Literature Review

Definition: Distillation is the process that occurs when a liquid sample is volatilized to produce a
vapor that is subsequently condensed to a liquid richer in the more volatile components of the original
sample. When a liquid mixture of two volatile materials is heated, the resulting vapour contains higher
concentrations of volatile (i.e., lower boiling point) liquid material from where it grew. When the vapour
is cooled, the less volatile (higher boiling point) materials tend to condense on a greater proportion of
the more volatile substances.

I. Introduction

Hausbrand developed engineering tools to design distillation columns and equipment more than a
century ago, which were later improved by McCabe, Kirschbaum, and Onken. Over the years,
innovation emerged from a synthesis of new and old ideas, with novel products and applications,
increased purity, lower energy demand, and a changing cost situation driving the distillation process.

Distillation is now the most widely used unit operation in the chemical and petroleum industries for the
separation of liquid mixtures. Because most boiling mixtures result in a vapor phase that is richer in
the more volatile component than the liquid phase, the method is based on boiling the mixture to
create two phases, a vapor phase and a liquid phase. The components are separated by separating
the two phases. Despite the fact that distillation has been used for thousands of years, the demand for
purer products, combined with the need for increased flexibility, has encouraged continued research.
Nowadays, distillation makes up 90 to 95% of all industrial separations.

The major challenges of distillation column design are attempting to determine the right column
dimensions and the right operating conditions, which are generally determined by the heat input in the
reboiler and the amount of reflux returned to the column at the top, in order to achieve the required
purities of the products at minimum capital and operating costs, and often of feed, and other,
variations.

II. Body
Acetone and ethanol

Acetone is the most basic example of a ketone. It is a clear, colorless liquid that flows. Acetone is
completely soluble in water as well as the majority of solvents and is highly volatile. As a result, it is an
important industrial solvent for cleaning and a common building block in organic chemistry. Acetone is
well-known in the home as the active ingredient in nail polish remover and paint thinner. Acetone is
also used in the production of cellulose acetate yarn, smokeless gun powder, surface coatings, and a
variety of pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.

Ethanol
Ethanol is one of the most widely used organic chemicals in industrial and consumer goods. This
alkylated alcohol's primary industrial applications are as a precursor in the production of other
chemicals and as a solvent. Ethanol is used to make pharmaceuticals, plastics, lacquers, polishes,
plasticizers, and cosmetics. 

Theoratically, a liquid mixture of these two substances will have a somewhat low relative volatility
because their boiling points are not that far apart. Ethanol has a boiling point of 78.2˚C while acetone
has a boiling point of 56.02˚C. This makes acetone the more volatile/light key component because of
its low boiling point, it is more volatile and will therefore vaporize first.

The McCabe-Thiele method was one first published by Warren L. McCabe and Ernest W. Thiele in
1925. It has become on e of the most widely used methods of distilltion today and is mainly used to
calculate the total number of stages required in the column section, the minimum reflux ratio, and the
minimum number of stages. It assumes that the mixture is binary, operates at steady state and
constant pressure, no heat loss occurs and that there is equilibrium reached between the vapour and
liquid components at each stage. The equilibrium occurs in the system because of constant molal
overflow.

McCabe-Thiele’s method is a grahical one and involves the plotting of two operating lines in the
Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium diagram. The operating line for the rectification section of the
column, or the top operating line gives the relationship between the composition
of the vapor entering a stage, abbreviated yn, and the composition of the liquid on the stage(xn) for
the top section of a distillation column. The relationship is linear with a slope given by L/V. The bottom
operating line or stripping section line is also drawn as a straight line.

A total material balance over the feed stage allows for the feed or q-line to be determined, this line
intercepts the bottom and top operating lines and its value is dependent on the state of the the feed.
The number of feed stages is stepped off from the top pf the VLE dIagram to the bottom with a series
of lines drawn parallel to the x-axis until they touch the equilibrium curve.

Other methods
Even though the McCabe –Thiele method works sufficiently well for distillation, graphical methods are
not always the most efficient method for multicomponent mixtures. One method that works well for
this is the Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland method.

The first step of the method is the calculation of the minimum number of theoretical
stages from Fenske’s equation given as:

N=
log ⁡[ ( xd
1−xd )( 1−xb
xb)]

log ∝ave

Once the minimum number of stages is known, the Fenske equation can be used to
calculate molar flow rates for non-key components. Fenske's equation allows for a quick calculation of
the minimum number of stages needed. Except when the relative volatility varies significantly across
the column and/or the mixture is non-ideal, the equation is quite reliable.

Underwood’s equation is used to estimate the minimum reflux for the binary mixture. It aasumes that
the feed is at bubble point in multicomponent mixtures.
1 xd ∝ ( 1−xd )
R= [ − ]
(∝−1) xf 1−xf

III. Conclusion
● In your conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature
and emphasize their significance to your topic, along with your overarching conclusions and
avenues for future research. Be sure to clearly restate your topic and scope, so it's clear to
your reader why the literature you reviewed is relevant to your research.
Example: Extant research has mainly focused on mass media consumption in its analysis of the
effects of the relationship between media consumption and body image issues. While it has shown
that a relationship certainly exists, it has not robustly shown how the advent of instant-sharing
technologies like Instagram Stories and TikTok have affected the situation.

IV. Reference list

● The reference list contains a correct, full citation for each source that has been mentioned in
the text.

Overview of example structure and sentences

Aspect Example

Topic sentence Many studies have focused on the relationship between

Expresses the topic and central point of media consumption and body image issues.
your paragraph

Pivotal study The relationship between media depictions and body

Influential study that influences the
traditional research landscape for your
topic
image concerns is well-established. Analysis by Grabe,
Ward and Hyde (2008) concluded that exposure to mass
media is linked to body image dissatisfaction among
women.

Critical evaluation However, in an era of rapidly evolving digital

Evaluate strengths and weaknesses of technologies, the mass media paradigm is no longer
that study sufficient for understanding how adolescents engage
with images. The findings of older studies like this one
likely do not apply to younger generations.

Theory In light of this, researchers have become increasingly

Introduce a new theory that offers a
different perspective to the pivotal study
interested in the specific effects of social media. Perloff
(2014) theorizes that the interactive aspects of social
media may influence its impact on body image, and
mentions that young women are among the most active
social media users.

Synthesis Several empirical studies have focused on Facebook

Combine findings from research that
supports the theory you've introduced
usage in adolescent girls (Tiggemann & Slater, 2013;
Meier & Gray, 2014) and in young adult women (Smith,
Hames, & Joiner, 2013; Fardouly et al., 2015; Cohen,
Newton-John & Slater, 2017.) Indeed, a systematic
review by Holland and Timmerman (2016) confirmed a
relationship between social networking and body image
for both women and men. Across these studies, there is
consistent evidence to suggest that body image issues
are influenced not by social media usage in general, but
by engagement with the visual and interactive aspects of
these platforms.

Gap Unfortunately, there is a lack of research on more visual-

Show where opportunities for further
research exist, and how your research
would fill those gaps
focused social media, such as Instagram and TikTok,
which are more popular among younger generations.
This paper will analyze the effects of instant photo and
video sharing on these platforms on the perceptions of
body image amongst adolescents.

Examples of connecting words

It's often helpful to use a "point/counterpoint" structure, where you combine different points
of view using connecting words to make your analysis flow better.

Here are a few examples:

● However
● In light of
● Nonetheless
● Contrary to
● On the other hand
● In addition to
● Additionally
● Of equal importance
● Further/Furthermore