Embryology word derived from Greek , embryon, which means "the unborn".

It is study of formation and development of an embryo from its inception (fertilization) to till its
birth as an infant.

Branches of embryology

1. GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY

2. SYSTEMIC EMBRYOLOGY

3. COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY

4. EXPERIMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY

5. BIOCHEMICAL OR MOLECULAR EMBRYOLOGY

6. TERATOLOGY

7. APPLIED EMBRYOLOGY

1.GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY-It is the study of development during pre-embryonic &

embryonic periods.

During this period the single celled zygote is converted by cell multiplication, migration

& reorganization into a miniature form of an organism with various organs & organ

system of the body

 2. SYSTEMIC EMBRYOLOGY-It is detailed study of formation of primordial and

their structural and early functional organization into various organs and systems

of the body.

It is further subdivided into development of CVS, GIT, Urinary, Genital system etc

3. COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY

It embraces the comparative study of embryology of different animal groups.

4. EXPERIMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY-It is for understanding the effects of certain

drugs, environment changes that are induced (exposure to radiation, stress) on the
growth and development of embryos and fetuses of lower animals.

The knowledge gained from these experiments can be used for avoiding the harmful
effects in the human development.

5. CHEMICAL EMBRYOLOGY-This branch of embryology includes all those studies which

employ various biochemical, biophysical and physiological techniques for understanding
embryological events at molecular level.

The study is concerned with the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation, proliferation &
morphogenesis.

eg. Chromosomes, gene sequencing, regulation.

6. TERATOLOGY-It is the branch of embryology concerned with the study of

malformations or birth defects. The substances that cause birth defects are called
tetratogens.

Phocomalia (poorly developed arms child), Ectomalia (arm less child).

7. APPLIED EMBRYOLOGY-to apply knowledge received by comparative and

experimental embryology to the development of human beings.
Gestational Period

1. Germinal period – 1st wk to 3rd wk

2. Embryonic Period- upto 8th wk
3. Fetal period- after 8th wk to full term

Germinal period (From 1st wk to 3rd wk )–

1st wk (TCFMBI) 2nd wk 3rd wk

Transportation Appearance of
prochordal plate,
Completion of primitive streak,
implantation Gastrulation

Capacitation Development of
Notochord

Changes in endometrium

Fertilization Changes in trophoblast Differentiation of

three germ layers

Morula & Blastocyst Neural tube

Formation-Cleavage formation-
Neuralation

Implantation
 Structure of Ovum at the time of ovulation

Gametogenesis already occurred before 1st wk of development

During ovulation only one oocyte is discharged (in metaphase of the meiotic II)

Oocyte is surrounded by a layer of glycoprotein called Zona pellucida and some granulosa cella
called corona radiate.

Transportation

 The fimbriae of the uterine tube sweep the oocyte into the Ampulla.
 Sperms are stored in the epididymis. Ejaculation of semen results in the deposit of millions
of sperms in vagina and then pass through the uterus and enter into the uterine tubes.
 Capacitation

 Freshly ejaculated sperms are unable to fertilyze oocyte.

 Capacitation is a period of conditioning of sperms in the female reproductive tract.
 During this process, glycoprotein coat and seminal proteins are removed from the surface of
sperm acrosome.
 Sperms become more active after capacitation.
 Only capacitated sperm can pass through the corona radiate cells and undergo the acrosome
reaction. This results in release of enzymes needed to penetrate the zona pellucida.

Fertilization

 Occurs in ampulla of fallopian tube.

 Process by which male & female gamete fuse to form Zygote.
 Property of zona pellucida changes avoiding the entry of more than one sperm.

Phases of Fertilization

1. Penetration of Corona Radiata

2. Penetration of Zona Pellucida
3. Fusion of Oocyte and sperm cell membrane.

As soon as the spermatozoon has entered the oocyte, the egg responds in 3 ways;

1. Cortical & Zona reaction- to prevent the polyspermy

2. Resumption of 2nd meiotic division- results in definitive oocyte & second polar body.
3. Metabolic activation of oocyte.

Results of fertilization

1. Restoration of diploid number of chromosomes-zygote 44+ XX or XY

2. Determination of the sex of the new individual.
3. Initiation of cleavage.
Cleavage

Series of mitotic cell divisions occur once the zygote reaches 2-cell stage, increasing number of cells.

 Blastomeres- cells which become smaller with each cleavage division.

 Morula 16- celled stage ( 3 days after fertilization) -Still surrounded by Zona pellucida.
Constitute the inner cell mass (embryoblast or embryonic pole) & outer cell
mass(trophoblast).
 Blastocyst formation-The time morula enters the uterine cavity a fluid filled space called
Balstocoele appears inside the morula. The conception is now called Blastocyst.
Zona pellucida gradually degenerates and disaapears ( 4rth or 5th day) after fertilization for
implantation to occur.

The trophoblast at the embryonic pole differentiates into 2 layers

 Outer Syncytiotrophoblast
 Inner Cytotrophoblast

The Syncytiotrophoblast invades the endometrial epithelium and underlying connective tissue.

By the end of 1st wk, the blastocyst is superficially implanted in the endometrium.

Implantation

2nd wk development

Changes in embryoblast-

1. Bilaminar disc –hypoblast & epiblast

2. formation of Amniotic cavity & yolk sac

3. Formation of extraembryonic or primary mesoderm

4. Formation of connecting stalk

5. Formation of chorion & amnion

6. Formation of secondary yolk sac

7. Circular embryonic disc

8. Formation of prochordal plate

1. FORMATION OF HYPOBLAST AND EPIBLAST

By the (8 th) day: The Inner Cell Mass (Embryoblast) is differentiated into a bilaminar plate of cells
composed of two layers:

 Epiblast -High columnar cells adjacent to the amniotic cavity (Floor of amniotic cavity with
amnion.
 Hypoblast -Small cuboidal cells adjacent to the blastocyst cavity (Yolk Sac)


2. FORMATION OF AMNIOTIC CAVITY

A space appears between the epiblast and trophoblast. This is called amniotic cavity, filled by
amniotic fluid.

Roof- formed by amniogenic cells derived from trophoblast

floor –formed by epiblast

3. FORMATION OF PRIMARY YOLK SAC

Flattened cells arising from the hypoblast spread and line the inside of the blastocystic cavity.
4. FORMATION OF EXTRA EMBRYONIC MESODERM

 The cells of the trophoblast give origin to a mass of cells called the extraembryonic
mesoderm.
 These cells come to lie between the trophoblast and flattened endodermal cells lining the
yolk sac and also separate the wall of amniotic cavity from the trophoblast.

5. FORMATION OF EXTRA EMBRYONIC COELOM

• Multiple spaces appear within the Extraembryonic mesoderm.

• These spaces fuse and form the Extraembryonic Coelom.

• It surrounds the amnion and yolk sac.

Extraembryonic mesoderm split into two layers

Parital / Somatopleuric mesoderm. Visceral/ Splanchnopleuric Extraembryonic

Extraembryonic mesoderm part lining the inside part lining of yolk sac

of trophoblast & outside of amniotic cavity.

6. FORMATION OF CONNECTING STALK

It is clearly seen that the extraembryonic coelem does not extend into that part of the
extraembryonic mesoderm which attaches the wall of the amniotic cavity to the trophoblast.

The developing embryo, along with the amniotic cavity and the yolk sac, is now suspended in the
extraembryonic coelem and is attached to the wall of the blastocyst only by this unsplit part of the
extraembryonic mesoderm. This mesoderm forms a structure called the connecting stalk.

7. FORMATION OF CHORION AND AMNION

Chorion-Parietal extraembryonic mesoderm (on the inside) & the overlying trophoblast (on the
outside)

Amnion-amniogenic cells forming the wall of the amniotic cavity (derived from trophoblast)

8.FORMATION OF SECONDARY YOLK SAC

As the extraembryonic coelem forms the primary umbilical vesicle decrease in size and a secondary
vesicle is formed. Primary umbilical vesicle is pinched off.

9. CIRCULAR EMBRYONIC DISC

Columnar cells--towards amniotic cavity- EPIBLAST

Coboidal cells-towards Yolk sac- HYPOBLAST

There is no indication yet of a head & tail end of embryonic disc

10.FORMATION OF PROCHORDAL PLATE

At one circular area near the margin of the disc

Cuboidal cells ------- columnar called prochordal plate

 Determines the central axis of the embryo (enables us to divide into right & left halves)
 It also enables us to determine the head & tail ends
3rd wk development

Rapid development of the embryonic disc occurs during the 3rd week. It is characterized by:

1. Appearance of primitive streak.

2. Development of the prechordal plate.
3. Gastrulation-Bilaminar to Trilaminar layer
4. Differentiation of three germ layers.

PRIMITIVE STREAK

The first sign of Gastrulation is the appearance of “primitive streak” by (15- 16 day).

It is a thickened band in the caudal part of the dorsal aspect of the epiblast.

FUNCTIONS OF PRIMITIVE STREAK

□ By the end of the 3 rd week the cells of Primitive Streak gives rise to:

□ Mesenchymal cells that migrate between Epiblast & Hypoblast to form a third layer -
Intraembryonic Mesoderm.

□ end of the primitive streak proliferates form primitive node.

Fate of Primitive Streak

PRECHORDAL PLATE

 It is a localised area of thickening of the Hypoblast(endoderm).

 It is located at the future site of the oral cavity
 It indicates: 1. The future Cranial end of the embryo. 2. The future site of the mouth. 3. It is
an important organiser of the Head.

GASTRULATION

 It is the process through which the Bilaminar embryonic disc is changed into a trilaminar
disc, which are precursor of all embryonic tissues and axial orientation are established in
embryo.
 TRILAMINAR DISC Now the embryonic disc is formed of 3 layers:
o Embryonic Ectoderm (outer layer)
o Intraembryonic Mesoderm.
o Embryonic Endoderm (inner layer)
 Beginning of morphogenesis.
 Embryo is called gastrula at this stage.
 Embryonic ectoderm
Epidermis, CNS,PNS, eyes,
internal ears, neural crest cells
Embryonic endoderm
Epithelial lining of Respiratory
& alimentary tracts, glands
opening into GIT , glandular
cells of liver and pancreas
Embryonic mesoderm
Skeletal muscles, blood cells,
lining of blood cells, visceral
smooth muscle coat, serosa
lining, ducts & organs of
reproductive and excretory
system

PLACENTA DEVELOPMENT

The placenta is a vital connecting organ between the maternal uterus and the foetus.

It supports the developing foetus, in utero, by supplying nutrients, eliminating waste products
of the foetus and enabling gas exchange via the maternal blood supply.

Pre-Implantation

Ovum + Sperm Zygote Morula blastocyst

Outer trophoblast cells(form the placenta) &the inner cell mass(forms foetus &
foetal membranes)
After

Implantation

Outer multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast, Inner mononucleated cytotrophoblast

Responsible for producing hormones hCG

Post-Implantation

 lacunae or spaces form within the syncytiotrophoblast

 It Also erodes maternal tissues allowing maternal blood

from uterine spiral arteries to enter the lacunar network.

Early Uteroplacental circulation (By the end of week 2)

  the cytotrophoblast begins to which penetrate and expand into the surrounding
syncytiotrophoblast & form primary chorionic villi (finger-like projections)

primary chorionic villi – syncytiotrophoblast+ cytotrophoblast

Secondary chorionic villi - syncytiotrophoblast+ cytotrophoblast + Extraembryoic mesoderm

Tertiary chorionic villi - syncytiotrophoblast+ cytotrophoblast + Extraembryoic mesoderm+

embryonic vessels

 The cytotrophoblast cells from the tertiary villi grow towards the decidua basalis of the
maternal uterus and spread across it to form a cytotrophoblastic shell. The villi that are
connected to the decidua basalis through the cytotrophoblastic shell are known
as anchoring villi.

Placental Barrier

The first trimester

In the first trimester (0-13 weeks), the surface of the chorionic villi is formed by the
syncytiotrophoblast. These cells rest on a layer of cytotrophoblastic cells that in turn cover a
core of vascular mesoderm. Therefore, the placental barrier is relatively thick.

The surface area for exchange dramatically increases by full-term (27-40 weeks).
The placental barrier is much thinner and the cytotrophoblast layer beneath the
syncytiotrophoblast is lost.

The placental barrier is not a true barrier as it allows many substances to pass between the
maternal and foetal circulations. Unfortunately, this means various drugs (e.g. heroin, cocaine)
and viruses (e.g. CMV, rubella, measles) can enter the foetal circulation. As the maternal blood
in the intervillous spaces is separated from the foetal blood by chorionic derivatives, the human
placenta is known as the haemochorial type.

Full-Term Placenta

At full term the placenta is discoid in shape with a diameter of 15-25cm, approximately 3 cm
thick and weighs about 500-600g. At birth, it is torn from the uterine wall and around 30
minutes after the birth of the child it is expelled from the uterine cavity.

Two Components

Maternal Component- Irregular, divided into 15-20 lobules called maternal cotyledons
a by a thin layer of decidua basalis.

Fetal Componemnt- develop from the chorionic sac (outermost fetal membrane).

Umbilical cord attached at/near centre.

UMBILICAL CORD

 It is one of the fetal membrane tubular in structure and is connected by Amniotic

membrane.
 It contains blood vessels- two umbilical arteries & one umblical vein, yolk sac
remnants& embryonic connective tissue.
 On end is attached to the anterior abdominal wall of fetus & other end is fixed to the
centre of fetal surface of placenta.
 At full term -Length- 50 cm & Breadth- 2 cm.

Function

Transport oxygen & nutrients from placenta to fetus and waste from fetus to placenta.