ANATOMY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 1
The Human Body: An Orientation

ANATOMY
➢ Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts
➢ Observation is used to see sizes and relationship of parts
Gross Anatomy
➢ Large structures
➢ Easily observable
Microscopic Anatomy
➢ Structure are too small to be seen with the naked eye
➢ Can only be viewed through the microscope

PHYSIOLOGY
➢ Study of how the body and its parts work or function
● Cell physiology - study of function of living cells, it includes events at the
chemical or molecular level, both processes within and between cells.
● Special physiology - study of physiology of specific organ systems
● Pathological physiology/Pathology - study of effects of diseases an organ or
system function

NOTE:
Anatomy and physiology are always related
➢ The parts of your body form a well-organized unit, and each of those parts has a job to
do to make the body operate as a whole
➢ Structures determines what functions can take place
➢ All physiological functions are performed by anatomical structures
Chief Cells - Produce Pepsinogen (active pepsin that helps digest protein enzymes)
Parietal Cells - Produce hydrochloric acid

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

1. Chemical Level - Atoms combine to form molecules

2. Cellular/Cell Level - Molecules form organelles, such as the nucleus and
mitochondria, which make up cells
3. Tissue Level - Similar cells surrounding materials make up tissues
4. Organ Level - Different tissues combining to form organs, such as the urinary
bladder
5. Organ system Level - Organs, such as the urinary bladder and kidneys, makeup an
organ system
6. Organism level - Organ systems make up an organism
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ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Integumentary system
➢ External covering of the body (skin)
➢ Protects the deeper tissues from injury and waterproof the body
➢ Produce vitamin D with the help of sunlight
➢ Excretes salts in perspiration
➢ Helps regulate body temperature
➢ Location of cutaneous nerve receptors
Skeletal system
➢ Protects and support vital organs
➢ Provide muscle attachment for movement
➢ Site for blood cell formation (the bone marrow)
➢ Store minerals
➢ Consists if bones, cartilages, ligaments (fibrous cords that bind the bones together at
joints), and joints
Muscular system
➢ To contract or Shorten
➢ Allows locomotion
➢ Provide support and produces heat
Nervous system
➢ Fast Acting system
➢ Sensory receptors detect changes
➢ Directs immediate response to internal and external stimuli
➢ Messages are sent to the central nervous system (CNS) and then the CNS assess
information and activates effectors (muscles and glands)
➢ Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerve, and sensory receptors
Endocrine
➢ Produces chemical molecules (hormones) into the blood
➢ Body functions controlled by hormones include: growth, reproduction, and use of
nutrients
➢ Endocrine gland include:
● Pituitary
● Thyroid and parathyroid
● Adrenals
● Thymus
● Pancreas
● Pineal
● Ovaries (female), and testes (male)
Cardiovascular System
➢ Includes heart and blood vessels
● Heart pumps blood
● Vessels transport blood to tissues
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➢ Blood transports
● Oxygen
● Nutrients
● hormones
➢ Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals that provide protection from
foreign invaders
Lymphatic system
➢ Picks up fluid leaked from the blood vessels and returns it to the blood
➢ Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the blood
➢ Houses white blood cells which are involved in immunity
➢ Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs
Respiratory system
➢ Its job is to keep the body constantly supplied with oxygen to remove carbon dioxide
➢ The gaseous exchange occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
➢ Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
Digestive system
➢ Basically a tube running through the body from the mouth to the anus
➢ Breaks down food, allows for nutrient absorption into blood, and eliminates waste
➢ Consists of the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines,
rectum, and accessory organs
Urinary System
➢ Remove nitrogenous waste from the body
➢ Regulates water, electrolyte balance, and helps regulate normal blood pressure
➢ Maintain acid-base balance
➢ Includes the kidneys, uterus, urinary bladder, and urethra
Reproductive system
➢ The overall function of the reproductive system is to produce offspring
➢ For males
● Produces sperms and male sex hormones
● Ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive
tract
➢ For females
● Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
● Uterus serve as a site for fertilization and development of fetus
● Mammary glands of female breast produce milk to nourish the new-born

MAINTAINING LIFE: Necessary Life Functions

Maintaining boundaries
➢ Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
Movement
➢ Locomotion
➢ Movement of substances
Responsiveness (irritability)
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➢ Ability to sense changes and react

Digestion
➢ Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
Metabolism - chemical reaction within the body
➢ Breakdown complex molecules into smaller ones
➢ Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
➢ Produces energy (ATP)
➢ Regulated by hormones
Excretion
➢ Eliminates excreta from metabolic reactions
➢ May be removed in urine, feces, or sweat
Reproduction
➢ Occurs on cellular level or organism level
● On cellular level - new cells are used for growth and repair
● On organism level - the reproductive system handles the task
Growth
➢ Increases cell size or body size (through increasing the number of cells)
➢ Hormones play a major role

REQUIREMENT OF LIFE: Survival Needs

Nutrients
➢ Chemicals used for energy and cell building
➢ Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals
Oxygen
➢ Required for chemical reactions
➢ Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems
➢ Human cells can survive for only a few minutes without it
Water
➢ Accounts for 60-80 percent of body weight
➢ Single most abundant chemical in the human body
➢ Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
Normal body temperature
➢ 37°C (98.6°F)
➢ Normal body temperature must be maintained if chemical reactions are to continue at
life-sustaining levels
● Below the normal temperature - chemical reactions slow and stop
● Above the normal temperature - chemical reaction proceed too rapidly
Atmospheric pressure
➢ Must be appropriate for gas exchange
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LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
➢ Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding
➢ Exact terms are used for:
● Position
● Direction regions
● Structure

Anatomical Position
➢ Standard body position used to avoid confusion
➢ Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body position
➢ Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides with palms facing forward and
thumbs pointing away from the body

Directional Terms
➢ Explain location of once body structure in relation to another
● Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or upper part of a structure or
the body; above
● Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure
or the body; below
● Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the body; in front of
● Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of the body; behind
● Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
● Lateral: away from the midlines of the body; on the outer side of
● Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure
● Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or the plinth of attachment to a
limb to the body trunk
● Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a
limb to the body trunk
● Superficial (external): toward or at the body surface
● Deep (internal): away from the body surface; more internal
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Regional Terms
➢ Anterior (ventral) body landmarks

➢ Posterior (dorsal): body landmarks

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Body Planes and Sections
➢ Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as planes
➢ Three types of planes or sections exist as right angles to one another
● A sagittal section divides the body/organ into left and right parts
● A median/midsagittal section divides the body/organ into equal left and right
parts
● A frontal/coronal sections divides the body/organ into anterior and posterior
parts
● A transverse/cross section divides the body/organ into superior and inferior
parts

Body Cavities
➢ Two internal body cavities
● Dorsal
● ventral
➢ Body cavities provide varying degrees of protection to organs within them
➢ Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions (figure 1.6)
1. Cranial cavity
● Houses the brain
● Protected by the skull
2. Spinal cavity
● Houses the spinal cord
● Protected by the vertebrae
➢ Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions separated by the diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
● Cavity superior to the diaphragm
● Mediastinum, the central region, houses the heart, trachea, and other
organs
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● Protected by the rib cage
2. Abdominopelvic cavity
● Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
● Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, and other
organs
➔ Protected only by trunk muscles
● Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs, bladder, and
rectum
➔ Protected somewhat by bony pelvis
● No physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic cavities
● Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions
➔ Four quadrants (figure 1.7)
➔ Nine regions (figure 1.8)

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7
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Figure 1.8

➢ Other body cavities include:

● Oral and digestive cavities
● Nasal cavity
● Orbital cavities
● Middle ear cavities

HOMEOSTASIS
➢ Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions
● A dynamic state of equilibrium or balance
● Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life
➢ Main controlling systems
● Nervous system
● Endocrine system
➢ Homeostatic imbalance
● A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease

Maintaining Homeostasis
➢ All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three components: receptor, control
center, and effector
● Receptor
➔ Responds to change in the environment (stimuli)
➔ Send information to control center along an afferent pathway

● Control center
➔ Determines set point
➔ Analyzes information
➔ Determines appropriate response
● Effector
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➔ Provides a means for response to the stimulus
➔ Information flows from control center to effector along efferent
pathway

Feedback Mechanism
➢ Negative Feedback
● Includes most homeostatic control mechanism
● Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
● Works like a household thermostat
● Maintains homeostasis
● Normal response
➢ Positive feedback
● Rare in the human body
● Increases the original stimulus to push the variable father
● Reaction occurs at a faster rate
● In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of
a baby

Reference: Marieb, E. N., & Keller, S. M. Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Twelfth Edition. Pearson eText