FOURAH BAY COLLEGE

INSTITUTION

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT

DIGITAL SYSTEMS DESIGN

MODULE TITLE

EENG514
MODULE CODE

PROF JONAS A S REDWOOD-SAWYERR

MODULE LECTURER
Mobile : +232 76 670904, +232 88 001019, +232 25 273401
Email : jasredwood@usl.edu.sl, abiosehrs@gmail.com,
CONTACTS
jredwood_sawyerr@yahoo.com

LECTURE HOURS/LAB. 3-0-3

PRACTICALS/CREDIT HOURS
Examination will account for 70% of the overall grade whilst continuous assessment will account
ASSESSMENT for 30%. Question sets at the end of each lecture must be returned for grading one week after
receipt of lectures and will account for 10% of the continuous assessment grade.

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 This module draws from a number of concepts met in earlier years of the programme and seeks
to show how these engineering tools can be used in digital systems design. You may wish to
revise Modules in Digital Systems at Year IV so as to better cope with the discussions as these
OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES concepts will be assumed during our lectures.

References have been made to a number of text books which are listed in the section for Further
Reading, and modifications made for a coherent and reader-friendly presentation with worked
examples and assignments provided.

Below is a list of the topics to be covered.

 Systems Reliability (R(t) = 1-exp(-λt), where λ is defined as the Failure Rate

 Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)
MODULE DESCRIPTION  Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)
 Review of Shift Register in Digital Systems Design and the Universal State or DeBruign
Diagram
 Design using PROMS and Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs)
 Fault Diagnosis in Combinational circuits
References
1. http://www.reliabilityeducation.com/ReliabilityPredictionBasics.pdf
SUGGESTED 2. http://www.mtl-inst.com/images/uploads/datasheets/App_Notes/AN9030.pdf
READINGREFERENCE 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_rate
TEXTS/MANUALS/WEBSITES 4. G C Loveday,1989. Electronic Testing and Fault Diagnosis. Longman Scientific &
Technical. ISBN 0-582-03865-0

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LECTURE NUMBER
LECTURE DURATION (HOURS)
SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL
OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING
OUTCOMES
03 – Factors affecting a System’s Reliability
01
At the end of this lecture the students should be able to :
1. Fully describe the environmental factors affecting the reliability of equipment and
components
2. Explain the effect of reliability in the value chain of an equipment.
3. Explain relationship between manufacturing cost and component reliability
4. Describe relationship between Ownership cost and component reliability.

1.7. Factors affecting Equipment Reliability

The environment in which an instrument operates plays a significant effect on its reliability and usability. Such conditions are important
regardless of whether the instrument is functioning, switched off or in storage. When in storage issues of humidity become very significant
as the usually internally generated heat of equipment will not occur and hence the equipment can be subjected to extremes of temperature
variations.

We shall now discuss a number of these effects in brief.

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 a. Environmental factors

High humidity(Level of moisture content in the air)

Variations in atmospheric pressure

Radiations (γ-, X-rays, etc.)

Equipment or Extremes of temperature
Instrument or
system or
component

Dust and corrosive elements in the atmosphere

Attack by fungi, insects, rodents, etc Mechanical vibrations and shocks

NB
Relative Humidity is defined as

𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟

Temperature

Ideally equipment should operate at a temperature of 20oC ±5%, the condition normally found in an air conditioned atmosphere. When
instruments are subjected to high outside temperature we must be aware that they also generate internal heat due to the components that
make up the equipment. For example an outside temperature of say 40oC could lead to an internal equipment temperature of 60oC which
may be near the limit or exceed the limit of allowable temperature the equipment can operate under.

Components such as electrolytic capacitors can have severe stresses imposed on them due to extremes of temperature. Generally it is
estimated that the failure rate of many components can be taken to double for every 10oC rise in temperature.

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Estimated life times of electrolytic capacitors with ambient temperature are given below:

Temperature (oC) Life time(Hours)

50 40,000
60 23,000
70 14,000
90 5000

Table 2 summarizes the effects of temperature of the condition of equipment

Table 2. Effects of temperature on equipment performance

Environment Main effects Design action
High Temperature  Exceeding power rating of components.  Adequate heat sinks and/or ventilation
 Expansion and softening. or forced air cooling.
 Increased chemical action resulting in  Choice of components with low
rapid ageing. expansion and temperature
characteristics.

Low Temperature  Contraction.  Possibly heating to controlled

 Hardening and freezing. temperature.
 Brittleness.  Correct choice of materials and
 Loss in efficiency. components.

Temperature cycling  Severe stressing. Introduction of large thermal delays to prevent

 Fatigue failure. rapid changes affecting internal components.

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Humidity

Main effects of high levels of humidity are:

1. Reduction of insulation resistance leading to possible electrical breakdown

2. Corrosion resulting from moisture forming an electrolyte between dissimilar metals.
3. Promotion of fungi growth which reduces insulation.

When combined with high temperatures normally experienced in the tropics, the degenerative effects are even more severe.

Some remedies
1. Use of insulating materials that do not absorb moisture.
2. Ideally use hermetic seals (totally closed) on all sensitive components or assemblies. For components, use of special plastic resins
and for assemblies use of sealing rings and gaskets.
3. Desiccants (e.g. Silica gel) can also be used inside the enclosure to absorb any moisture that may leak through the seal.

Mechanical vibrations and shocks

Usually caused during transportation or when equipment is operating in an environment where vibration is present. When equipment are
dropped components or mechanical parts experience shock. These effects could lead to the weakening of joints, supports, wires and other
connections. Some parts can be damaged or fractured leading to malfunctioning and stresses caused where these fractures have occurred.

Remedy

1. Careful design using anti-vibration mountings, shake-proof washers, locking nuts and varnishes.
2. Encapsulation of sensitive components in protective material.

Variation in pressure

Variation of atmospheric occurs with high altitudes where low pressures exist. This can cause leaking of seals in components and sub-
assemblies. Other electrical characteristics such as electrical breakdown voltage are affected by low pressure.

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Careful design consideration must be taken and the characteristics of components used at such high altitudes must be screened to ensure
their proper operations. Specifications must be examined before subjecting equipment to high altitudes or low pressure conditions.

Attack by fungi, insects, rodents, etc

Humid atmosphere or storage provides the ideal home for rodents and insects. These can cause irreparable damage to equipment. Copper
tracks and IC pin connections can be damaged by urine from rodents as well as cables and other connections.

Dust and other corrosive elements

Dust on the surface of ICs inhibits heat dissipation, which can lead to the destruction and/or malfunctioning of the component. Air around
the sea is salty and such particulates can cause corrosion of copper tracks and other connections in an electronic circuit leading to its
damage. For example the conversion efficiency of solar panels can be significantly reduced depending on the thickness of dust on the
surface of the panels. Simple regular cleaning practices can prevent such situations and prolong the useful life and efficiency of equipment in
operation.

b. Equipment Life cycle and Reliability

There are four identifiable stages in the life cycle of equipment namely :

a) Design and development

b) Production
c) Storage and transport
d) Operation

The reliability of the equipment is affected during each of the above stages in varying degrees and Figure xx provides a schematic of their
interrelationships.

Under the Design and development, targets for Reliability must be set at this stage. All throughout the manufacturing process this target
must be kept in view.

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FACTORS AFFECTING EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY IN THE PRODUCT VALUE CHAIN

DESIGN PURCHASE
Choice of components
Stress & Failure analysis Bulk purchase of components
Mechanical layout Goods In-house inspection( Should meet
Prototype testing (usually extensive to confirm international standards, e.g. BS9000)
conformity with specifications) Component storage

MANUFACTURE

Skills & workforce Involvement

Training schemes and opportunities
Tools and Equipment
Working Environment
Inspection & Test (e.g. Soak Test)
Feedback

DISTRIBUTION

Packing
Storage
Transport Mechanisms

WORKING LIFE

Feedback Operating Environment

Care during Operation (Need for well written manuals in
order to reduce incidence of operator error)
Maintenance Policy(Adherence to scheduled
maintenance regimes)

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Design

Reliability targets must be set at the design stage and all the steps leading to the manufacture of the equipment should keep these targets in
view.

Choice of components must be selective to ensure compliance with the reliability target set at the outset. For example where components
will have to operate under harsh conditions of temperature and humidity, the specifications to the suppliers must clearly state these
conditions so as to maintain the expected performance and reliability.

Stress and Failure analysis involves the investigation of the likelihood of failure of the components used in the proposed circuit. Derating
factors should be given to enhance the reliability of components used.

The repair time should also be considered at this stage and structural layout methods used, must facilitate the process of fault diagnosis and
removal. Equipment must be constructed to provide easy access to the circuit board of the various parts, i.e. it should be easy to dismantle
the equipment for maintenance and repair. Adequate test points must be considered to shorten the repair time. Audio-visual indicators of
faults should also be incorporated where possible while also keeping the reliability targets in mind.

Mechanical Layout. This is to ensure that adequate space is provided between components and other mechanical parts so as to prevent or
minimize excessive heat generation during operation. Where space is a problem provisions must be made for forced air cooling to
maintain the expected ambient temperature in the enclosure of the equipment.

Extensive prototype testing should be carried out to ensure compliance with set performance and reliability targets and specification.

Purchase

In making bulk purchases, only reputable suppliers must be contacted for the supply of components. Goods received must be subjected to
in-factory test and inspection. Ideally a 100% inspection should be undertaken especially for small batches of components. Where very
large quantities are required, statistical sampling should be used to guarantee the integrity of the tests used. The storage of components
must be carefully done. Characteristics of components change with time under storage, i.e. they have a shelf life after which they cannot
perform optimally. A minimum storage time is therefore recommended before usage under constant ambient conditions (temperature of
20oC±2oC

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Manufacture/Production

The skills of the workforce are critical in the production line to maintain the reliability target. In this regard continuing professional
development and new skill acquisition training programmes must be part of the conditions of staff. Adequate tools and test and measuring
equipment should be provided for the staff. The working environment must be comfortable, i.e. due ergonomic consideration must be
given in the workplace.
Inspection and test facilities should be provided ideally with as much automation as possible especially in the checking of copper tracks,
open and short circuit situations and circuit operation. A soak test is usually carried out wherein the equipment is subjected to elevated
and reduced temperature swings or temperature cycling. This will identify weak components, connections, etc which can then be replaced
before dispatch.

Distribution

Special packing techniques may be required for fragile or sensitive equipment keeping in mind the environment in which the equipment will
be transported and stored. The environmental factors discussed earlier will have to be considered in providing adequate storage facilities
for the equipment. The type of transportation to the customers or sale outlets will depend on the fragility and sensitivity of the equipment.

Working Life
The operating environment must be conducive to the proper functioning of the equipment. Also operability concerns must be taken into
consideration. i.e. reducing the possibility of operator error in the operation of the equipment. In this regard and to ensure adequate care
during the working life of the equipment, manuals must be carefully written with clear circuit diagrams to assist trouble shooting and
maintenance.

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Maintenance targets (for example permissible running hours of generators in power stations for different levels of maintenance) should be
adhered to in order to prolong the useful life of the equipment. Operators or technicians must have access to adequate tools for testing
and repair. Spare parts must be available and adequate test gears and diagnostic instruments must be available to reduce the repair time. In
other words there must be a robust maintenance policy operating.

1.8. Reliability and Quality

Quality is defined as the ability of an equipment or product to perform according to specifications. It is not time dependent. Reliability can
therefore be viewed as Quality within a period of time. Quality in this context does not connote excellence or perfection. It merely
means performance according to given specifications.

1.9 Reliability and cost

The graphs are meant as guides only as the optimum values rely on a more detailed analysis of component reliabilities over a considerable
length of time.
Cost

Total cost of manufacturing product(c = a + b)

Design and production(a)

Lowest Cost
point
Repairs Under guarantee(b)

Optimum Reliability
Reliability

Figure r. Manufacturing Cost versus Reliability

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This figure presents a graphical indication of the effect of reliability on the cost of production of an equipment. Normally warranty periods
are given by manufacturers for their products, during which repairs are made at no cost to the client. It can be seen that for equipment
with very high Reliabilities, the repairs under warranty are minimal as the failure rates of such devices are very low. Conversely the lower
the reliability the higher the maintenance cost with its attendant impact on maintenance cost during the warranty period. The total
manufacturing cost of the product is therefore given by the sum of the Design and production and the costs of repairs undertaken under
the warranty period.. The optimum reliability yielding the lowest cost point is shown.

Fig. S provides an indication of the relationship between Ownership cost and the reliability of the product. It can be seen that equipment
or components with very high Reliability have proportionately lower maintenance costs as would be expected in practice. The lower the
reliability the higher the maintenance costs. The Total operating or ownership cost is seen to be the sum of the Purchase price of the
equipment and the Maintenance cost. The optimum Reliability point is shown which yields the lowest cost point.

The Buyer’s cost or Purchase cost = Design Cost + Validation Cost + Manufacturing cost + Warranty Cost + Seller’s profit

Cost

Total operating cost or Ownership cost

(c = a+b)

Purchase price(a)

Lowest cost
point

Maintenance,, etc(b)

Optimum Reliability
Fig. S. Ownership costs versus Reliability Reliability

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Assignment 2.

Comment on the environmental conditions affecting the reliability of electrical and electronic components used in
a) Life supporting medical equipment
b) Power plants
c) Car assembly plants
d) Satellite communications systems
MODE AND DEADLINE FOR SUBMISSION OF Answers to be submitted to my mailboxes as attachments.
ASSIGNMENT Deadline : TBD

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