornadoes are most
likely to occur in the right-front quadrant of the hurricane relative to its motion. However, they are also often
found elsewhere embedded in the rainbands, well away from the center of the tropical cyclones.
Tornadoes are thought responsible for the uneven damage seen in a hurricane’s aftermath. Some tropical
cyclones seem to produce no tornadoes, while others develop multiple ones. Studies have shown that more
than half of the land falling hurricanes produce at least one tornado; Hurricane Buelah (1967) spawned 141
according to one study. In general, tornadoes associated with hurricanes are less intense than those that occur
in the Great Plains. Nonetheless, the effects of tornadoes, added to the larger area of hurricane-force winds,
can produce substantial damage.
When associated with hurricanes, tornadoes are not usually accompanied by hail or a lot of lightning.
Tornadoes can occur for days after landfall when the tropical cyclone remnants maintain an identifiable low
pressure circulation.
They can also develop at any time of the day or night during landfall. However, by 12 hours after landfall,
tornadoes tend to occur mainly during daytime hours. A tornado watch is usually issued when a tropical
cyclone is about to move onshore. The watch box is generally to the right of the tropical cyclones path.
v. Thunderstorms
A thunderstorm is a storm with lightning and thunder. They are caused by an updraft, which occurs when warm,
moist air rises vertically into the atmosphere. The updraft creates a cumulus cloud, which will eventually be the
thunderstorm cloud. Updrafts can occur anywhere warm, wet air rises quickly, which is why most people, no
matter where they live, have experienced a thunderstorm at some point in their life. However, some places, like
Florida, are more prone to thunderstorms because the conditions that create thunderstorms are more common.
THE FORMATION OF A THUNDERSTORM
Atmospheric instability, updraft of potentially unstable air, abundant supply of warm air and moist air, thick
cloud etc. are the factors which favour the development of thunderstorms. The upward movement of warm and
moist air is prerequisite condition for the origin of thunderstorms. Once the air rises into the atmosphere, it
begins to cool. Cool air can’t hold as much water as warm air, so as the air cools, the water in the air gets
kicked out as condensation and may eventually fall back to the ground as rain. In order for this to happen,
though, the cumulus cloud has to grow very tall.
Think about it this way: If you’re playing a game of Red Rover and try to break through the human wall on the
other side by yourself, you may not be very successful because there’s only one of you. But if you get all of your
friends to crash into that line of people with you, you’ll have greater success because you are a large group with
a greater force.
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The same is true for water in the thunderstorm cloud. By itself, that single water droplet is not heavy enough to
fall back to the ground as rain. But if the cloud is tall enough, that one little droplet will pick up other droplets
with it and eventually grow into a large enough water droplet to break through and fall back to Earth.
Just like the updraft was warm air rising upward into the atmosphere, a downdraft is cool air sinking back to the
ground. Downdrafts are created by the falling water droplets because they don’t just drag other water down
with them as they fall; they drag cooler air down with them as well. The combined warm updraft and cool
downdraft create a storm cell. As the process of warm air rising and cool air sinking continues, the cloud grows
vertically into the shape of an anvil, which is called an anvil head cloud. This is now a full-fledged thunderstorm
cloud, ready to storm away!
THE THUNDERSTORM LIFE CYCLE
Thunderstorms have three stages in their life cycle: The developing stage, the mature stage, and the dissipating
stage. The developing stage of a thunderstorm is marked by a cumulus cloud that is being pushed upward by a
rising column of air (updraft). The cumulus cloud soon looks like a tower (called towering cumulus) as the
updraft continues to develop. There is little to no rain during this stage but occasional lightning.
The thunderstorm enters the mature stage when the updraft continues to feed the storm, but precipitation
begins to fall out of the storm, creating a downdraft (a column of air pushing downward). When the downdraft
and rain-cooled air spreads out along the ground it forms a gust front, or a line of gusty winds. The mature stage
is the most likely time for hail, heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong winds, and tornadoes. Eventually, a large
amount of precipitation is produced and the updraft is overcome by the downdraft beginning the dissipating
stage. At the ground, the gust front moves out a long distance from the storm and cuts off the warm moist air
that was feeding the thunderstorm. Rainfall decreases in intensity, but lightning remains a danger.
Life cycle of a thunderstorm

What does a thunderstorm look like?
Thunderstorms can look like tall heads of cauliflower or they can have “anvils.” An anvil is the flat cloud
formation at the top of the storm. An anvil forms when the updraft (warm air rising) has reached a point where
the surrounding air is about the same temperature or even warmer. The cloud growth abruptly stops and
flattens out to take the shape of an anvil.
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COMPARISON BETWEEN TROPICAL CYCLONE AND EXTRA-TROPICAL CYCLONE
An extra-tropical cyclone is a low pressure system that primarily gets its energy from the temperature
difference in the horizontal direction across the cyclone (known as temperature gradient in meteorology).
Extra-tropical cyclones have frontal features, i.e. they are associated with cold fronts, warm fronts, and
occluded fronts.
a. Formation-Tropical cyclone form only on seas with temperature more than 26-27 degree C. They
dissipate on reaching the land while temperate cyclone can form both on land as well as seas.
b. Latitude wise- Tropical cyclone is confined to 10-30 degree N and S of the equator whereas
Temperate cyclone is confined to 35 – 65 degree N and S of equator and it is more pronounced in
Northern hemisphere due to greater temperature contrast.
c. Size- Tropical cyclone is limited to small area. Typical size: 100 – 500 kms in diameter and it varies
with the strength of the cyclone. Temperate cyclone covers a larger area. Typical size: 300 – 2000
kms in diameter and it varies from region to region.
d. Structurally, extra-tropical cyclones are “cold-core”. “Cold-core” means that the center is colder
than the surroundings at the same height in the troposphere. Tropical cyclones, in contrast, typically
have little or no significant temperature differences across the storm. Their energy is derived from
the release of heat due to cloud/rain formation from the warm moist air of the tropics. Structurally,
tropical cyclones are “warm-core”.
Subtropical cyclones are hybrid systems that exhibit some characteristics of tropical cyclones and
some characteristics of extra-tropical cyclones.
e. The isobars of tropical cyclones are usually complete circles and the pressure gradient is steep. In
case of temperate cyclones the isobars are usually ‘V’ shaped and the pressure gradient is low.
Often, a tropical cyclone will transform into an extra-tropical cyclone as it reserves poleward. Once in a while,
an extra-tropical cyclone may lose its frontal features, develop convection near the centre of the cyclone and
turn into a tropical cyclone.
ANTICYCLONES
An anticyclone is a region of high atmospheric pressure
relative to the surrounding air, generally thousands of
kilometres in diameter and also known as a high or high-
pressure system. Anticyclones appear on weather
charts as a series of concentric, widely spaced isobars of
1000 mbs and above. The roughly circular closed isobar
at its central region indicates the area of highest pressure.
The centre of an anticyclone has a characteristic pattern of
air circulation, with subsiding air and horizontal divergence
of the air near the surface. The name anticyclone comes
from the circulatory flow of air within the system;
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anticyclonic circulation has a local circulation that is
opposed to the Earth’s rotation. Winds, generally light,
circulate around the high pressure centre in a clockwise
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in
the Southern Hemisphere. The subsiding air compresses as
it descends, causing adiabatic warming. The eventually
warmer and drier air suppresses cloud formation and thus
anticyclones are usually associated with fine weather in the
summer and dry, cold, and sometimes foggy weather in the
winter. Calm settled weather is usually synonymous with
anticyclones in temperate latitudes. Anticyclones are
typically relatively slow moving features.
TYPES OF ANTICYCLONES
There are two main types of anticyclone, a cold and warm anticyclone.
a. Cold anticyclones form typically over polar climates, here temperatures are very low and the air is often
cold and dense. An inversion tends to develop at low altitudes with anticyclones; this prevents clouds from
building any further. If this is so, any cumulus which does form during the daytime will quickly stop growing and
spread into a layer of stratocumulus and then disperse when night comes. At night when the temperatures drop
below freezing frosts are very likely to form.
b. Warm anticyclones form mainly over tropical or sub-tropical climates, where temperatures are often warm
both at day and night. With these highs air is subsiding at quite a depth through the troposphere, this tends to
hold back and restrict any cloud formation, if any cloud do form, they will often be erratic and well broken,
these being mainly cumulus and stratocumulus.
Anticyclone gloom’ forms when the air at the surface is warm and moist, extensive stratus or fog occurs under
the stable, calm conditions, it will remain this way unless the sun is strong enough to burn it away. However in
winter low stratus or fog could persist for days, or even weeks in extreme cases.
c. Subtropical anticyclones are usually warm and quasi permanent features of the Earth’s general circulation
(e.g. the Azores high). In mid-latitudes anticyclones are often located beneath the leading edge of ridges in the
upper-air westerlies, where they may be associated with blocking weather patterns.
ANTI-CYCLONIC WEATHER AND BLOCKING HIGH
Owing to the gradual subsidence within them, anticyclones generally produce clear skies and calm conditions.
Because these high-pressure systems are not associated with stormy weather, both their development and
movement have not been studied as extensively as that of mid-latitude cyclones. This does not imply, however,
that anticyclones always bring desirable weather. Large anticyclones often develop over the Arctic during the
winter. These cold high-pressure are known to migrate as far south as the Gulf Coast they can impact the
weather over as much as two-thirds United States. This dense frigid air often brings record-breaking cold
temperatures.
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Approximately one to three times each winter, occasionally during other seasons, large anticyclones persist
over the middle latitudes for nearly two weeks sometimes longer than a month. These large highs deflect the
nearly zonal west-to-east flow and send it poleward. Thus, they are sometimes called blocking highs.
Large stagnant anticyclones can also contribute to air-pollution episodes. The subsidence within an anticyclone
can produce a temperature inversion that acts like a lid to trap pollutants. Further, the light winds associated
with the center of an anticyclone do little to disperse polluted air. Both Los Angeles and Mexico City
experience air pollution episodes when strong, stagnant high-pressure systems dominate their circulation for
extended periods.

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15. CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
INTRODUCTION
Climatic classification is a device by which the multiplicity of atmospheric conditions upon the earth is
meaningfully organised. It is also a method of comprehending the variation and distribution of the fundamental
elements of climate on our earth, as well as their relations to the other phenomena.
Climatic classification has a number of advantages, both to the geographer as well as to the scientists actively
associated with other aspects of our natural environment such as soils, plant life, animal life and the
configuration of the land surface. By identifying climatic types, we are able to predict various associated visible
aspects of the environment. It may also enable the geographer to predict the climate of a region through his
observation of the vegetation, animal life, soils, or landforms.
Although several attempts have been made by scholars to classify the climate of the world for the proper
understanding of major climate types no single classification is perfect, as climate stands for the generalized and
composite weather conditions. However, the Greeks, perhaps, made the first attempt to classify the world
climates on the basis of the distribution of temperature and insolation. Such schemes generally divided Earth
into latitudinal zones based on the significant parallels of 0°, 23.5°, and 66.5° of latitude (that is, the Equator,
the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and the Arctic and Antarctic circles, respectively) and on the length of
day. Modern climate classification has its origins in the mid-19th century, with the first published maps of
temperature and precipitation over Earth’s surface, which permitted the development of methods of climate
grouping that, used both variables simultaneously.
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
Many different schemes of classifying climate have been devised (more than 100), but all of them may be
broadly differentiated as either empiric or genetic methods. This distinction is based on the nature of the data
used for classification. Empirical methods make use of observed environmental data, such as temperature,
humidity, and precipitation, or simple quantities derived from them (such as evaporation). In contrast, a genetic
method classifies climate on the basis of its causal elements, the activity and characteristics of all factors (air
masses, circulation systems, fronts, jet streams, solar radiation, topographic effects, and so forth) that give rise
to the spatial and temporal patterns of climatic data.
Hence, while empirical classifications are largely descriptive of climate, genetic methods are (or should be)
explanatory. Unfortunately, genetic schemes, while scientifically more desirable, are inherently more difficult to
implement because they do not use simple observations. As a result, such schemes are both less common and
less successful overall. Moreover, the regions defined by the two types of classification schemes do not
necessarily correspond; in particular, it is not uncommon for similar climatic forms resulting from different
climatic processes to be grouped together by many common empirical schemes.
A. KOPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION
The concept of thermal zone is theoretical and explains the distribution of solar energy over the earth’s surface.
There are several other factors besides the angle of the sun’s rays which influence the climate of a place.
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Keeping in view other factors responsible for the distribution and combined influence of temperature and
rainfall, modem scientists have arrived to several classifications of climate and its types. The most widely used
system of climatic classification in its various modified forms is that of Wladimir koppen (1846-1940), a
German botanist and climatologist.
It is a quantitative as well as empirical classification of climate. Koppen proposed his first classification in 1900,
using the world vegetation map of de Candole, a French plant physiologist. He selected certain critical values
of temperature of the warmest and the coldest months and precipitation of the wettest and the driest months
and related them to the distribution of vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates. Koppen
identified a close relationship between the distributions of vegetation and climate. He introduced the use of
capital and small letters to designate climatic groups and types. It uses numerical values for delimiting the
boundaries of different climatic regions and types. Koppen’s climatic regions in many cases coincided with the
distinct vegetation regions.
Koppen revised his classification first in 1918, when he paid greater attention to the monthly and annual
averages of temperature and precipitation, and their seasonal distribution. He again modified his scheme in
1931 and 1936. His original scheme was modified in 1953 by Geigger-Pohi and the revised scheme known as
Koppen-Geigger-Pohl’s classification of world climate.
In classifying climate Koppen placed reliance on his belief that the distribution of natural vegetation was the
best expression of the totality of climate. Consequently, many of the climatic boundaries he selected were
based on vegetation limits.
GROUP CHARACTERISTICS TYPE LETTER CODE CHARACTERISTICS
A Tropical Average temperature of Tropical wet Af No dry season
the coldest month is Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal, short dry
18° C or higher Tropical dry Aw season Winter dry deason
B - Dry Potential evaporation Subtropical steppe BSh Low-latitude semi arid or
Climates exceeds precipitation Subtropical desert BWh dry Low-latitude arid or
Mid-latitude steppe BSk dry Mid-latitude semi
Mid-latitude desert BWk arid or dry Mid-latitude
C - Warm The average temperature Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm
Temperate of the coldest month Mediterranean Cs No dry season, warm
of the (Mid-latitude) Marine west coast Cfb and cool summer
climates years is higher Humid continental Df No dry season, severe
than minus 3°C but Subarctic Wf winter, Winter dry and
below 18°C very severe
D - Cold The average temperature
Snow Forest of the coldest month
Climates is minus 3° C or below
E - Cold Average temperature Tundra Polar ET No true summer
Climates for all months is ice cap EF Perennial ice
below 10° C
H - High Cold due to highland H Highland with
Land elevation snow cover
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Koppen accepted Candolle’s five-fold classification of vegetation which recognised the first five divisions, but
he recognised six major climatic groups, 5 of them are based on temperature and 1based on precipitation.
These are: A-Tropical B-Dry Climates C-Warm Temperate D-Cold Snow Forest Climates E-Cold Climates
H-High Land. The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on seasonality
of precipitation and temperature characteristics. The seasons of dryness are indicated by the smallletters: f, m,
w and s, where f corresponds to no dry season, m - monsoon climate, w- winter dry season and s - summer
dry season.
The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature. The B- Dry Climates are
subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe or semi-arid and W for deserts.
GROUP A: MEGATHERMS OR TROPICAL HUMID CLIMATES

Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The sun being overhead
throughout the year and the presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) make the climate hot and
humid. Annual range of temperature is very low and annual rainfall is high. The tropical group is divided into
four types, namely (i) Af- Tropical wet climate; (ii) Am - Tropical monsoon climate; (iii) Aw- Tropical wet and
dry climate;(iv) As-dry summer
(i) Tropical Wet Climate (Af)
Tropical wet climate is found near the equator. The major areas are the Amazon Basin in South America,
western equatorial Africa and the islands of East Indies. Significant amount of rainfall occurs in every month of
the year as thunder showers in the afternoon. The temperature is uniformly high and the annual range of
temperature is negligible. The maximum temperature on any day is around 30°C while the minimum
temperature is around 20°C.Tropical evergreen forests with dense canopy cover and large biodiversity are
found in this climate.
(ii) Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)
Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over the Indian sub-continent. It covers almost North Eastern part of
South America and Northern Australia. Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer. Winter is dry.
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(iii) Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)
Tropical wet and dry climate occurs north and south of Af type climate regions. It borders with dryclimate on
the western part of the continent and Cf or Cw on the eastern part. Extensive Aw climate is found to the north
and south of the Amazon forest in Brazil and adjoining parts of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, Sudan
and south of Central Africa. The annual rainfall in this climate is considerably less than that in Af and Am climate
types and is variable also. The wet season is shorter and the dry season is longer with the drought being more
severe. Temperature is high throughout the year and diurnal ranges of temperature are the greatest in the dry
season. Deciduous forest and tree-shaded grasslands occur in this climate.
(iv) As climate-dry summers, rarely found.
Group B: Xerophytes or Dry Climates
Dry climates are characterised by very low rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of plants. These climates
cover a very large area of the planet extending over large latitudes from 15° - 60° north and south of the
equator. At low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur In the area of subtropical high where subsidence and
inversion of temperature do not produce rainfall. On the western margin of the continents, adjoining the cold
current, particularly over the west coast of South America, they extend more equatorwards and occur on the
coast land.
In middle latitudes, from 35° - 60° north and south of equator, they are confined to the interior of continents
where maritime-humid winds do not reach and to areas often surrounded by mountains.
Dry climates are divided into steppe or semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW). They are further
subdivided as: subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) at latitudes from 15° - 35° and mid-
latitude steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk) at latitudes between 35° - 60°.
SUBTROPICAL STEPPE (BSH) AND SUBTROPICAL DESERT (BWH) CLIMATES
Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) have common precipitation and temperature
characteristics. Located in the transition zone between humid and dry climates, subtropical steppe receives
slightly more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough for the growth of sparse grasslands. The rainfall in both
the climates is highly variable. The variability in the rainfall affects the life in the steppe much more than in the
desert, more often causing famine.
Rain occurs in short intense thundershowers in deserts and is ineffective in building soil moisture. Fog is
common in coastal deserts bordering cold currents. Maximum temperature in the summer is very high. The
highest shade temperature of 58° C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922. The annual
and diurnal ranges of temperature are also high.
MID-LATITUDE STEPPE (BSK) AND MID-LATITUDE DESERT (BWK)
Mid-latitude steppe and desert climate, major climate type of the Köppen classification characterized by
extremely variable temperature conditions, with annual means decreasing and annual ranges increasing pole
ward, and relatively little precipitation. This climate is typically located deep within the interiors of continents
and is contiguous with the tropical desert climates of North and South America and of central Asia. This climate
type is divided into two subtypes in the Köppen-Geigger-Pohl system. The mid-latitude steppe (BSk) subtype
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is slightly wetter than the mid-latitude desert (part of BWk) subtype.
Both subtypes owe their origins to locations deep within continental interiors, far from the windward coasts and
sources of moist, maritime air. Remoteness from sources of water vapour is enhanced in some regions (such as
the Great Plains of the United States) by mountain barriers upwind. Cool true deserts (regions classified into
the BWk subtype) extend to 50° latitude and cool steppes (regions classified into the BSk subtype) reach
nearly 60° N in the Canadian Prairies, well beyond the limits of the subtropical anticyclone.
In the higher latitudes, winters are severely cold, with meagre precipitation (much of it in the form of snow)
associated with polar and arctic air masses. Summer precipitation is more often convective, arriving in the form
of scattered thunderstorm activity brought about by irregular incursions of moist air. The steppe subtype tends
to be located peripheral to the true desert, either adjacent to the moister C and D climates or at the poleward
extent of the range, where reduced evaporation under cooler conditions makes more of the scarce
precipitation available as soil moisture for plant growth.
GROUP C: HUMID MESOTHERMAL OR WARM TEMPERATE (MID-LATITUDE)
CLIMATES
Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates extend from 30° - 50° of latitude mainly on the eastern and western
margins of continents. These climates generally have warm summers with mild winters.
They are grouped into four types:
(i) Humid subtropical, i.e. dry in winter and hot in summer (Cwa);
(ii) Mediterranean (Cs);
(iii) Humid subtropical, i.e. no dry season and mild winter (Cfa);
(iv) Marine west coast climate (Cfb).
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa): Humid subtropical climate occurs poleward of Tropic of Cancer and
Capricorn, mainly in North Indian plains and South China interior plains. The climate is similar to Aw climate
except that the temperature in winter is warm.
Mediterranean Climate (Cs): As the name suggests, Mediterranean climate occurs around Mediterranean
sea, along the west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes between 30° - 40° latitudes e.g. - Central
California, Central Chile, along the coast in south eastern and south western Australia. These areas come under
the influence of sub tropical high in summer and westerly wind in winter. Hence, the climate is characterised by
hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter. Monthly average temperature in summer is around 25° C and in winter
below 10°C. The annual precipitation ranges between 35– 90 cm.
HUMID SUBTROPICAL (CFA) CLIMATE
Humid subtropical climate lies on the eastern parts of the continent in subtropical latitudes. In this region the air
masses are generally unstable and cause rainfall throughout the year. They occur in eastern United States of
America, southern and eastern China, southern Japan, north eastern Argentina, coastal South Africa and
eastern coast of Australia. The annual averages of precipitation vary from 75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in
summer and frontal precipitations in winter are common.
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Mean monthly temperature in summer is around 27°C, and in winter it varies from 5°-12° C. The daily range
of temperature is small.
MARINE WEST COAST CLIMATE (CFB)
Marine west coast climate is located poleward from the Mediterranean climate on the west coast of the
continents. The main areas are: North Western Europe, west coast of North America, north of California,
southern Chile, south eastern Australia and New Zealand. Due to marine influence, the temperature is
moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for its latitude. The mean temperature in summer months ranges from
15°-20°C and in winter 4°-10°C. The annual and daily ranges of temperature are small. Precipitation occurs
throughout the year. Precipitation varies greatly from 50-250cm.
Group D: Humid Microthermal or Cold Snow Forest Climates
Cold snow forest climates occur in the large continental area in the northern hemisphere between 40°-70°
north latitudes in Europe, Asia and North America. Cold snow forest climates are divided into two types:
Df- cold climate with humid winter;
Dw- cold climate with dry winter.
The severity of winter is more pronounced in higher latitudes.
Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df)
Cold climate with humid winter occurs poleward of marine west coast climate and mid latitude steppe. The
winters are cold and snowy. The frost free season is short. The annual ranges of temperature are large. The
weather changes are abrupt and short. Poleward, the winters are more severe.
Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)
Cold climate with dry winter occurs mainly over North Eastern Asia. The development of pronounced winter
anti cyclone and its weakening in summer sets in monsoon like reversal of wind in this region. Poleward
summer temperatures are lower and winter temperatures are extremely low with many locations experiencing
below freezing point temperatures for up to seven months in a year. Precipitation occurs in summer. The annual
precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.
Group E: Hekistotherm or Polar Climates
Polar climates exist poleward beyond 70° latitude. Polar climates consist of two types:
Tundra (ET)
Ice Cap (EF).
TUNDRA CLIMATE (ET):
The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the types of vegetation, like low growing mosses, lichens and
flowering plants. This is the region of permafrost where the sub soil is permanently frozen. The short growing
season and water logging support only low growing plants. During summer, the tundra regions have very long
duration of day light.
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ICE CAP CLIMATE (EF)
The ice cap climate (EF) occurs over interior Greenland and Antarctica. Even in summer, the temperature is
below freezing point. This area receives very little precipitation. The snow and ice get accumulated and the
mounting pressure causes the deformation of the ice sheets and they break. They move as icebergs that float in
the Arctic and Antarctic waters. Plateau Station, Antarctica, 79°S, portray this climate.
Group H: Highland Climates
Highland climates are governed by topography. In high mountains, large changes in mean temperature occur
over short distances. Precipitation types and intensity also vary spatially across high lands. There is vertical
zonation of layering of climatic types with elevation in the mountain environment.
ADVANTAGES OF KOPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION
Koppen used the temperature and precipitation statistics in his classification of the climate. These two weather
elements are easy to measure. Because of this quality, these elements are most widely and most frequently
used. Since Koppen’s classification is based on statistical parameters, each climatic region can be precisely
defined.
Besides, the temperature and precipitation are the two most effective weather elements that exhibit the effects
of climatic controls more clearly than any other weather elements. These elements affect other aspects of our
physical environment more directly than any other element. Obviously, the system of classification devised by
Koppen is directly related to those aspects of environment which are clearly visible to us.
His climatic classification system is based on the relationship between the types of plants at a particular place
and the climatic characteristics of the place. Thus, his scheme is not a mere abstraction.
Further, Koppen introduced the concept of effective precipitation which depends on the rate of potential
evapotranspiration. Potential evapotranspiration is largely controlled by temperature.
Thus, in Koppen’s classification the relationship between heat and moisture factors gets due recognition. The
moisture requirement of plants varies with the rate of evapotranspiration.
For example, the amount of precipitation sufficient to support coniferous forests in the cool temperate zone
may support little plant life in a low-latitude desert.
Since climatic boundaries in Koppen’s system of classification were designed to delimit the vegetation regions,
they may be taken to be ‘vegetation lines’. The 10°C isotherm for the warmest month not only shows the
southern boundary of the Tundra region, but it also represents the pole-ward limit of tree growth.
Because of a visible association of vegetation with climatic types, Koppen’s classification becomes all the more
appealing to geographers.
Another advantage of this classification is that it is possible to assign a given place to a particular climatic sub-
group only on the basis of certain easily acquired statistics about an area’s temperature and precipitation.
Besides, this system of climatic classification is descriptive and generalized and, therefore, it is more useful to
geographers. However, this classification is not applied to any specific purpose.
Another unique feature of the koppen’s system is that it uses a shorthand code of letters for the climatic types,
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so that repetition of descriptive terms becomes unnecessary. All the major climate groups, sub-groups, and
further subdivisions are described by a combination of letters. Lastly, this classification is so simple and detailed
that it can be easily used at different educational levels.
LIMITATIONS OF KOPPEN’S CLASSIFICATIONS
There are, of course, certain drawbacks from which this classification scheme suffers. Despite the fact that the
author himself revised and modified his system several times, he always felt it to be imperfect.
Koppen based his classification on the mean monthly values of temperature and precipitation. By these
statistics the most potent factor of precipitation can only be estimated, rather than measured accurately.
This makes comparison from one locality to another rather difficult. Further, Koppen did not take into account
such weather elements as winds, precipitation intensity, amount of cloudiness, and daily temperature extremes
only for the sake of making his classification generalized and simple.
Another major drawback is that it is empirical and, therefore, is based on facts and observations. The causative
factors of climate have been totally ignored. Thus, the air masses, which form the very basis of modern
climatology, could not find any place in Koppen’s classification.
Lastly, the letter symbols used by Koppen in his climatic classification provide international shorthand
describing climatic regions that are rather difficult to characterize in words.
At first the classification scheme may look a bit difficult, but its close examination reveals that it is based on
certain critical values with which all geography students soon become familiar.
B. Thornthwaite’s Schemes of Climatic Classification
C. W. Thornthwaite, an American climatologist, presented his first scheme of classification of climates of North
America in 1931. Later, he presented the classification of World Climate in 1933. He presented the second
scheme of classification of World Climate after modification in 1948. His scheme is complex and empirical in
nature.
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In 1931 Thornthwaite devised a complex and empirical classification, which is very close to Koppen’s scheme.
It also attempts to define climatic boundaries quantitatively and is based on plant associations.
Thornthwaite’s classification is based on precipitation effectiveness and thermal efficiency (temperature
efficiency). Under this classification climatic types were subdivided by the use of a term to denote the seasonal
distribution of precipitation. The climatic types and their boundaries were defined empirically by observing the
characteristics of natural vegetation, soil, and the drainage pattern.
Thornthwaite established the fact that not only the amount of precipitation, but the rate of evaporation as well
is significant for the growth of natural vegetation. Thus, besides the precipitation amount and the evaporation
rate, temperature was made a very important basis for Thornthwaite’s climatic classification. An expression for
precipitation efficiency was obtained by relating measurements of pan evaporation to temperature and
precipitation.
For each month the ratio 11.5 (rt-10)10/9 where r=mean monthly rainfall (in inches) t=mean monthly
temperature (in °F) is calculated.
The sum of the 12 monthly ratios gives the precipitation effectiveness (also called precipitation efficiency)
index. In other words, the effectiveness of precipitation is taken to be a function of precipitation and
evaporation and is calculated by dividing the monthly precipitation by the monthly evaporation to get the P/E
ratio (precipitation effectiveness ratio).
On the basis of P/E indices and boundary values for the major vegetation regions, five humidity provinces were
defined. Main Climatic groups based on precipitation effectiveness
Humidity Province Vegetation P/E Index
A (Wet) Rain Forest 127
B (Humid) Forest 64-127
C (Sub humid) Grassland 32-63
D (Semiarid) Steppe 16-31
E (Arid) Desert 16
He introduced an index of thermal efficiency which is expressed by the positive departure of monthly mean
temperatures from the freezing point. The index is thus the annual sum of (t-32)/4 for each month. In other
words, the sum of twelve monthly temperature-efficiency ratios (T/E) gives a T/E index Again, the world was
divided into 6 temperature provinces on the basis of T/E index. Main Climatic groups based on thermal
efficiency.
Temperature Province T/E index
A-Tropical 127
B-Mesothermal 64-127
C-Microthermal 32-63
D-Taiga 16-31
E-Tundra 1-15
F-Frost 0
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T/E Index-sum of 12 monthly values of (T-32)14, where T is mean monthly temperature in °F. On the basis of
the seasonal distribution of precipitation the humidity provinces were subdivided into the following-
r-Rainfall adequate in all seasons
s-Rainfall deficient in summer
w-Rainfall deficient in winter
d-Rainfall deficient in all seasons.
When precipitation effectiveness, seasonal distribution of rainfall, and thermal efficiency are taken together,
there would be in all 120 climatic types, at least on theoretical grounds. However, Thornthwaite has shown
only 32 climatic types on the world map depicting his 1931 climatic classification.
A Critical Appraisal of 1931 Classification:
1. The concepts of Precipitation Effectiveness and Thermal Efficiency were used for the first time by
Thornthwaite, but they make the delimitation of boundaries difficult.
2. The climatic types are more in number but a lesser number of symbols are used, which are easy to
remember.
3. The lack of climatic data, especially on evaporation, is a serious handicap. This makes the
comparison between localities not possible, since effective precipitation cannot be precisely
ascertained.
4. Like Koeppen’s scheme, Thornthwaite’s scheme is appealing to the geographers, botanists and
zoologists, but not to the climatologists and meteorologists, because the interplay of climatic factors
and weather elements is not considered.
1948 Classification:
Thornthwaite’s second classification is based on two variables:
1. Potential Evapotranspiration (PE)
2. Precipitation
The Potential Evapotranspiration is expressed as the amount of moisture that will be transferred to atmosphere
by evaporation of solid and liquid water and by transpiration from living tissues, principally plants.
Potential Evapotranspiration, expressed in centimetres, is given as:’
PE = 1.6 (10t/I)a
Where, t = mean monthly temperature (°C)
I = sum of twelve months of (t/5) 1.514.
a = a further complex function of I.
Also,
s – Monthly water surplus
d – Monthly water deficit
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These two are calculated from moisture budget assessment including stored soil moisture. And,
Moisture Index Im = (100s – 60d) PE
Based on this, we have:
Moisture Index Humidity Province Thermal Province
100 and above Per humid Megathermal
20 - 1 00 Humid Mesothermal
0 - 20 Moist sub-humid Microthermal
-33 - 0 Dry sub-humid Tundra
-67 - 34 Semi-arid Dry Frost
-100 - 68 Arid
Further sub-divisions are possible on the basis of seasonal distribution of Effective Moisture. Thus, the
climate of a place can be found out on the basis of: (i) Potential evapotranspiration; (ii) Seasonal variation
of effective moisture; (iii) Average annual thermal efficiency.
A Critical Appraisal of 1948 Classification:
Because of inherent problems, mapping of Thornthwaite’s divisions is not possible. His scheme does not have
a vegetational basis. Thus, it is different from Koeppen’s scheme. Thornthwaite’s scheme is more suitable for
North America where the vegetational boundaries coincide with climatic divisions, but it is not suitable for
tropics. This scheme is empirical as well as quantitative but does not consider causative factors. Thornthwaite’s
scheme involves a lot of calculations; therefore it is difficult to apply. Thornthwaite introduced the concept of
soil- moisture balance which implies that the amount of moisture available depends not only on precipitation,
but also on potential evapotrans-piration. Thus, if a comparison is made between water available from
precipitation and the actual amount required, it is possible to determine monthly water surpluses and deficits
and whether a season is wet or dry. The greatest contribution of Thornthwaite’s scheme is with regard to
practical studies regarding use of water.
A Comparative Analysis of Koppen’s and Thornthwaite’s Schemes:
There are certain similarities between the schemes of Koeppen and Thornthwaite:
Both are based on empirical investigation and are genetic schemes. Both have used temperature and rainfall as
basic atmospheric elements controlling climate. Both have recognised climate-vegetation relationship. Both
have used letter symbols to represent climatic regions. Both schemes have identical tropical regions. But, real
differences are evident while comparing the second and third orders of regionalisation (micro-regionalisation).
Differences:
While Koeppen had considered vegetation to be a direct indicator of the totality of climate, Thornthwaite has
given indirect recognition to the vegetational aspects through the concept of evapotranspiration which includes
transfer of water from plants to atmosphere. Koppen considered the absolute values of critical climatic
determinants, temperature and rainfal}, as recorded at different places. Thornthwaite on the other hand,
considered them through Thermal Efficiency and ‘Precipitation Effectiveness’, calculated by using complicated
formulae.
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Koppen’s Divisions Thornthwaite’s Divisions
1. Tropical 1. Per humid
2. Sub-tropical 2. Humid
3. Mesothermal 3. Sub-humid
4. Microthermal 4. Dry sub-humid
5. Polar 5. Semi-arid
6. Semi-polar
6. Highlands
7. Polar
While Koppen gave six major climatic Regions, Thornthwaite gave eight and differentiated between true arid
and semi-arid and between true polar and sub-polar. This makes Thornthwaite’s scheme more relevant.
Koppen took into account, the altitudinal aspect of climate by giving a separate category of Highlands climate.
Thornthwaite did not consider the altitudinal aspect, but later clarified that it was inherently accounted for by
considering the effectiveness of temperature and rainfall. Thornthwaite gave a model which was classified by
his scheme into climatic divisions. Koppen gave no such model. Koppen made a clear distinction between dry
arid and dry Polar Regions. Thornthwaite did not-do, so, but he rectified this shortcoming by outlining four
criteria in the 1955 scheme. These criteria are:
(i) Moisture adequacy
(ii) Thermal efficiency
(iii) Seasonal distribution of moisture adequacy
(iv) Summer concentration of thermal efficiency.
Thornthwaite prescribed ‘soil-moisture indices’ for each of the criteria, on the basis of which the water table of
a region was to be ascertained, leading to determination of vegetational class and then the climatic type.
However, he failed to give the exact number of divisions. An interesting aspect of comparison of two schemes
is that Thornthwaite gave his scheme in 1931 and modified it thrice - in 1933, 1948 and 1955 each one being
an improvement over the previous one. Thornthwaite’s was a genuine effort to give relevant scheme to be used
in applied climatology. Koeppen was more hypothetical and never revised his scheme. Still, both are landmark
schemes on climatic classification and are considered to be classic schemes in climatology.
C.TREWARTHA’S CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
Glen T. Trewartha was one of the eminent American climatologists. His climatic classification scheme is
considered a modified version of the Koeppen system. In his book’ An Introduction to Climate’, his latest
revision differs radically from the Koppen’s classification. The Trewartha system attempts to redefine the
middle latitudes to be closer to vegetation zoning and genetic climate systems. It was considered a truer or “real
world” reflection of the global climate.
Besides being ‘simple and explanatory, Trewartha’s classification combines the basic fundamentals of the
empirical as well as the genetic classification schemes. Trewartha, while proposing his climatic classification,
was conscious of the fact that the classification systems of Koppen and ‘Thornthwaite being based on certain
statistical parameters of certain weather elements were cumbersome and complex.
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Trewartha recognised only a limited number of principal climatic types. He made use of the two most important
and basic weather elements, i.e., temperature and precipitation as the basic for his own classification. Besides
these, the effects of land and water surfaces on the climate of an area have also been taken into consideration.
He has classified world climates in seven climatic groups out of which six-A, C, D, E, F and H-are based on
temperature criteria, and the seventh-B-is the dry group based on precipitation.
Climatic Groups Based on Temperature Criteria:

A. Tropical humid Climate
This type of climate is found in the low latitudes on each side of the equator in an irregular belt 20 to 40° wide.
There is no winter season in this climatic group. Temperature is uniformly high throughout the year with
adequate annual rainfall. There is no occurrence of frost in any part of the year. In marine location the average
temperature for the coldest month is 18° Celsius or above. This climatic group is subdivided into two climatic
types which are as under:
Ar. Tropical wet climate
This type of climate is characterized by less than two dry months. This climatic belt extends out 5 to 10° on
either side of the equator. Along the eastern or windward margins of a continent, the latitudinal extent may
increase to 15° or 20°. This type of climate is under the influence of intertropical convergence zone and the
equatorial westerlies. This belt is distinguished by constant low pressure. It is also known as the tropical
rainforest.
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Aw. Tropical wet-and-dry climate
At the time of the low sun, two months are dry. Annual average precipitation is less than that in Ar. During the
winter season, Aw climatic regions are dominated by the dry trade winds or subtropical anticyclones. To the
contrary, during the high sun period the equatorial westerlies and intertropical convergence control the weather.
The duration of dry season is longer than that of the wet season. Because of the occurrence of deciduous forest
and tree-studded grasslands, Aw is often referred to as Savanna Climate. Temperature is uniformly high.
C. Subtropical Climate
This category encompasses sub-tropical climate with temperatures above 10 °C for only eight or more
months. Frosts occur occasionally in continental parts, but the marine locations remain frostless, On the basis
of the seasonal distribution of precipitation, the sub-tropical climate is further classified into two climatic types:
(i) Cfw: is sub-tropical humid climate: - This type of climate is found on the eastern side of continents. It has
no distinct dry season and rains fall throughout the year. During summer season, this type of climate comes
under the influence of unstable air in the western end of a sub-tropical anticyclone. But & ring winter, the
climate is influenced by temperate cyclones.
(ii) Cs: is sub-tropical dry summer climate: - It is characterised by moderate to scanty amount of
precipitation. Winter is the rainy season, while summers are nearly or completely dry. This climate type
represents a transition zone between the tropical dry climates towards the equator and the temperate climates
towards the poles. The average annual precipitation is less than 890 mm (35 inches).
D. Temperate Climate:
This climatic group is also known as the micro thermal climatic type. Its poleward and equatorward boundaries
are formed by average temperatures of 10° Celsius for 4 and 8 months respectively. This type of climate is
found in the middle-latitudes between the subtropical and boreal climates. There are the following two types
which are included in the temperate group of humid climates:
Do. Temperate marine climate
In this type of climate winters are mild. Average temperature for all the 12 months is 0° Celsius or above. It is
found on the western windward side of the continents in the temperate zone. This is a humid climate with
adequate precipitation at all seasons.
Dc. Temperate continental climate
The temperate continental climate is found in the continental interiors or leeward areas of the middle-latitude
continents. This type of climate is land-controlled. It is confined to the northern hemisphere with a latitudinal
spread of about 10 to 20°. This climatic type is characterized by severe winters and summers. Annual
temperature ranges are, therefore, high throughout this climate. The 0°C isotherm for the coolest month forms
the boundary between Dc and Do. During winter the ground is covered with snow. Cold waves, heat waves,
blizzards, and heavy downpours are all yearly events in this type of climate. Rapid non-periodic changes in the
weather are another characteristic feature of this climate. Precipitation occurs in all the months of the year with
maximum concentration during the summer months.
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E. Boreal Climate
Boreal climate is found in the higher middle latitudes. It is super-continental in temperature features. The
summers are short and cool. The winters are long and very cold with a very short frost-free season. One to
three months during the year have average temperatures of 10°C or above. Average temperatures for the rest
of the year are below 10° Celsius. These regions are characterized by the lowest annual means of temperature
for any part of the earth. However, summer temperatures are still much higher than those experienced during
the extremely cold winter months. Annual temperature ranges are usually large. Even though boreal climates
are classified as humid, annual precipitation is generally meagre. Precipitation occurs throughout the year.
However, most of the precipitation occurs during the warmer months when the amount of water vapour
present in the air is highest. Coniferous forest is the predominant natural vegetation. Because of the severity of
climate, population in this type of climate is sparse. This group of climates is also called the subarctic type of
climate.
F. Polar climates
Polar climates are found in the high latitudes. These climates are confined to the northern hemisphere only. The
average temperature of no month exceeds 10° Celsius. There is no summer season. On the basis of
temperature the Polar climates are classified into the following two climatic types.
Ft. Tundra climate
The tundra climate on land is found only in the northern hemisphere, where it occupies the coastal fringes of the
Arctic Ocean, and many Arctic islands and the ice-free shores of northern Iceland and southern Greenland.
There being complete absence of extensive land areas, no tundra climate is found in the southern hemisphere.
The equator ward boundary of this climate is determined by the 10° Celsius summer isotherm. Tundra region
is characterized by the absence of trees. It is essentially a region of grasses, mosses, and lichens.
The average temperature of the warmest month is recorded between 0° and 10° Celsius. Annual temperature
ranges are small. This is a region of permafrost where the subsoil is permanently frozen. Precipitation occurs
throughout the year. However, the warmest season gets the maximum precipitation. During summer the
precipitation occurs partly as snow, and partly as rain. Because of low temperatures and anti-cyclonic
conditions, winter-time precipitation, which is entirely in the form of snowfall, is meagre. Snowfall is usually dry
and powdery.
Fi. Ice-cap Climate
In ice-cap climate, the average temperature for all the months is below freezing. There is no vegetation of any
kind. The landscape is one of permanent ice and snow. This climatic type covers more than 15.5 million square
kilometers or about one-tenth of the earth’s area Ice-cap climate is exclusively confined to the ice caps of
Greenland and Antartica. Precipitation is meagre, and falls as snow, most of which is in the form of dry, hard,
sand like particles. Most of the snow falls along the seaward margins of the continent. Since the air close to the
ice-cap is intensely chilled, surface inversions are the common features of this climate.
Climatic Group Based on Precipitation Criteria
B. Dry Climates
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The boundaries of the dry type of climatic group are fixed by precipitation values. The characteristic feature of
a dry climate is that the loss of moisture through evapotranspiration is far in excess of the annual receipt of
water gain from precipitation. Since no instrument has been developed which can measure the actual loss of
moisture through evapotranspiration, and since no actual measurements of evapotranspiration for extensive
areas of the earth have been made, the task of locating the boundary between dry and humid climates becomes
all the more difficult.
Because of clear and calm weather and the dry atmosphere, the dry climates are severe for their latitudes.
Extreme seasonal temperatures cause large annual ranges of temperature. Daily ranges of temperature are still
more pronounced. Annual average precipitation in these climates is always meagre and highly variable. Thus,
the meagreness and undependability are the two distinguishing features of precipitation in this great climatic
group. Other salient features of the dry climates are low relative humidity, high potential evaporation, abundant
sunshine, and small cloudiness.
On the basis of annual average precipitation the dry climates have been classified into two climatic types:
(1) BW - the arid, or desert type, and
(2) BS - the semi-arid, or steppe type.
The arid-semiarid boundary is arbitrarily set at one-half the annual precipitation separating dry regions from
humid. For example, if the humid-dry boundary happens to be 40 centimeters, then the steppe-desert
boundary will be 20 centimeters.
Further, the arid and semi-arid climatic types have been divided into the following subdivisions on the basis of
temperature:
(i) BWh - Tropical-subtropical hot deserts
(ii) B Wk - Temperate-boreal cold deserts
(iii) BSh - Tropical-boreal steppes
The BWh and BWK climates are constantly dry and are under the influence of sub-tropical high and dry
trades. The BWh type of condition lasts for 8 months or more with average temperature over 10 °C while the
BWK lasts fewer than 8 months with average temperature above 10 °C. The BSh is characterised by a short
moist season and is greatly influenced by sub-tropical high and dry trades. The BSK type of climate receives
most of its meagre annual precipitation during the warmer season.
Departures from Koppen’s Classification
The Trewartha’s scheme of climatic classification departure’s from the Koppens scheme in the following
ways-
In B climates, Trewartha used an isotherm of 32 F(0C) of the coldest month for the determination of h/k
boundary while Koppen used isotherm of 18C average annual temperature to differentiate the boundary
between hot dry and cold dry(h/k boundary) climates.
Trewartha identified isotherm of 32F (0C) for determining boundary between B and C climate while Koppen
used the isotherm of -3C (26.6F) temperature of the coldest month for the same purpose.
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Koppen divided C climates on the basis of seasonal distribution of precipitation into three types e.g. Cs, Cw
and Cf but Trewartha divided C climates into Cs, Ca and Cb types.
Trewartha divided D climates on the basis of summer temperature into Da, Db and Dd types while Koppen
divided D climates on the basis of precipitation into Dw and Df types.
Some Features of Trewartha’s Climatic Classification
Trewartha’s scheme of climatic classification is very simple, unambiguous and a mixture of both empirical and
genetic methods of climatic classification. It tends to emphasize only two principal climatic elements, especially
temperature and precipitation. Besides these, the effects of land and water surfaces on the climate of an area
have also been taken into consideration. In addition to letter combinations, Trewartha also makes use of words
or phrases to designate the main climatic types.
In this classification scheme there is little provision for mathematical determination of climatic boundaries.
However, the primary objective of this classification is to divide the world into climatic regions so as to provide
a framework for the study of the pattern of land use and human settlement as well as organized geographical
description.
Undoubtedly, Trewartha’s system is in no way a rational classification which involves a lot of mathematical
computation. Because of its simplicity and usefulness this classification is widely used by geographers. The
boundaries of the climatic regions in this classification are based on the average of the climatic conditions over
a 30-year period. Lastly, this climatic classification has been kept quite simple and recognizes only a limited
number of principal climatic types, usually fewer than 15. Trewartha is of the opinion that if the number of
climatic types is increased, the basic characteristics of the climatic pattern will be obscured with the result that
it will be difficult to memorize the climatic types and their distributions. In Trewartha’s classification the needs of
geographers have been kept paramount.
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16. GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE, ROLE AND RESPONSE OF MAN IN
CLIMATE CHANGE
INTRODUCTION
Climate change, also called global warming, refers to the rise in average surface temperatures on Earth. An
overwhelming scientific consensus maintains that climate change is due primarily to the human use of fossil fuels,
which releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air. The gases trap heat within the
atmosphere, which can have a range of effects on ecosystems, including rising sea levels, severe weather
events, and droughts that render landscapes more susceptible to wildfires.
Is climate change real?
There is broad-based agreement within the scientific community that climate change is real. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration concur that climate change is indeed occurring and is almost certainly
due to human activity.
The type of climate we experience now might be prevailing over the last 10,000 years with minor and
occasionally wide fluctuations. The planet earth has witnessed many variations in climate since the beginning.
Geological records show alteration of glacial and inter-glacial periods. The geomorphological features,
especially in high altitudes and high latitudes, exhibit traces of advances and retreats of glaciers. The sediment
deposits in glacial lakes also reveal the occurrence of warm and cold periods. The rings in the trees provide
clues about wet and dry periods.
Historical records describe the vagaries in climate. All these evidences indicate that change in climate is a
natural and continuous process. India also witnessed alternate wet and dry periods. Archaeological findings
show that the Rajasthan desert experienced wet and cool climate around 8,000 B.C. The period 3,000-1,700
B.C. had higher rainfall. From about 2.000-1,700 B.C., this region was the centre of the Harappan civilisation.
Dry conditions accentuated since then. In the geological past, the earth was warm some 500-300 million years
ago, through the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods. During the Pleistocene epoch, glacial and inter-
glacial periods occurred, the last major peak glacial period was about 18,000 years ago. The present inter-
glacial period started 10,000 years ago.
CLIMATE IN THE RECENT PAST
Variability in climate occurs all the time. The nineties decade of the last century witnessed extreme weather
events. The 1990s recorded the warmest temperature of the century and some of the worst floods around the
world. The worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, south of the Sahara desert, from 1967-1977 is one
such variability. During the 1930s, severe drought occurred in south western Great Plains of the United States,
described as the dust bowl. Historical records of crop yield or crop failures, of floods and migration of people
tell about the effects of changing climate. A number of times Europe witnessed warm, wet, cold and dry
periods, the significant episodes were the warm and dry conditions in the tenth and eleventh centuries, when the
Vikings settled in Greenland. Europe witnessed “Little Ice Age” from 1550 to about 1850. From about 1885-
1940 world temperature showed an upward trend. After 1940, the rate of increase in temperature slowed
down.
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NATURAL CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
The earth’s climate is influenced and changed through natural causes like volcanic eruptions, ocean current, the
earth’s orbital changes and solar variations.
a. Volcanic eruptions - When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water
vapour, dust, and ash into the atmosphere. Large volumes of gases and ash can influence climatic patterns for
years by increasing planetary reflectivity causing atmospheric cooling. Tiny particles called aerosols are
produced by volcanoes. Because they reflect solar energy back into space they have a cooling effect on the
world. The greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide is also produced, however the CO2 produced is insignificant when
compared to emissions created by humans.
b. Ocean current - The oceans are a major component of the climate system. Ocean currents move vast
amounts of heat across the planet. Winds push horizontally against the sea surface and drive ocean current
patterns. Interactions between the ocean and atmosphere can also produce phenomena such as El Niño which
occur every 2 to 6 years. Deep ocean circulation of cold water from the poles towards the equator and
movement of warm water from the equator back towards the poles. Without this movement the poles would be
colder and the equator warmer. The oceans play an important role in determining the atmospheric
concentration of CO2. Changes in ocean circulation may affect the climate through the movement of CO2 into
or out of the atmosphere.
c. Earth orbital changes - The earth makes one full orbit around the sun each year. It is tilted at an angle of
23.5° to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path. Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but
climatically important changes in the strength of the seasons, more tilt means warmer summers and colder
winters; less tilt means cooler summers and milder winters. Slow changes in the Earth’s orbit lead to small but
climatically important changes in the strength of the seasons over tens of thousands of years. Climate feedbacks
amplify these small changes, thereby producing ice ages.
d. Solar variations - The Sun is the source of energy for the Earth’s climate system. Although the Sun’s energy
output appears constant from an everyday point of view, small changes over an extended period of time can
lead to climate changes. Some scientists suspect that a portion of the warming in the first half ofthe 20th century
was due to an increase in the output of solar energy. As the sun is the fundamental source of energy that is
instrumental in our climate system it would be reasonable to assume that changes in the sun’s energy output
would cause the climate to change. Scientific studies demonstrate that solar variations have performed a role in
past climate changes. For instance a decrease in solar activity was thought to have triggered the Little Ice Age
between approximately 1650 and 1850, when Greenland was largely cut off by ice from 1410 to the 1720s
and glaciers advanced in the Alps.
Current global warming however cannot be explained by solar variations. Some examples are evidenced such
as since 1750, the average amount of energy coming from the Sun either remained constant or increased
slightly.
If global warming was caused by a more active sun, then scientists would expect to see warmer temperatures
in all layers of the atmosphere. They have only observed a cooling in the upper atmosphere, a warming at the
surface and in the lower parts of the atmosphere. This is due to greenhouse gasses capturing heat in the lower
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atmosphere. Also climate models that include solar irradiance changes cannot reproduce last century’s
observed temperature trend without including a rise in greenhouse gases.
HUMAN CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
“It has been demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt that the climate is changing due to man-made greenhouse
gases. We are already committed to future substantial change over the next 30 years and change is likely to
accelerate over the rest of the 21st century.”
“There is strong evidence that the warming of the Earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by
human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, including agriculture and
deforestation.”
The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw the large-scale use of fossil fuels for industrial activities. Fossil
fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas supply most of the energy needed to run vehicles generate electricity for
industries and households. The energy sector is responsible for about ¾ of the carbon dioxide emissions, 1/5
of the methane emissions and a large quantity of nitrous oxide.
Carbon dioxide is undoubtedly, the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Changes in land use
pattern, deforestation, land clearing, agriculture, and other activities have all led to a rise in the emission of
carbon dioxide. Methane is another important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. It is released from animals
such as dairy cows, goats, pigs, buffaloes, camels, horses and sheep Methane is also emitted during the
process of oil drilling, coal mining, leaking gas pipelines, landfills and waste dumps.
The certainty of global warming can be seen through some of the natural phenomenon like the effect on crops
and extreme weather conditions around the world. It is especially clear in the dramatic change of the polar
caps, i.e. the Arctic ice cap is shrinking and the Antarctica ice shelf is melting.
EVIDENCE FOR GLOBAL WARMING
Scientists who argue for global warming being real base most of their evidence on the interpretation of the
change in the levels of gases in the atmosphere and the ocean. The actual warming of temperature is something
they say they can document, but the primary evidence is drawn from detecting what precedes a temperature
rise – the change, and effect of atmospheric gases on the Earth’s environment.
i. Argument 1 - Rise in Sea Level – Sea level is rising in many areas of the world. This is partially attributed
to the melting of ice caps and glaciers, but more to the changes in the gases contained within the sea. In the past
decade, the global mean sea levels have doubled compared to the 20th century trend of 1.6 mm per year. The
global sea levels rose about 6.7 inches in the last century.
ii. Argument 2 - Rise in Earth’s Average Temperature – Global temperature rise during past century and
half continues. Tracking global atmospheric temperatures since the 1800s, scientists point to a steady rise with
a stronger period in the 70s, lull in the 90s and a return to the rising pattern in the 2000s.
iii. Argument 3 - Rise in Ocean Temperature – The rise in the number of vehicles and industries has
resulted in greenhouse gases getting trapped in the atmosphere. The increased heats in the atmosphere have
been absorbed by the oceans. There is over 50 years of documented temperature records for the oceans that
have recorded a steady rise in its temperature since 1969.
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iv. Argument 4 – Shrinking Glaciers – The glaciers on several mountain ranges, particularly in Greenland
and Antarctica, are decreasing in size due to reduction in gases that help to maintain temperatures, and changes
in the regions climate.
v. Argument 5 – Ocean Acidification – acid levels in ocean is increasing which is making the oceans of the
world more acidic. This is due to emission of more harmful gases in the atmosphere by humans which is getting
absorbed by the oceans. This is resulting in an increase of algae blooms and mass fish deaths, as well as a
change to the chemical composition of the water.
There are many lines of evidence indicating global warming is unequivocal.
The 2009 State of the Climate report of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
released in mid-2010, brings together many different series of data “from the top of the atmosphere to the
depths of the ocean”. All of these independent lines of evidence tell us unequivocally that the Earth is warming.
The very accessible 10-page summary examines the trends for 10 key climate indicators using a total of 47
different sets of data. All of the indicators expected to increase in a warming world, are in fact increasing, and
all that are expected to decrease, are decreasing. The 10 indicators are:
 Land surface air temperature as measured by weather stations. You know all those skeptic
arguments about how the temperature record is biased by the urban heat island effect, badly-sited
weather stations, dropped stations, and so on? This is the only indicator which suffers from all those
problems. So if you’re arguing with somebody who tries to frame the discussion as being about land
surface air temperature, just remind them about the other nine indicators.
 Sea surface temperature. As with land temperatures, the longest record goes back to 1850 and the
last decade is warmest.
 Air temperature over the oceans.
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 Lower troposphere temperature as measured by satellites for around 50 years. By any of these
measures, the 2000s was the warmest decade and each of the last three decades has been much
warmer than the previous one.
 Ocean heat content, for which records go back over half a century. More than 90% of the extra heat
from global warming is going into the oceans – contributing to a rise in…
 Sea level. Tide gauge records go back to 1870, and sea level has risen at an accelerating rate.
 Specific humidity, which has risen in tandem with temperatures.
 Glaciers. 2009 was the 19th consecutive year in which there was a net loss of ice from glaciers
worldwide.
 Northern Hemisphere snow cover, which has also decreased in recent decades.
 Perhaps the most dramatic change of all has been in Arctic sea ice. Satellite measurements are
available back to 1979 and reliable shipping records back to 1953. September sea ice extent has
shrunk by 35% since 1979.
Science isn’t like a house of cards, in that removing one line of evidence (eg. land surface air temperature)
wouldn’t cause the whole edifice of anthropogenic global warming to collapse. Rather, “land surface warming”
is one of more than ten bricks supporting “global warming”; and with global warming established, there is a
whole other set of bricks supporting “anthropogenic global warming”. To undermine these conclusions, you’d
need to remove most or all of the bricks supporting them – but as the evidence continues to pile up, that is
becoming less and less likely.
GREEN HOUSE GASES
The term greenhouse is derived from the analogy to a greenhouse used in cold areas for preserving heat. A
greenhouse is made up of glass. The glass which is transparent to incoming short wave solar radiation is opaque
to outgoing long wave radiation. The glass, therefore, allows in more radiation and prevents the long wave
radiation going outside the glass house, causing the temperature inside the glasshouse structure warmer than
outside.
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse. The atmosphere also
transmits the incoming solar radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long wave radiation emitted upwards by
the earth’s surface. The gases that absorb long wave radiation are called greenhouse gases. The processes that
warm the atmosphere are often collectively referred to as the greenhouse effect. Some of the important
greenhouse gases are mentioned below-
1. Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural
gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g.,
manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere (or “sequestered”) when it is
absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle.
2. Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste
in municipal solid waste landfills.
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3. Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during
combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
4. Fluorinated gases: Hydro fluorocarbons, per fluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride
are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated
gases are sometimes used as substitutes for stratospheric ozone-depleting substances (e.g.,
chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons, and halons). These gases are typically emitted in smaller
quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global
Warming Potential gases (“High GWP gases”).
The primary GHGs of concern today are carbon dioxide (C02), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N20) and ozone (Os). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon
monoxide (CO) easily react with GHGs and affect their concentration in the atmosphere. The effectiveness of
any given GHG molecule will depend on the magnitude of the increase in its concentration, its life time in the
atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation that it absorbs. The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are highly
effective.
Ozone which absorbs ultra violet radiation in the stratosphere is very effective in absorbing terrestrial radiation
when it is present in the lower troposphere. Another important point to be noted is that the more time the GHG
molecule remains in the atmosphere, the longer it will take for earth’s atmospheric system to recover from any
change brought about by the latter.
The largest concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The emission of CO2 comes mainly
from fossil fuel combustion (oil, gas and coal). Forests and oceans are the sinks for the CO2. Forests use CO2
in their growth. So, deforestation due to changes in land use, also increases the concentration of CO2.
The time taken for atmospheric CO2 to adjust to changes in sources to sinks is 20-50 years. It is rising at about
0.5 per cent annually. Doubling of concentration of carbon dioxide over pre-industrial level is used as an index
for estimating the changes in climate in climatic models. (CFCs) are products of human activity. Ozone occurs
in the stratosphere where ultra-violet rays convert oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays do not reach the
earth’s surface. The CFCs which drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone. Large depletion of ozone occurs
over Antarctica. The depletion of ozone concentration in the stratosphere is called the ozone hole. This allows
the ultra violet rays to pass through the troposphere.
How strongly do they impact global temperatures?
Some gases are more effective than others at making the planet warmer and “thickening the Earth’s blanket.”
For each greenhouse gas, a Global Warming Potential (GWP) has been calculated to reflect how long it
remains in the atmosphere, on average, and how strongly it absorbs energy. Gases with a higher GWP absorb
more energy, per pound, than gases with a lower GWP, and thus contribute more to warming Earth.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
How will climate change effect us, there are many factors that will be affected by climate change including rising
sea levels, drought and loss of agricultural land.
Increasing temperatures caused by climate change will make the water of the oceans expand; ice melting in the
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Antarctic and Greenland will also contribute to the sea level. Sea levels could rise by as much as 25 to 50 cm,
by 2100. Greater sea levels will threaten the low-lying coastal areas such as the Netherlands and Bangladesh,
millions of areas of land will be at danger from flooding; causing people to leave their homes. Low lying areas
in cities will be hugely affected by the rising sea.
Changes in weather will affect many crops grown around world. Crops such as wheat and rice grow well in
high temperatures, while plants such as maize and sugarcane prefer cooler climates. Changes in rainfall patterns
will also affect how well plants and crops grow. The effect of a change in the weather on plant growth may lead
to some countries not having enough food. Brazil, parts of Africa, south-east Asia and China will be affected
the most and many people could be affected by hunger.
All across the world, there is a big demand for water and in many regions, such as the central and eastern Africa
there is not enough water for the people. Changes in the climate will change the weather patterns and will bring
more rain in some countries, but others will have less rain, generally dry areas will become drier and wet areas
could become wetter.
As climate change takes place, our daily weather and normal temperatures will change, the homes of plants and
animals will be affected all over the world. Polar bears and seals are a good example of animals that will be
affected by climate change, they will have to find new land for hunting and living, if the ice in the Arctic melts, but
the fact is more real that these species could become extinct.
Climate changes will affect everyone, but some populations will be at greater risk. Countries whose coastal
regions have a large population, such as Egypt and China, may have to move whole populations inland to avoid
flooding. The effect on people will depend on how well we can adapt to the changes and how much we can do
to reduce climate change in the world.
RESPONSE OF MAN TO CLIMATE CHANGE
To tackle global warming, most countries of the world have signed an international treaty - the UNFCCC
(United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) - in June 1992. Till October 2009, 192 parties
became members of the UNFCCC. The main purpose of the UNFCCC is to consider what can be done to
reduce global warming, and to cope with whatever temperature increases are inevitable. The UNFCCC
Secretariat supports all institutions involved in the climate change process.
The UNFCCC highlights two fundamental response strategies to address climate change.
ADAPTATION
MITIGATION
While adaptation aims to lessen the adverse impacts of climate change through a wide-range of system-specific
actions, mitigation looks at limiting climate change by reducing the emissions of GHGs (greenhouse gases) and
by enhancing opportunities. We will understand adaptation and mitigation in more detail later in this topic.
The Convention on Climate Change sets an overall framework for intergovernmental efforts to tackle the
challenge posed by climate change. It recognizes that the climate system is a shared resource whose stability
can be affected by industrial and other emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.
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Under the Convention, governments:
 Gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices
 Launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to expected
impacts, including the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries
 Cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change
 The Convention entered into force on 21 March 1994.
International efforts have been initiated for reducing the emission of GHGs into the atmosphere. The most
important one is the Kyoto Protocol proclaimed in 1997. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third
Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997.
The Protocol shares the objective and institutions of the Convention. The major distinction between the two,
however, is that while the Convention encouraged industrialized countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the
Protocol commits them to do so. The detailed rules for its implementation were adopted at COP 7 in
Marrakesh in 2001, and are called the Marrakesh Accords.
The Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005. 192 Parties have ratified the
treaty to date.
Under the Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community have committed to reducing their
emissions by an average of 5 percent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012. The increasing
trend in the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere may, in the long run, warm up the earth.
Once the global warming sets in, it will be difficult to reverse it. The effect of global warming may not be uniform
everywhere. Nevertheless, the adverse effect due to global warming will adversely affect the life supporting
system. Rise in the sea level due to melting of glaciers and ice-caps and thermal expansion of the sea may
inundate large parts of the coastal area and islands, leading to social problems.
Carbon trading is an approach used to control carbon dioxide (CO2) pollution by providing economic
incentives for achieving emissions reductions. It is sometimes called cap and trade or carbon emissions trading.
Carbon trading is administered by a central authority such as a government or international organization which
sets a limit or cap on the amount of CO2 that can be emitted. Companies or other groups are issued permits
that require them to hold allowances (or credits) in order to emit an equivalent amount of CO2. The total
amount of allowances and credits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total emissions to that level. Companies that
need to increase their allowance must buy credits from those who pollute less. The transfer of allowances is
referred to as a trade. The buyer therefore pays to pollute, while the seller is financially rewarded for reducing
CO2 emissions. In theory, those that can easily reduce emissions most cheaply will do so. Carbon trading
began in response to the Kyoto Protocol, signed by 180 countries in 1997.
OZONE, CFCs AND THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL
Ozone is a gas that that protects life on Earth from the sun’s harmful radiation. It is found in the stratosphere and
blocks UV-B rays from the sun from reaching the Earth’s surface. UV-B increases the risk of skin cancer and
cataracts, harms micro-organisms, plants and aquatic life.
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Since the 1970s, the concentration of ozone had fallen by 4 percent with much faster seasonal thinning of the
ozone layer over Polar Regions happening each year. These depletions are especially prominent in Antarctica,
where a significant hole in the ozone layer appears yearly.
The Montreal Protocol was created in the late 1980s in response to scientific research that showed this rapid
decline in the atmospheric concentration of ozone.
Scientists soon determined that human activities were causing the depletion of the ozone layer. Chemicals
called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - used in aerosol sprays and refrigeration units - were the main culprits.
When a CFC molecule reaches the stratosphere it can linger for a hundred years, and the chlorine within the
molecule can cause the destruction of tens of thousands of ozone molecules.
Under the treaty, countries agreed to phase out the production and consumption of CFCs and other
substances that deplete ozone by specific deadlines. The protocol’s Multilateral Fund was created to help
developing nations meet their obligations under the treaty.
All countries in the United Nations system have ratified the protocol, although not all have signed all of its
amendments. These amendments are made at periodic meetings of parties to the protocol to speed up the
phase out of substances.
Overall, the protocol is considered to be a great success, despite some attempt to circumvent it by smuggling
CFCs from developing to developed nations (see Case Study, below).
January 2010 marked the complete phase out of a significant group of ozone depleting substances – the CFCs,
halons and carbon tetrachloride.
The treaty is one of many Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). Its full title is the Montreal Protocol
on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer and it entered into force on 1 January 1989.
The Montreal Protocol created the legally binding obligations for its parent treaty, the Vienna Convention for
the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which was created in 1985 and entered into force in 1988.
OUTCOMES OF THE U.N. CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCE IN PARIS
21st Session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change Parties to the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) reached a landmark
agreement on December 12, 2015 in Paris, charting a fundamentally new course in the two-decade-old global
climate effort.
Culminating a four-year negotiating round, the new treaty ends the strict differentiation between developed and
developing countries that characterized earlier efforts, replacing it with a common framework that commits all
countries to put forward their best efforts and to strengthen them in the years ahead. This includes, for the first
time, requirements that all parties report regularly on their emissions and implementation efforts, and undergo
international review.
The agreement and a companion decision by parties were the key outcomes of the conference, known as the
21st session of the UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, or COP 21.
Together, the Paris Agreement and the accompanying COP decision:
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 Reaffirm the goal of limiting global temperature increase well below 2 degrees Celsius, while urging
efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees;
 Establish binding commitments by all parties to make “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs),
and to pursue domestic measures aimed at achieving them;
 Commit all countries to report regularly on their emissions and “progress made in implementing and
achieving” their NDCs, and to undergo international review;
 Commit all countries to submit new NDCs every five years, with the clear expectation that they will
“represent a progression” beyond previous ones;
 Reaffirm the binding obligations of developed countries under the UNFCCC to support the efforts
of developing countries, while for the first time encouraging voluntary contributions by developing
countries too;
 Extend the current goal of mobilizing $100 billion a year in support by 2020 through 2025, with a
new, higher goal to be set for the period after 2025;
 Extend a mechanism to address “loss and damage” resulting from climate change, which explicitly
will not “involve or provide a basis for any liability or compensation;”
 Require parties engaging in international emissions trading to avoid “double counting;” and
 Call for a new mechanism, similar to the Clean Development Mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol,
enabling emission reductions in one country to be counted toward another country’s NDC.
As French President Francois Hollande summed it up: “In Paris, there have been many revolutions over
the centuries. Today it is the most beautiful and the most peaceful revolution that has just been accomplished –
a revolution for climate change.”
STRENGTHENING EFFORTS AT HOME
India’s investment in climate change appears to be ramping up domestically as well.
On June 30, 2008, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh released India’s first National Action Plan on Climate
Change (NAPCC) outlining existing and future policies and programs addressing climate mitigation and
adaptation. The plan identifies eight core “national missions” running through 2017 and directs ministries to
submit detailed implementation plans to the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change by December 2008.
Earlier, the Ministry of Environment and Forests released a report listing 20 initiatives that the country is
undertaking to address climate change at home. These steps come as part of India’s larger National Action
Plan on Climate Change.
The report mentions reforestation as a priority on India’s environmental agenda. A major drive is under way
nationwide to add 0.8 million hectares of forest per year, coupled with efforts to improve forest management,
conservation, and regeneration and to boost local capacity and job creation for some of India’s poorest
communities.
These initiatives will help offset 11 percent of India’s annual emissions; according to the Ministry report. The
report also touts the government’s recent approval of two of the eight “missions” that comprise the National
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Action Plan on Climate Change: the Solar Mission and the Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency.
The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission was launched on the 11th January, 2010 by the Prime Minister.
The Mission had set the ambitious target of deploying 20,000 MW of grid connected solar power by 2020 and
200 GW by 2050. It is the most ambitious solar plan that any country has put forward so far.
The Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency contains initiatives designed to improve the efficiency of energy
use across sectors. The government has said the program will include a series of mandated efficiency standards
for vehicles, buildings, and appliances; a market-based mechanism to trade energy-efficiency certificates; and
other mechanisms to finance efficiency efforts, such as tax exemptions and insurance funds.
The Ministry has also floated a proposal to create a National Environmental Protection Authority that would
monitor and evaluate the implementation of environmental efforts in India. The proposal comes as part of a new
drive from the Ministry to improve its “accountability and transparency,” as outlined in a recent video that asks
viewers to provide feedback on Ministry activities.
INDIA FIRM ON EQUITY CONCERNS
Despite its increasingly proactive engagement on climate issues, India has not wavered from its position that
equity concerns must underlie the international climate negotiations. The government insists that, despite a
common goal of global climate stabilization, each country has a different responsibility to address the problem.
“The major responsibility for bringing about [climate change] is that of the developed countries, and... they
should carry out credible action in order to control emissions,” said Prime Minister Manmohan Singh at a press
conference following the G20 Summit in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Topping India’s agenda have been appeals for more ambitious emissions cuts from industrialized countries as
well as larger commitments to provide financial and technical support to the developing world.
“Nearly 200 million [Indians] live on less than $1 a day and nearly 500 million do not have access to modern
sources of energy,” said External Affairs Minister S.M. Krishna at a U.N. roundtable event in New York.
At the meeting, Krishna called on industrialized countries to cut their carbon emissions “at least 40 percent by
2020” from 1990 levels and asked them to consider changes in lifestyle patterns to achieve this shift.
“We cannot get away from the fundamental fact that unsustainable lifestyles and patterns of production and
consumption in the developed world have caused climate change. This cannot continue,” he said.
Krishna emphasized the importance of focusing on climate change adaptation as well as mitigation.
“Developing countries must be supported financially, technologically, and with capacity-building resources so
that they can cope with the immense challenges of adaptation,” he said in a statement to the U.N. General
Assembly.
India filed its climate action plan at the U.N. Climate Secretariat in Germany’s Bonn, becoming one of the last
major global economies to release its goals for tackling climate change ahead of December’s landmark Paris
Climate Conference.
In the document, known as the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), the Indian
government said it would reduce carbon emissions relative to its GDP by 33% to 35% from 2005 levels by
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2030, reports the Associated Press. India also pledged that 40% of the country’s electricity would come from
non-fossil fuel-based sources, such as wind and solar power, by 2030.
All of the 190 countries participating in the COP21 talks in Paris were expected to publish INDCs, which list
each country’s carbon emission reduction goals. The targets are intended to hold nations accountable to
preventing global temperatures from rising by more than 2ºC. Mahatma Gandhi’s famous pronouncement,
“Earth has enough resources to meet people’s needs, but will never have enough to satisfy people’s greed,”
inspired India’s climate commitments, according to the document.
India is the world’s third largest carbon emitter, behind the U.S. and China.
POLICIES CONTRIBUTING TO CLIMATE MITIGATION
India has a number of policies that contribute to climate mitigation by reducing or avoiding GHG emissions. In
June 2008, the Prime Minister released India’s first National Action Plan on Climate Change, which identified
eight core “national missions” running through 2017. India’s current Five-Year Plan (2012-2017), which
guides overall economic policy, includes goals to:
Achieve average 8 percent annual GDP growth;
Reduce emissions intensity in line with India’s Copenhagen pledge; and
Add 300,000 MW of renewable energy capacity.
Since taking office in May 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi has taken steps to scale up clean energy
production and has initiated a shift in India’s stance in international climate negotiations. One ofhis first acts was
to rename the environment ministry the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change. In January, the
newly reconstituted Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change launched new initiatives on wind energy,
coastal zone management, health and waste-to-energy.
Renewable energy - At the federal level, India has implemented two major renewable energy-related
policies: the Strategic Plan for New and Renewable Energy, which provides a broad framework, and the
National Solar Mission, which sets capacity targets for renewables. The original Solar Mission includes the
following targets for 2017: 27.3 GW wind, 4 GW solar, 5 GW biomass and 5 GW other renewables. For
2022, these targets increase to: 20 GW solar, 7.3 GW biomass and 6.6 GW other renewables.
Solar - In November 2014, the Indian government announced that it would increase the solar ambition of its
National Solar Mission to 100 GW installed capacity by 2022, a five-time increase and over 30 times more
solar than it currently has installed. To this end, the government also announced its intention to bring solar
power to every home by 2019 and invested in 25 solar parks, which have the potential to increase India’s total
installed solar capacity almost tenfold.
Wind - The Twelfth Five Year Plan proposes a National Wind Energy Mission, similar to the National Solar
Mission, and the Indian government recently announced plans to boost wind energy production to 50,000 to
60,000 MW by 2022. It is also planning to promote an offshore wind energy market.
Coal - A tax on coal has raised $2.85 billion for India’s clean energy fund. The tax rose in July 2014 from Rs.
50 ($.80) to Rs. 100 ($1.60) per ton, and doubled again in March 2015 to Rs 200 ($3.20) per ton.
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Energy Efficiency and Conservation - India’s National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency implements
the Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Mechanism, covering the country’s largest industrial and power
generation facilities. PAT covers more than 50 percent of fossil fuel use and set a target to reduce energy
consumption at participating facilities 4-5 percent in 2015 compared to 2010 levels.
Transportation - In early 2014, India announced new vehicle fuel-economy standards (Indian Corporate
Average Fuel Consumption standard) of 4.8 liters per 100 kilometers (49 MPG) by 2021-2022, a 15 percent
improvement. Biofuel legislation has set a target of 20 percent blending of ethanol and biodiesel in 2017.
Smart Cities - Prime Minister Modi has launched an initiative to create 100 “smart cities” with better transport
systems, utilities, and energy networks to address the challenges of urban growth. India’s NationalMission on
Sustainable Habitat also includes initiatives such as the Energy Conservation Building Code, mandated for
commercial buildings in eight states, and actions to support recycling, waste management, and improved urban
planning.

CLIMATOLOGY
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17. APPLIED CLIMATOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Technical Geographical Definitions
Landsber and Jacob
The scientific analysis of climate data for a functional purpose is called applied climatology.
Morotz
Applied climatology is related to scientific use of climate data and basic concepts for solving problems which
are specific in nature.
A systematic approach given by S. A. Changman
It does nothing special. It explains that there are three concentric circles with different functions.
Inner Core:
We collect all data related to climate such as rainfall , humidity etc. We store it and save it for future.
Inner Circle:
We analyse data and explain some of the results.
Outer Larger Circle:
It is the main application parts were we apply our results in various fields. These results are important for
scientists, engineers, traders, farmers, people related to tourism and entertainment sector etc.
Applied Climatology is the scientific analysis of climatic data in the light of a useful application for an
operational purpose. “Operational” is interpreted as any specialised endeavour within such as industrial,
manufacturing, agricultural, or technological pursuits (Landsberg and Jacobs, 1951). This is the general term
for all such work and includes agricultural climatology, aviation climatology, bioclimatology, industrial
climatology, and others.
Applied climatology examines the effects of climate on physical, biological and cultural environments.
Specialist contributors from Europe, North America and Australasia examine the impacts of changing climates
on the functioning and development of physical, biological environments including glaciers, water resources,
landforms, soils, vegetation and animals. For instance, weather and climate affect day-to-day activities and
lifestyles from the clothes we wear to the buildings we design, and the food and energy we produce. This
course focuses on the relationship between climate and a wide range of human activities and responses relating
to health and comfort, building design, transport systems, agriculture and fisheries, tourism and social, industrial
and legal issues. Climate-environment relationships and impacts on human activities are predicted to change
dramatically if global warming accelerates at the rates currently proposed by scholars. There is a close
relationship between climate and civilisation.
Applied climatology has been the foundation upon which the world’s weather-sensitive activities and
infrastructure have been developed. Applications of climate data and information have likely contributed more
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to the development of most nations than any other function of the atmospheric sciences. The recent
development of useful weather forecasts has been important, but these developments have not overshadowed
a parallel recent progress in applied climatology. A variety of scientific and technological advances, coupled
with a changing society, have led applied climatology into its golden era.

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1. WEATHER AND CLIMATE ...................................................................................2-6

a. Partial absorption of solar radiation

Latitudinal Heat Balance

8. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION .......................................55-68

Large and Small Scale Circulation

Many Lines of Evidence Indicating Global Warming is Real

PAST YEAR QUESTIONS FROM THIS SECTION

a. Latitude or Distance from the Equator

Figure 7m-2: Mean January air temperature for the Earth’s surface, 1959-1997. (Source of Original Modified

Figure 7m-4 describes average annual global temperature data for the Earth for the period 1982-1994.

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

°Lat. North 1019 cal per day °Lat. North 1019 cal per day

Fig 2.14 Map showing distribution of pressure un January

Fig 2.15 Map showing distribution of pressure un July

DIURNAL VARIATION OF PRESSURE

HUMIDITY - WATER VAPOR IN THE AIR

MOISTURE AND CLOUD FORMATION

HOW PRECIPITATION FORMS?

PRECIPITATION FROM WARM CLOUDS

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION

Table - 1 : Inventory of water at the Earth’s surface

Time Scales for Atmospheric Motions

Atmospheric circulation - Tri-cellular model

THE CRITICAL WEATHER MAKER: ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

Atmospheric instability and cloud development

STABILITY AND DAILY WEATHER

Element Before Cold Front During Passage of After Cold Front

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATE CYCLONE

ii. Wind and Squalls

Life cycle of a thunderstorm

GROUP A: MEGATHERMS OR TROPICAL HUMID CLIMATES

Climatic Groups Based on Temperature Criteria:

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