BUILDING SERVICES - II

UNIT-1
GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY AND
DISTRIBUTION IN BUILDINGS

FAZIL AHAMED
 Generation of electricity
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from
sources of primary energy.

Various sources for power generation

• Thermal power
• Hydro power
• Nuclear power
• Wind power
• Solar power
• Bio mass power
• Tidal wave power
• Geo thermal power
 The Current Flow through
Filament of the Lamp
• One practical and popular use of electric current is for the operation of
electric lighting. The simplest form of electric lamp is a tiny metal
“filament” inside of a clear glass bulb, which glows white-hot
(“incandesces”) with heat energy when sufficient electric current passes
through it. Like the battery, it has two conductive connection points, one
for current to enter and the other for current to exit.
• Connected to a source of voltage, an electric lamp circuit looks something
like this:
 The Current Flow through
Filament of the Lamp
• As the current works its way through the thin metal filament of the lamp,
it encounters more opposition to motion than it typically would in a thick
piece of wire. This opposition to electric current depends on the type of
material, its cross-sectional area, and its temperature. It is technically
known as resistance. (It can be said that conductors have low resistance
and insulators have very high resistance.) This resistance serves to limit
the amount of current through the circuit with a given amount of voltage
supplied by the battery, as compared with the “short circuit” where we
had nothing but a wire joining one end of the voltage source (battery) to
the other.
• When the current moves against the opposition of resistance, “friction” is
generated. Just like mechanical friction, the friction produced by the
current flowing against a resistance manifests itself in the form of heat.
The concentrated resistance of a lamp’s filament results in a relatively
large amount of heat energy dissipated at that filament. This heat energy
is enough to cause the filament to glow white-hot, producing light,
whereas the wires connecting the lamp to the battery (which have much
lower resistance) hardly even get warm while conducting the same
amount of current.
 The Current Flow through
Filament of the Lamp
• As in the case of the short circuit, if the continuity of the circuit is broken
at any point, current flow stops throughout the entire circuit. With a lamp
in place, this means that it will stop glowing:
 The Current Flow through
Filament of the Lamp
• As before, with no flow of current, the entire potential (voltage) of the
battery is available across the break, waiting for the opportunity of a
connection to bridge across that break and permit current flow again. This
condition is known as an open circuit, where a break in the continuity of
the circuit prevents current throughout.
• All it takes is a single break in continuity to “open” a circuit. Once any
breaks have been connected once again and the continuity of the circuit
re-established, it is known as a closed circuit.
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of

primary energy

Diagram of an electric power system, generation system in red

 The Basis for Switching Lamps

• What we see here is the basis for switching lamps on and off by remote
switches. Because any break in a circuit’s continuity results in current
stopping throughout the entire circuit, we can use a device designed to
intentionally break that continuity (called a switch), mounted at any
convenient location that we can run wires to, to control the flow of
current in the circuit:
 Ohms law
• The electrical current, I, is measured in amperes, commonly
called amps. The voltage or electrical potential difference, V,
is measured in volts. The resistance, R, is measured in ohms,
which are volts per amp.

I = V/R
Electric current = voltage/resistance
 Ohms law

APPLICATIONS OF OHM'S LAW

In the following circuit, assume that resistance R is 2 and voltage V that is
applied to it is 12 V. Then, current I flowing in the circuit can be determined
as follows
 Ohms law
• Ohm’s Law and Short Circuits
• When a short circuit occurs in an electrical appliance, most of the circuit
for the appliance is bypassed. Hence the resistance becomes very low. The
appliance may have a high electrical resistance, but the wire leading to the
appliance does not.
• By Ohm’s law, the very low resistance in a short circuit causes a very high
current. This high current blows the circuit breaker or fuse. If circuits did
not have fuses or circuit breakers, high currents in the circuits could heat
the wires to the point of starting a fire. Fuses and circuit breakers are
therefore protective devices.
The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby the charge (measured in coulombs) is the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (in seconds)

Kirchoffs laws

• Kirchhoff's current law (1st Law) states that current flowing into a node (or
a junction) must be equal to current flowing out of it. This is a consequence of
charge conservation. This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point
rule, or Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule).

The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby the charge (measured in
coulombs) is the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (in seconds)
 Kirchoffs second laws
• Kirchoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that "in any closed loop network, the total
voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the
same loop" which is also equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all
voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchoff is known as
the Conservation of Energy.
 UNITS
The­ three most basic units in electricity are voltage (V), current (I, uppercase "i") and
resistance (R).
• Voltage is measured in volts,
• Current is measured in amps and
• Resistance is measured in ohms.
 UNITS - WATT
WATT
• Watt is the unit Power consumption of some electrical
of power (symbol: W). components
•The watt unit is named after How many watts does a house use? How many
James Watt, the inventor of the watts does a TV use? How many watts does a
steam engine. refrigerator use?
•One watt is defined as the
energy consumption rate of one
joule per second.
1W = 1J / 1s

One watt is also defined as

the current flow of one ampere with
voltage of one volt.
1W = 1V × 1A
 UNITS – VOLT
VOLT
• Volt is the electrical unit of voltage or potential difference (symbol: V).

• One Volt is defined as energy consumption of one joule per electric charge
of one coulomb.
1V = 1J/C
One volt is equal to current of 1 amp times resistance
of 1 ohm:
1V = 1A ⋅ 1Ω

Alessandro Volta
The Volt unit is named after Alessandro Volta,
an Italian physicist who invented an electric battery

Volts to watts conversion -The power in watts (W) is equal to the voltage in volts (V)
times the current in amps (A):
watts (W) = volts (V) × amps (A)
 UNITS – VOLT

V
 UNITS - Amps
Amps
• Amp – an ampere is the unit of
electrical current. Table of ampere unit prefixes
The Ampere unit is named after
Andre-Marie Ampere, from France.
One Ampere is defined as the
current that flows with electric charge of one
Coulomb per second.
1 A = 1 C/s

AMPEREMETER
• Ampere meter or ammeter is an
electrical instrument that is used to measure
electrical current in amperes.
• When we want to measure the
electrical current on the load, the ampere-
meter is connected in series to the load.
• The resistance of the ampere-meter
is near zero, so it will not affect the measured
circuit.
 UNITS - Amps

A
 UNITS
“What’s the difference between amps, volts and watts?”
If we think of electricity as water flowing through a pipe it can help us understand
amps, volts and watts. Amps would be the volume of water flowing through the
pipe. The water pressure would be the voltage.
Watts would be the power (volts x amps) the water could provide
UNITS
 DISTRIBUTION FROM GRIT TO FACILITIES

1. Electricity is made at a generating station by huge generators. Generating stations can

use wind, coal, natural gas, or water.

2. The current is sent through transformers to increase the voltage to push the power
long distances.

3. The electrical charge goes through high-voltage transmission lines that stretch across
the country.
 DISTRIBUTION FROM GRIT TO FACILITIES

4. It reaches a substation, where the voltage is lowered so it can be sent on smaller

power lines.

5. It travels through distribution lines to your neighborhood. Smaller transformers

reduce the voltage again to make the power safe to use in our homes. These smaller
transformers may be mounted on the poles, or sitting on the ground (they’re the big
green boxes, called pad mount transformers).

6. It connects to your house and passes through a meter that measures how much your
family uses.

7. The electricity goes to the service panel in your basement or garage, where breakers
or fuses protect the wires inside your house from being overloaded. (Never touch a
service panel! It is only to be operated by your parents or a professional.

8. The electricity travels through wires inside the walls to the outlets and switches all
over your house
 ALTERNATIVE CURRENT

Alternative current power is a form of electricity in which the power flow is constantly
Changing directions

How does AC flows?

Voltage is generates by rotating 2 conductors in a magnetic field.
Electrons move in one direction for a while and then move in the alternative directions
 TWO PHASE AND THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
What is Phase in Electricity?
 Generally, the phase in electricity is the current or the voltage among an
existing wire as well as a neutral cable.
 Phase means the distribution of load, if a single wire is used, an additional load
will occur on it & if three wires are used then loads will be separated between them.
 This can be called as less power for 1-phase and more power for 3-phase.
 If it is a 1-phase system, it includes two wires as well as if it is a 2-phase system,
then it includes 2 wires (or) four wires if it is a 3-phase system, then it includes 3 wires
(or) four wires.

TWO PHASE
Two-phase circuits also have
the advantage of constant combined
power into an ideal load, whereas
power in a single-phase circuit
pulsates at twice the line
frequency due to the zero crossings
of voltage and current.
 SINGLE PHASE, TWOPHASE & THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

Single Phase and three phase power systems refer to units using AC electric power.
With AC power , the flow of current is constantly alternating directions. The primary
difference between single phase and three phase AC power is the constancy of delivery.
 DIFF BETWN SINGLE PHASE & THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

The current, voltage and power relations of balanced three-phase AC circuits can be
deliberate by applying the rules that apply to single phase circuits.

Single Phase power only has one sine
wave voltage.
Single Phase needs only two wires to
complete the circuit.
It is commonly used in house and small
business.
Three Phase power used three separate
sine waves that are offset 120 degree
from each other.
Three Phase needs atleast three wires,
one for each phase.
It is used in large Industries.
 THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
Three phase power supplies are utilized as a single-phase AC power supply. For
the small load, 1-phase AC power supply, as well as neutral, can be chosen from the 3-
phase AC power supply system. The three conductors are away from phase & space 120º
distant from each other.
• Wiring - The three-phase power supply includes four wires such as one neutral as
well as three conductors.
• Generator frequency - 50 – 60 Hz
• Voltage : A typical 120V power arrangement
= 3 x 120V single – phase circuits with one 208V
Power circuit.
• This supply is constant and not at all totally
falls to zero.
• Application :
I. Suitable for commercial building , Industry and
larger homes ( bungalows, Semi detached homes)
II. Suitable to be used when there are many appliances
Running at once
III. Standard voltage – 400 V
THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
 SUBSTATION

• The electrical power is generated at generating stations which are located at favorable
places, generally faraway from consumers. The electrical power delivered to the
consumers from generating through a large network of transmission and distribution.
• At many places of the transmission lines of the transmission lines it is desirable and
necessary to change certain characteristics like voltage, AC to DC, frequency etc. It can
be achieved by an apparatus called substation.
• Substation is a high-voltage electric system facility. It is used to switch generators,
equipment and circuits or lines in and out of a system. It also is used to change AC
voltages from one level to another and/or change alternating current to direct current
or direct to alternating current.
• Some substations are small with little more than a transformer and associated switches.
Others are very large with several transformers and dozens of switches and other
equipment.
SUBSTATION
NEED FOR SUBSTATION
FUNCTIONS OF SUBSTATIONS
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION
TYPES OF SUBSTATION
TYPES OF SUBSTATION
 TYPES OF SUBSTATION

CONVERTING SUBSTATION
TYPES OF SUBSTATION
 TYPES OF SUBSTATION

INDUSTRIAL SUBSTATION
TYPES OF SUBSTATION
TYPES OF SUBSTATION
ADVANTAGES OF OUTDOOR SUBSTATION
DISADVANTAGES OF OUTDOOR SUBSTATION
EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBSTATIONS
EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBSTATIONS
EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBSTATIONS
EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBSTATIONS
EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBSTATIONS
EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBSTATIONS
EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBSTATIONS
EQUIPMENTS USED IN SUBSTATIONS
TRANSFORMERS
TRANSFORMERS
TRANSFORMERS
TRANSFORMERS
TRANSFORMERS
TRANSFORMERS
TRANSFORMERS
 GENERATORS
• In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts motive
power (mechanical energy) into electrical power for use in an external circuit.
• Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water
turbines, internal combustion engines and even hand cranks.
• Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two broad categories, dynamos and
alternators.
• Dynamoes generate pulsing direct current through the use of a commutator.
• Alternators generate alternative current

Equivalent circuit of generator and

load.G, generator
VG, generator open-circuit voltage
RG, generator internal resistance
VL, generator on-load voltage
RL, load resistance
 WIRING
• A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal.
• Wires are used to bear mechanical loads or electricity and telecommunication
signals. Wire is commonly formed by drawing the metal through a hole in
a die or draw plate.
• Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms. Although usually circular in
cross-section, wire can be made in square, hexagonal, flattened rectangular, or
other cross-sections, either for decorative purposes

General Electrical Wiring In Homes

• There are many types house wire cables, in your home too.
• All these types of electrical wires and fuse wires have specific application to
accommodate the load and conditions it is exposed to.
• Below are mentioned the electrical wire types that are used in the electrical
system of any home
TYPES OF WIRES
 TYPES OF WIRES

Vulcanised indian rubber wire (VIR)

 TYPES OF WIRES

Tough rubber sheathed wire (TRS)

 TYPES OF WIRES

Poly vinyl chloride wire (PVC)

 TYPES OF WIRES

LC wire

Weather proof wire

 TYPES OFCONDUCTORS
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATERIAL

COPPER
i. Very good conductor & is easy to mold and bend
ii. Most commonly used.
iii. Reasonable price
iv. Used in all household wirings.

ALUMINIUM
i. Cheaper than copper and easy to bend and shape
ii. 60percent less conductive material than copper
iii. Electrical safety is an issue
iv. Heating occurs
v. Lighter than copper
WIRING APPLIANCES
CONDUIT WIRING
CONDUIT WIRING
 CONDUIT WIRING

Surface Conduit Wiring

If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit wiring. in this
wiring method, they make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and
conduit is installed then with the help of rawal plugs.

Concealed Conduit wiring

If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is called
concealed conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system inside wall,
roof or floor with the help of plastic or metallic piping is called concealed conduit
wiring. obliviously, It is the most popular, beautiful, stronger and common
electrical wiring system nowadays.
CONDUIT WIRING
 CONDUITS

• An electrical conduit is a tube used to protect and route electrical wiring in a

building or structure. Electrical conduit may be made of metal, plastic, fiber,
or fired clay. Most conduit is rigid, but flexible conduit is used for some purposes

• The term electrical conduit refers to durable tubing or other types of enclosure
used to protect and provide a route for individual electrical wiring conductors.
• Conduit is typically required where wiring is exposed or where it might be subject
to damage.
• A conduit can be made of metal or plastic and may be rigid or flexible.
• All conduit is installed with compatible fittings (couplings, elbows, connectors) and
electrical boxes, usually made of the same or similar material.
• Conduit must be installed in accordance with the National Electrical Code (NEC)
and all applicable local code rules.
 CONDUIT
Types of Conduit Following conduits are used in the conduit wiring systems (both
concealed and surface conduit wiring) which are shown in the above image.
Metallic Conduit
Non-metallic conduit
Metallic Conduit:
Metallic conduits are made of steel which are very strong but costly as well.
There are two types of metallic conduits.
Class A Conduit: Low gauge conduit (Thin layer steel sheet conduit)
Class B Conduit: High gauge conduit (Thick sheet of steel conduit)

Non-metallic Conduit:
A solid PVC conduit is used as non-metallic conduit now a days, which is flexible
and easy to bend.

Size of Conduit:
The common conduit pipes are available in different sizes genially, 13, 16.2, 18.75,
20, 25, 37, 50, and 63 mm (diameter) or 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 1.25, 1.5, and 2 inch in
diameter.
 CONDUITS
• Rigid PVC Conduit
• Rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is similar to plastic plumbing pipe and is installed
with plastic fittings that are glued in place. It can be bent after being heated in a
portable heater box. Because the conduit tubing and fittings are glued together,
the conduit assemblies can be watertight, making PVC suitable for direct burial in
the ground for many applications. It is also allowed in corrosive environments.
 CONDUITS
• There are seven different types of conduit used commonly in residential and
light-commercial wiring.

Rigid Metal Conduit—RMC and IMC

• Rigid metal conduit, or RMC, is heavy-duty galvanized steel tubing that is installed
with threaded fittings. It is typically used outdoors to provide protection from
damage and can also provide structural support for electrical cables, panels, and
other equipment. RMC is sold in 10- and 20-foot lengths and has threads on both
ends.
• Intermediate metal conduit, or IMC, is a thinner, lighter-weight version of rigid
metal conduit and is approved for use in all of the same applications as RMC.
Because IMC is lighter and easier to work with than RMC, it is more common in
new construction
 CONDUITS

• Electrical Non-Metallic Tubing—ENT

• Electrical nonmetallic tubing (ENT) is flexible corrugated plastic tubing that is
moisture-resistant and flame-retardant. It is easy to bend and installs with snap-
lock or glued plastic fittings. Unlike EMT, non-metallic tubing cannot installed in
exposed locations, so it is commonly used inside walls. In addition to installation in
standard wood- or metal-frame walls, ENT can be installed inside concrete block
structures and can be covered with concrete. Due to the blue color of one
common brand of this conduit, ENT is nicknamed smurf tube, after the Smurfs
cartoon characters.
 CONDUITS

• Flexible Metal Conduit—FMC and LFMC

• Flexible metal conduit (FMC) is also called "Greenfield," after the name of its
inventor. It has a spiral construction that makes it flexible so it can snake through
walls and other structures. Standard FMC is used in dry indoor locations, often for
short runs between a wall box and a motor or fixed appliance, such as a garbage
disposer.
• Liquid-tight flexible metal conduit (LFMC) is a special type of flexible metal conduit
that has a plastic coating and is used with sealed fittings to make it watertight. It is
commonly used with outdoor equipment, such as air conditioner units.
 CONDUITS

• ADVANTAGES
 LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR

• MECHANISM OF LIGHTNING DISCHARGE

 LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
• MECHANISM OF LIGHTNING DISCHARGE
 LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR

• Lightning discharge
 LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR

• Effects of Lightning
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
 LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR

• Lightning arrester
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
WORKING OF LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
 EARTHING

Concept of Earthing Systems

• All the people living or working in residential, commercial and industrial

installations, particularly the operators and personnel who are in close operation
and contact with electrical systems and machineries, should essentially be
protected against possible electrification.
• To achieve this protection, earthing system of an installation is defined , designed
and installed according to the standard requirements.

What Is Earthing ?

The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and
equipment to huge mass of earth by a wire having negligible resistance is called
Earthing.
EARTHING
 The term earthing means connecting the neutral point of supply system or the non
current carrying parts of the electrical apparatus to the general mass of earth in
Such a manner that all times an immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place
without danger.

OBJECTIVES
• Provide an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not endanger
the user
• Ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential
• Maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so as to
prevent over current or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment.

GOOD EARTHING
• Good Earthing must have low impedance enough to ensure that sufficient
current can flow through the safety device so that it disconnects the supply
( <0.4 sec ).
• Fault current is much more than the full load current of the circuit which melts the
fuse. Hence, the appliance is disconnected automatically from the supply mains.
Qualities Of Good Earthing
• Must be of low electrical resistance
• Must be of good corrosion resistance
• Must be able to dissipate high fault current repeatedly

Purpose of Earthing
• To save human life from danger of electrical shock or death by blowing a fuse
i.e. To provide an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not
endanger the user
• To protect buildings, machinery & appliances under fault conditions ie. To ensure
that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential.
• To provide safe path to dissipate lightning and short circuit currents.
• To provide stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic equipments i.e. To
maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so as to
prevent over current or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment .
• To provide protection against static electricity from friction
Electric shock

• An electric shock (electrocution)occurs when two portion of a person’s body come

in contact with electrical conductors of a circuit which is at different potentials, thus
producing a potential difference across the body.
• The human body does have resistance and when the body is connected between
two conductors at different potential a circuit is formed through the body and
current will flow
• When the human body comes in contact with only one conductor, a circuit is not
formed and nothing happens. When the human body comes in contact with circuit
conductors, no matter what the voltage is there is potential for harm.

When a high voltage such as 13,800V is involved the body is literally cooked and at
time explode
SHORT CIRCUIT
• Most shorts are high resistant or they are momentary or intermittent. The high
resistant short starts out as a high resistance or impedance connection but usually
progress to a low impedance connection.
• In electrical system shorts are classified as phase to phase, phase to neutral , or
phase to ground short.
• Most short are phase to ground and short which start as phase to phase or phase to
neutral progress to a phase to ground short. When considering short circuit and
protecting against the damage they can cause one needs to know what is the
maximum amount of short circuit current that can flow in a given circuit.
 Equipment Earthing
• In case of insulation failure, the primary object of connecting all the above points
and apparatus to earth is to release the charge accumulated on them immediately
to earth so that the person coming in contact may not experience electric shock.
• The other object is that a heavy current when flows through the circuit that
operates the protective devices that is fuse or CB, which open the circuit

Max. Value of Earth Resistance to be achieved

Equipment to be Earthed Max. Value of Earth Resistance to be

achieved in Ohms
Large Power Stations 0.5
Major Substations 1.0
Small Substations 2.0
Factories Substations 1.0
Lattice Steel Tower 3.0
Industrial Machine and Equipment 0.5

* The Earth Resistance depends upon the moisture content in the soil.
 Methods of Earthing
• Conventional Earthing
• Maintenance Free Earthing

CONVENTIONAL EARTHING
• The Conventional system of Earthing calls for
digging of a large pit into which a GI pipe or
a copper plate is positioned in the middle layers
of charcoal and salt.
• It requires maintenance and pouring of water
at regular interval.
Methods of Conventional Earthing
1. Plate Earthing
2. Pipe Earthing
3. Rod Earthing
4. Strip Earthing
5. Earthing through Water Mains
 DISTRIBUTION BOARDS
• A distribution board (also known as panel board, breaker panel, or electric panel)
is a component of an electrical supply system that divides an electrical power feed
into subsidiary circuits while providing a protective fuse or circuit breaker for
each circuit in a common enclosure.

• Normally, a main switch, and in recent boards, one or more residual - current
(RCD) or residual current breakers with overcurrent protection (RCBO),
are also incorporated.
 METERS
• Electric meter is a device that measures the amount
of electric energy consumed by a residence, a business,
or an electrically powered device.
• Electric utilities use electric meters installed at
customers' premises for billing purposes. They are
typically calibrated in billing units, the most common
one being the kilowatt hour (kWh). They are usually
read once each billing period
• Electric meters use either digital displays or dials. The
difference between one month's reading and the next is
the amount of energy units that have been used for that
billing period. You may wish to contact your local utility
company for instructions on how to read your electric
meter.
• The basic unit of measure of electric power is the Watt.
One thousand Watts are called a kilowatt. When you use
electricity to power a 1000-watt vacuum for 1 hour, you
use 1,000 watt-hours (1,000 Wh) of electricity. One
thousand watt-hours equals 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh). Your
utility bill usually shows what you are charged for the
kilowatt-hours you use.
 SWITCH BOARDS
• An electric switchboard is a device that directs electricity from
one or more sources of supply to several smaller regions of usage.
It is an assembly of one or more panels, each of which
contains switches that allow electricity to be redirected.
COMPONENTS
• Inside a switchboard there will be one or more busbars. These are
flat strips of copper or aluminum, to which the switchgear is
connected.
• Busbars carry large currents through the switchboard, and are
supported by insulators. Bare busbars are common, but many
types are now manufactured with an insulating cover on the bars,
leaving only connection points exposed.
• The operator is protected from electrocution by safety switches
and fuses. There may also be controls for the supply of electricity
to the switchboard, coming from a generator or bank of electrical
generators, especially frequency control of AC power and load
sharing controls, plus gauges showing frequency and perhaps
a synchroscope.
• The amount of power going into a switchboard must always
substantially equal the power going out to the loads