Cbeeeeeeeded be Gee ssbee Coe ee eee es sees ~ P Yoeredverwln = 6, Wagenaloe Rg0 a Government of India Ministry of Railways COURSE MATERIAL ON ULTRASONIC TESTING OF AXLES AND WHEELS FOR REGULAR COURSE NDT TRAINING CENTRE M&C DIRECTORATE i RESEARCH DESIGNS & STANDARDS ORGANISATION \ LUCKNOW-226011 | | { | |a a CONTENTS PAGE _ DESCRIPTION <_ NO. | Non-Destructive Testing of material 1 ‘Acoustics Subsonic, Sonics, and Ultrasonic waves their [15 ep 4 Ultrasonic Waves- Longitudinal, Transverse and Surface 2 | Waves. 3. B a 25 _ medium and normal ineidence. be ba 7. Conversion of Ultrasonic Waves- Trajectories No. 1,283 or 8 Piezoelectric effect, Transducers, Properties of different 33 piezoelectric crystals Probe used in Ultrasonic Testing, Normal Probes, Angle 9 Probes, Calibration, and Checking methods of Probes. Principal, Application and Testing Technique of Pulse Echo | 45 Reflection Method. 7 TI. | Block Diagram of Flaw Detector Principal and Working of |_| 49 different parts. 12, | Important Characteristics of ultrasonic law deteciors.. 52, 13, Scanning Technique — Far End, Low angle and High angle. | 60 14, | Method of Ultrasonic Testing and Acceptance Standard for (66, wrought wheels. Appendix-A Q 15. | Fig. 3(a) & 306) e 16. Fig.3( C) Reference Standard Block for Ultrasonic Testing from | 69 «_| Tread of wheel 17 __| Ultrasonic testing of new axles 70 18. | Manufacturing of Axles 7 19. | Axle defect photographs. 5The significance and primary requirement of non destructive testi m colossal waste of resources, human life & property due to catastrophic failure of id also the loss of productivity caused due to sudden failure ture or usage. With the growth in technology demanding wareness of safety and reliability of ng as a promising g to be most powerful ‘nology areas like atomic ways, the constantly nt transportation the structural integrity of the components has essumed great importance which in tur calls fe extensive utilisation of the Non-destructive techniques to ensure the component quality. of parts either during ma the ultimate from materials with increased engineering components, Nondestructive Testing is © y science. The field is tool for quality assurance of all industri aeronautics, defene: and frontier tev The concept of NDT is, however, not a recent development. Ever since the growth of civilisation, man has been conscious about the quality of the inputs used by him. As early as 250 BC, Archmides was posed with the problem of Non-destructively evaluating the amount of gold in the King’s crown, The ringing of Railway wheels using @ hammer has been a familiar sight at the yards and sheds since the very introduction of the Railway System. What NDT is Human perception is based primarily on sight, sound & touch & this assessment process applied to materials is the subject of Non-destructive Testing all about. The connotation e.g. NDT, NDI, NDE etc. have been used to designate Non- destructive Testing and can be defined as the “Discipline of science which deals with the detection of flaw its characterisation without impairing the serviceability of the component.” NDT involves subjecting the material io specific physical characteristic, processing the response obtained to w useful from and interpreting the same for flaw sctection and characterisation. In effect, it is the differential behavior of the material tinder test at sound and unsound zone which manifests itself in the form of a response. The physical characteristics employed may be acoustics, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, radiation absorption, magnetic permeability etc. The modification in the applied energy may be attenuation, reflection, diffraction, velocity change, amplitude variation and such other positive and observable changes in the energy applied. These observations provide valuable information to assess the structural integrity of the part under test.NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF MA i ‘Testing of materials without destroying them. pili * Testing of components without affecting their serviceability. NDT _AS MANUFACTURING CONTROL i uence of * To detect defects which had occurred in connection with o as a conseq! manufacturing processes? | * To ensure product quality and consistency by makin} components. © Control of manufacturing process © Itensures product reliability. 1g it possible to check 100% NDT AS CONDITION MONITORING /PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE ‘* To test the component during service at a regular interval of time so that it can be withdrawn from service before it's failure. Advantages To ensure trouble-free transportation, avoid accidents. To anticipate the serviceability of the component. ‘To predict residual lite of a component. To prevent loss of property and human life. To obtain maximum economic life of the component. D INT_NDT METHODS ' ‘There is large number of NDT methods for testing of materials. The six" Big-methods' used all-over Indian Railways are — Visual Inspection Dye penetrant examination (DPE or DPI) Magnetic particle examination (MPE or MPI) Radiography Eddy Current Testing Ultrasonic Testingad 4 ame ee eoddb eee eee eee eee eee eee VISUAL IN! Visual examination is the most widely used among all the NDT though a component is spected using other NDT methods, a good inspection should be ct isual test can reveal gross surface defects thus leading to an immediate rejection of the component saving much time and money BASIC PRINCIPLE specimen ive devices. ™ The basic procedure used in Visual NDT involves illumination of | with light. The specimen is then examined with eye or by light sen: The equipment required for visual inspection is very simple but adeq illumination is essential. ™ A- UNAIDED VISUAL INSPECTION The human eye has excellent perception. Visual inspection can reveal the fellowing information:- a) The general condition of the component. b) The presence or absence of oxide film or corrosiv2 product c) The presence or absence of surface cracks. on the surface. -d) The surface porosity, contour of the weld beads etc. ¢) Sharp notches, misalignment ete = B-OPTICAL AIDS The use of optical aids in visual inspection is beneficial and is recommended to:- 4) Magnify defects that can not be detected by unaided eye. b) Permit visual check of areas not accessible to unaided eye. INSTRUMENTS USED Optical Microscope- combination of lenses used to magnify the image of a small object. Mm Borescope- an instrument designed to enable the observer to inspect the inside of'anarrow tube, bore or chamber. It consists arrangement of illumination, prism and plain lenses. mt Endoscope- It is much like a borescope except that it has a superior optical system and a high intensity light source. Various viewing angles can be used. mt Telescope- Telescope is used to obtain magnified images of objects at considerable distance from the eye. Holography- Holography is the name given to the method of obtaining an accurate three dimensional image of a given object.Laser beam is used for this purpose ision It is used for the NDT of surfaces o components. {highly complicated and ™ APPLICATION Inspection of plant systems/ components for any abnormal operation, leakage ete Misalignment of parts Corrosion, erosion, cracks, fractures etc. M Defects in the new/ repaired weldments, lack of penetratio reinforcement, porosities, mismatch etc. DYE _PENETRANT EXAMINATION defects which reach the surface of non- in the equipment. Nn, excess PRINCIPLE: This method is used to reveal porous materials. The penetrating liquid, which is dyed or fluorescent, is applied to the cleaned surface of the component. The penetrant is allowed to act for a period of time. Excess penetrant is carefully removed from the surface of the component, after which a developing liquid is applied and dried off. ‘The developer acts like a blotter, drawing the penetrant out of the defect. After a short time indications appear in the developer which are wider than the defect and which, therefore, can be seen directly or under ultraviolet light due to the enhancement of the contrast between the penetrant and the developer. PROCEDURE : 1.Pre-clean, remove grease and dry the component. 2/Penetrant is applied to the component and acts for a brief period. 3. Excess penetrant is completely removed from the surface. 4,A developer is applied and dried off. : 5.Inspect for indication of defects. PENETRANT © DYE PENETRANTS : The liquids are coloured so that they provide good contrast against the developer. The liquids are as a rule red with white developer. FLUORESCENT PENETRANTS : The liquid contains fluorescent material which glows under ultraviolet light. WATER WASHABLE PENETRANTS : The lit allows surface penetrant to be removed using water. lid contains an emulsifier which POST-EMULSIFIABALE PENETRANT : After the liquid has been appli emulsifier must be applied to the excess surface penetrant to make it sera eo( Cee eeveesddcd ee ebedddd 66 é beau * SOLVENT REMOVABLE PENETRANT: The penetrant can only be removed fully from the surface by means of an appropriate organic solvent. DEVELOPER TYPES * Dry powder developers * Water based wet developers * Non-water based wet developers LIMITATIONS Components with porous surface can not be tested, + The crack must be opened to the surface. pas (b) Cleaner removes surface penetrant (@) Fluorescent or dry penetrant seeps into discontinuity Penetrant absorbed Developer with [Pinte / no Penetrant Z none NI fas | y loper is applied. Drawing (d) Indication is viewed under ° ‘pane josuice visible light or back lightCOMPONENTS TESTED PISTON (LIQUID PENETRANT) CONNECTING ROD INLET & EXHAUST VALVES GEAR CO-CO BOGIE MS X-INGS ROLLER BEARINGS CAMSHAFT CRANKSHAFT RECLAIMED WELD ITEMS, MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION ae frees PRINCIPLE : This technique is well suited to the detection of surfacedefects such as cracks, lack of fusion and laminations etc. in ferromagnetic materials. A surface defect in a magnetized ferromagnetic item will disturb the magnetic ficld in the cbject of the test. The defect will cause some of the lines of magnetic force to depart from the surface and thus to form a magnetic leak ficld. This leak field can be found by placing fine iron particles on the surface. The leakage field will hold the magnetic particles in a ridge on top of the crack. 3. Spray magnetic liquid over the object. 4, Inspect for indication of defects. 5S, Repeat the above test in perpendicular direction VANTA\ vasrprethod is most dependable and sensitive for finding surface defects, Itis fast, simple and inexpensive ; The indications are directly visible on the surface of the object. Simple and durable equipment IMITATION: od can only be applied to ferromagnetic materials. the surface will not always be indicated. the magnetic field has an important bearing upon the result of the © The meth «Defects below «The direction of examination. 4s Cenain objects must be demagnetized before and after the examination. @oeseGGeoeoaeeeoeeeeoeeseend<2 > ° ~> “2 ~ ~~ 2 =< ined doce EQUALISER BEAM BOLT ROLLER BEARINGS PIs AIMED WELDED ITEMS.‘The leakage field holds magnetic particles in a ridge on top of a crack a clear indication of the location of the crack is obtained. Leak field” Magnetic Feld Crack under the \ surface y, — . — ‘The leakage fleld due to a defect just below the surface is wes Magnetic field ‘Smooth surface defect / Jn this case no leakage field appears near a smooth surface defect @eeeSeoeeoese eee wr ©0000 COCO SE HC OCOOCES LAF Ff PP PPP PPP Pn A 9LITE T TTT Tb bb eesce Tttt ttt RADIOGRAPHY PRINCIPLE : In order to examine an object it is irradiated with X-rays or gamma tadiation, The radiation will be absorbed in the object to varying degree depending jon the thickness of the object, the composition of the material and the wave length of the radiation. ‘The portion of the radiation whic registered by recording it on a film. ‘The more radi striking the film, h penetrates the object can be iation penetrating the object and the darker the film appears when developed. PROCEDURE * Take the radiograph using penetrameter . * Develop the film. ‘* Inspect radiograph for indication of defect and ‘compare with standard radiographs. LIMITATIONS : x nn and gamma radiation are health hazards. ‘Maximum penetration about 150 mm of steel. Film For the sake of clarity, the Defect, film is shown here as being at some distance from the radiation image: in reality, it is in contact with this image and the film is placed as close as Possible to the object being radio-graphed Film image X-ray béam et dation image| COMPONENTS TESTED ‘Radio; ™ CO-CO BOGIE : eaphy) @ PISTONS ® CASTING: @ CMS X-INGS OHE CASTINGS OF AI-BRONZE, ™ BRIDGE GIRDE PLATES WELDMENT ASSESSMENT (BUTT WELD) EDDY CURRENT TESTING < $ throu test coil a magnetic ficld, the primary field, arises Surrounding the coil. This magnetic field induces eddy currents in the test object when the test coil in held above it. At the same time eddy currents in the test object will induce a magnetic field, the secondary field, which is opposite to the primary field. ‘The intensity of the secondary field compared with the primary field is dependent, among other factors, upon the eleatrical and magnetic properties of the test object. If a galvanometer is attached to the test coil, then it will show a standard reading which is characteristics for the state of the test object. If the galvanometer is zeroed it will remain zeroed as the test coil is moved across the object provided that the eddy current can act unhindered in the object. The value of the eddy current is affected if cracks or cavities in the test objects are present. It is the property which is utilized to perform eddy current measurement. ADVANTAGES: “The method is quick to use. No direct contéct is required. The method is inexpensive to use. Can also be used for sorting of material. LIMITATIONS : * Used for detecting surface cracks only. © Used on electrically conducting materials COMPONENTS TESTED (EDDY CURRENT) NEWRAILS (ATBSP) gy.) eel plot ™ HELICAL SPRINGS = 10- QaeceeaaeeOG@eea heen G@a @aH® a2 ate @a aa wea a - |Impedance Analyser Eddy current Testing Site Primary Field Induced Secondary Field ‘Eddy Currents CrackULTRASONIC T. PLE. :A series of ultrasonie waves each lasting for a few micro-seconds are ca ee ‘the material under test through a coupling medium. These pulses aac in the material in a very narrow beam until they strike an interface suchas the Spposte surface ofthe test objet oran internal defect. The pulses are entirely or partly relected back to the transmitter, which now functions as a receiver. The receving probe converts the ultrasonic waves to the electrical energy, which is amplified and displayed on a CRT in such a manner as to indicate the time difference between the transmitted pulses and reflected pulses. The horizontal scale of CRT is calibrated in terms of distance, hence position of flaw peak on horizontal scaie tells the location of the flaw, ‘The vertical scale of CRT is calibrated with a standard test piece hoviog artificial flaws of known size, hence the height of the flaw peak tells about the size of the flaw. PROCEDURE : i Calibrate the horizontal scale of the UFD for required depth range. 2 Calibrate the vertical scale using standard block haying artificial flaws of known size. 3 Scan the component using suitable transducer. 4. Compare the trace pattern with the trace pattern from standard block. 5. Follow the rejection criteria as specified. ADVANTAGES : 1. Most widely used and accepted method for detecting internal flaws. 2. Can scan up to 10 m. long steel components. a Quick results. 4. Location as well as size of the defect can be measured. 5. IN-SITU Adaptability. LIMITATIONS : 1. Not suitable for components having complex geometry. +2. Difficult to test coarse-grain material. 3. Defects having orientation parallel to the direction of beam propagation are difficult to be detected. COMPONENTS TESTED (ULTRASONIC TESTING) AXLES ARMATURE SHAFT SUSPENSION BEARINGS YOKE GUIDE WHEELS TYRES RAILS RAIL WELDS WELDED BRIDGE GIRDER PLATES ™ OHE INSULATOR ~12- SOOCCCC OCB OCECRSERanenni.z : , g s af | & =f E Z| 7 ; : Amplifier Transmitter IPP LAFF LLLP PIPIIIIII PPP IIIIPP PPP PEECHNIQUES : Some of the recently developed techniques are described below alongwith their application Micro-waves ition, Position annihi Vibration measurement Visual Electrical methods Optical/Acoustic holography Acoustic microscopy Mosshauee Spectroscopy Laser Strain gauge Photo-elastic coating Thermo-electric ‘Neutron activation analysis Non-destructive assay Barkhausen effect ‘Nuclear magnetic resonance Acoustic emission Thermography Non-contact detection of cracks in metals, moisture or ‘chemical composition in dielectric materials. Detection of pre-crack fatigue or creep damage. Plant condition monitoring. Using eye and viewing aids. Crack sizing, monitoring thickness variation and physical properties in metals. Non-contact inspection and measuring tool components, laminated composites contouring, ultrasonic inspection. Flaw detection in ceramics, characterisation of materials, Phase determination, surface stress, and ferrite measurement. Metrology, visual inspection, profilmetry applied as a tool in other NDT techniques. ‘Measuring small displacement. Visualisation of strides patterns. Metal sorting, temperature sensing. Detection of small amounts of elements compositi eth aes ron distribution. Monitoring distribution of fissile material, Study of structure, measurement of stress, surface connected flaws, magnetic properties, Micro-structure, presence of hydrogen moisture. Fatigue crack growth in dynamic situations. Flaw detection (On-line) abe a a a 3PETE e cece cece ccc cc katte ee eles RDSO ACOUSTICS, SUBSONICS, SONICS, AND ULTRASONICS: ULTRASONIC WAVES THEIR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION: ULTRASONIC FOR NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING AND ULTRASONIC SPECTRUM | ACOUSTICS- THE SCIENCE OF SOUND: The word Acoustics is derived from ancient Greek word means ‘Able to be heard ‘and it is Science concerned with the production control, transmission , reception and effects of sound. It describes the phenomenon of mechanical vibration and their propagation in solids, liquids, or gaseous materials. In vacuum there is no sound, because it is the Particles of matter themselves which vibrate, in contrast, to the oscillations of light or other electromagnetic waves where the electric and magnetic state of the space oscillates. In air a sound wave moves a discrete volume of air back and forth around its neutral position, whereas light wave has no in! fluence on its state of rest or motion. 2.SUB-SONIC,SONICS , & ULTRASONIC: Vibration when repeated regularly for a given length of time are classified by different frequency ranges, as given below. 2.1 SUB- SONIC: Sound waves of frequency below 20 cycles per second are called sub -sonic, It is in-audible to human ear. 2.2 SONICS: Sound waves of frequency 20 cycles of vibrations per second to 20000 cycles of vibrations per second are called sonic or audible sound. 2.3 ULTRASONICS: Vibration waves of frequency above the hearing range of the normal human ‘ear are referred to as Ultrasonic and includes all those waves of a frequency of more than about 20,000 cycles per second. JTRASONIC WAVES AND THE! USTRIAL APPLICATI Ultrasonic waves are rather common occurrence in nature and in daily life, and are Occasionally of such intensity that we may regard ourselves as very fortunate indeed that our ear is not burdened by them as for instance in the case of steam whistles .A rotating grinding stoney When used for grinding a specimen generates in addition to audible noise ,in these ultrasonic wave with frequencies as high as those use for testing materials. Ultrasonic waves have become of great importance in recent years Their unique properties have beer applied to industry, medicine and to many other field. 3.1 TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS: The numerous technical applications of ultrasonic may be divided into two group: GROUP 1. | ULTRASONIC WAVES ACTING ON A GIVEN MATERIAL: In this case , the energy of the ultrasonic wave is used, for instance, for ejecting particles of dirt, grease etc. from components , using the machine known as “ULTRASONIC CLEANER” The energy of ultrasonic wave is used for removing chips during drilling using the machine known as ULTRASONIC DRILLER”. There are many other applications of ultrasonic waves where the energy of ultrasonic waves has been used, for acting on a given material. -15- |-ALING PHYSICAL CONDITION OF GROUP 2, ULTRASONIC WAVES- FOR REV! A GIVE} TERIAL: The energy of the ultrasonic waves is utilized for under water signaling .viz, for locating ships and submarines and for sounding ocean depths. The energy of ultrasonic waves has. also been used for checking the condition of materials, i.e. for non-destructive testing of materials, SONIC FOR NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF MATERIALS housewife knows that a cup of tea can be checked for crac it can be said that testing by sound is one of the oldest non-destructive methods for detecting hidden defects. Now -2-days in industry, gross internal defects in material can be detected by the change in ring in note when the specimen is struck with hammer. The “striking hammer” is still considered as an important ‘ool, for permanent way staff and train examiners of the railways, 4.2 The transition from audible sound to ultrasonic sound for testing of materials has been made possible by modem methods of generation and detection which replace hammer and ear. Ultrasonic has become one of the more important branches of non- destructive testing Its use extends from examination of material before initial working to the subsequent periodic examination of components and structures after installation in order to detect flaws caused by such factors as metal fatigue etc. The equipment used for non-destructive testing of material is called “ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTOR” 4.3. Non-destructive testing of material by means of ultrasonic now firmly established in all Branches of industry and has found many applications for detection of cavities, inclusion cracks lamination, bonding, flaws wall thickness, corrosion, porosity, fractures by tapping it. ete. 5. ULTRASONIC SPECTRUM: Some of the application of ultrasonic waves, based on frequency are as under : FREQUENCY APPLICATION 25 KHz Ultrasonic drilling 40 KHz For under water signaling, & cleaning etc. $0 KHz Practical limits of generation by magnetostriction, 400 KHz Common frequency in emulsion & agitation work. 500 KHz Testing material of large grain size of poor homogeneity. MHz Common test frequency for materials withcoaegrain structures. 2-4 MHz ‘Common test frequency for material with fine grain structures. Testing of fine homogenous materials. 5S MHz i Maximum ultrasonic frequency for testing of material 15 MHz. NB: 1000 cycle/sec. =1 Kilocycle /sec. or IKHz 1000 Kilo cycle/see. =1 Meg cycle/sec. Or |MHz Lcycle /sec.=1Hz — (Hertz- Hz) -16- akrow : RDSO . ULTRASONIC WAVES, MECHANICAL WAVES THROUGH ASTIC BODY, PARAMETER BOF A WAVE, DESIGNATION AND UNITS OF WAVE raan ER, DESIBEL,WAVE LENGTH, AND DIMENSION OF A GIVEN Ultrasonic testing ‘of materials makes use of mechanical waves. The mechanical wave is composed or oscillations of discrete particles of material. A sound weve may be ransmitted through any material which behaves in an clastic manner i.e. in which there is force acting in the opposite direction to any force causing displacement of a particle and tending to restore the particle to its original position. 1. MECHANICAL WAVES THROUGH AN MATERIAL 1.1 A material is composed of small particles of matter which are interconnected Fig. 1 Model of an elastic body. by elastic powers so that they can move relative to their position of rest and shown in fig 1. 122 When struck, such a mass particle starts vibrating and passes its energy on to the adjoining mass particles. Thus energy is propagated from mass particle to mass particle of the material. The number of vibrations of the particles gives information on whether the sound so generated is audible or inaudible. Since the propagation of sound wave involves particle motion in the medium, the speed of propagation of sound wave will d=pend on the elastic properties and density of that particular medium. The amplitude and direction of motion of any particle in the track of a sound wave in a medium are influenced by the amplitude and direction of motion of the particle immediately preceding that. 1.3The graphical representation of motioa of these particles gives the form of the wave as shown in Fig. 2. This is known as sine wave and is the simplest form of the periodie motion, the particle motion being in a straight line and the acceleration at any instant being proportional to the displacement2. PARAMETER OF A WAVE The parameters of a wave are:- i) Frequency ii) Wavelength iii) Velocity iv) Amplitude v) Intensity 2.1 FREQUENCY Frequency of a wave is the number of oscillation of a given particle per Second We can also say that it is the measure of number of vibration per second whether sound is audible or inaudible. 2.2 WAVELENGTH _ The wave length is the distance hetween two consecutive planes in Which the particles are in the same state of motion ie. for instance two compression zones are shown in fig.3. The wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency is. the high frequencies corresponding to short wavelengths and vice-versa, 2.3 VELOCITY OF SOUND The velocity of sound wave is the rate of change of displacement of the particle in any given medium. ‘The velocity is a characteristic of the material under test and is constant for a given material for any frequency and wavelength, ‘The frequency, wave length , and velocity have the following relationship: VELOCITY = FREQUENCY x WAVELENGTH V=fxh This relationship is valid for all kinds of sound wave, the units which are Considered for calculation are as under:~ V inKmvsec. Or 10° m/s , f(inMc/s) , (in mm. ) 2.4 AMPLITUDE; Amplitude is the maximum deflection of the particles from their position of rest as shown in fig. 2. 2.5 INTENSITY ; 2.5.1 The intensity of sound is the energy transferred per second through unit surface area of the wave . 2.5.2 The unit in which sound intensity is defined, is the DESIBEL . For two sound of Intensities 11 & 12 , one is said to be of a greater intensity than the other bya number of decibel(4B),Where : Intensity difference in dB =10 log io hh /I2, dB= 10 log io h/ The dB is, therefore not an absolute, but a measure of the intensity and is consequently, a pure number, large for most practical purposes. NB:- Decibel ( dB) = one tenth of a bel. -18- PPS R ES SS enh On 2 es = i nese e 2>6€0@e08 896 beaThe fol TION AND UNITS OF A WAVE PARAMETI owing designations and units of the MKS system are used for wave properties:- 4. The Wee ee DIMENSION OF A GIVEN FLAW. The wave len; Frequency Wave let Velocity Amplitude testing with 2 MHz. Velocity of longitudinal wave ameters ath of ultrasonic waves gt Sound intensity eycle/ sec. (c/s) meter (m) meter/sec. ( m/s ) meters (m) I wat meter” ( W/m?) WAVELENGTH AND DIMENSION OF A GIVEN FLAW the wavelength This gives an reliably when carrying out the ultrasonic Velocity of transverse wave =5.9x i mis V,=3.2 x 10 m/s Frequency Wavelength (mvi) Wavelength Comm) 0.5 Mc/s 12 65 10" 6 3.0 20°" 3 1.6 40" 1s 08 6.0" 1.0 0.6 10” 06 03 — z ; ° = % TiMé ——> a ==ULTRASONIC WAVE ~ LONGITUDINAL, TRANSVERSE “ERASONIC WAVE — LONGITUDE! AND SURFACE WAVES Ultasonie testing of mater Suse of high frequency sound wave in contrast, for instanc ties which use electro-magnetic waves. the high trequeney es which are commonly employed in ultrasonic testing of materials are of th ing types:- 1) Longitudinal wave or compres ii) Transverse wave or shear wave ii) Surface wav 1. LONGITUDINAL WAV! LL When the oscillation of the particles in a medium is parallel to the direction of wave propagation , the wave so produced is termed as Longitudinal wave as shown in fig.1. ion wave pxntenon of Nie rapenOAnON | in 1. Direction of propagation of Longitudinal wave 12 Itis called as longitudinal wave and due to acting dialational forces the wave are also called PRESSURE or COMPRESSION WAVE, ‘The sound we hear is longitudinal wave because it transmits the oscillations of a source of sound through the air to our ear. 1.3 The important features of a longitudinal wave are:- i)The wave can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. ii) The wave has high velocity of travel . iii)The energy of the wave can be focussed into a sharp beam from which it diverse slightly . iv) The waves can be generated within a medium by the vibration of any one of its surfaces in a longitudinal direction. v)'The velocity of a longitudinal wave is constant ina given materialice, it differs accordingly to material in which the wave is propagated. The velocity of longitudinal wave in steel, aluminium, east iron, copper, brass, perspex, water , and air are :~ ~20-MEDIUM VELOCITY (in 10° nvsec.) Alte SOL Alumi 632 Cast — iron 35 $6 Copper 47 Brass 38 Aerspex 2.73 Water Tap Air 0.33 2, TRANSVERSE WAVE 24 A transverse wave is generated when the mass particles near the surface ite Struct in a direction parallel to the surface as shown in fig. 2. ‘The Particles motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, ii ‘PARTICLES AT REST POSITION, tt yl Fig. 2 - Direction of propagation of transverse wave lil The mass particle planes keep a constant distance from one another , and in addition the plane move laterally one against the other . The wave length is determined by the distance between two planes in which particles are in similar state of motion . Since there is a shear movement between the planes, transverse wave are also called SHEAR WAVE. ‘The important features of a transverse wave are : ') The transverse wave can be propagated through solids only . The wave can not travel in liquids and gases because there isa little or no elasticity to shear in such media. ii) The velocity of a transverse wave is approximately one half of that of a longitudinalwave in a given medium. iii) Because of the lower velocity, the wavelength of the transverse wave is much shorter than that of longitudinal wave & hence flaws of smaller dimensions can be detected. ~21- tkiv) The waves can be generated within a medium by the vibration of any of its faces in a vertical direction ne velocity of transverse wave is constant in a given material it differs according to the material in which wave is propagated The velocity of transverse wave in steel, aluminium, cast iron , copper, brass, and perspex are :- RIAL el “Aluminium Ce iron Copper Brass Perspex 3, SURFACE WAVE: When the wave is propagated through the surface of a material, it is called Surface wave as well as Rayleigh wave. Surface wave consists of both longitudinal and transverse types of particle motion . The particle motion has a displacement vector of smaller amplitude parallel to the direction of propagation . The resultant motion of the particle follows elliptical path as shown in fig. 3. There are different types of surface waves viz. Lamb wave( Plate Wave) , Ray-leigh wave etc. 3.2 Surface wave on steel creates motion of top row of particles . The deformation in this case is not strictly sinusoidal. At greater depth below the surface , the amplitude of the oscillation decreases rapidly so that at a depth of approximately one wave length , the particles are practically at rest. » Wavelength Oirection of be 3-1 particle Direction of wave propagation Fig. 3: Surface (Rayliegh) Wave .The particle on the surface of solid moves in an ellipitical path. 3.3. The velocity of a surface wave is about 90% of the transverse wave for the same material. The wave length is extremely short. 3.4 Surface wave can follow the curved surface contour as long as the the contour does not change sharply and refection from sharp edge. 3.5 Vibration of particle follows an elliptical path for surface wave. Kon HEE CE ONCE Eee CEE tere -22- Mee ee ERDSO PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES ~ REFLECTION, REFRACTION,DIFFRACTION, ABSORPTION & SCATTERING. 1. PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVE: The application and interpretation of various methods of ultrasonic testing of materials call for a thorough understanding of propertiesof sound waves . The wave propagation of sound energy in the medium is very much similar with the wave propagation of light in ether . All the properties of light waves will be generally found to obtain for analogous cases in sound,except those that refer to the polarisation of light waves . The observed differences between the behaviour of light and sound waves are due to the average wave length of sound being about 100,000 times greater than that of light -This also account for the necessacity of a materail medium for sound propagation . The important properties of sound waves are — i) Reflection ii) Refraction iii) Diffraction iv) Absorption v). Scattering 2. REFLECTION OF SOUND : 2.1 Waves of sound reaching the boundary surfaces of the medium are reflected in the same way as waves of light. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal. The vibration of incident and reflected waves take place in the same medium . 2.2 The characterstics that determine the amount of reflection is known as the specific acoustic impedence of the material and is a product of density and velocity ie Acoustic Impedence = Density of the material (p) x Velocity (V) Z=pxV 3. REFRACTION 3 strikes aplane interface at an angle of incidence to the perpendicular, it is refracted into the second medium. A part of the incident wave is also reflected in the same medium. 3.2. When the sound velocity of refracted wave in the second medium is higher than the sound velocity of incident longitudinal wave in the first medium, the beam is refracted off the perpendicular . The reverse i.e, whensound velocity of refracted wave in the second medium is lower than the sound velocity of incident longitudinal wave in first medium, the beam is refracted towards the perpendicular. 3.3 In contrast to optics, new phenomnon have been observed in case of transmission of sound waves from one medium to another i.e., transformation of one kind of wave to another kind of wave. The longiudinal waves are tronsformed into transverse waves and vice- versa depending on the angle of — 23-the material. This incidence and refraction and velocity of sound waves in f materials. phenomnon is of considerable importance in Ultrasonic testing of DIFFRACTION ‘An Ulirasnic wave passing near the edge of an object has a tendeney to bend towards and around it.This bending of wave is called diffraction. Ultrasonic signals that could normally be received at a certain point may be diverted by ration received at some other point ABSORPTION It is commonly observed that sound produced inside a room does not last IRPTION indefinitely. No doubt the walls.ciling end floor continuously reflected the sound, but stil, for some reason or other, the sound dies away soon, even if all the doors and windows are closed. The sound is mostly absorbed. The absorption of sound can take place in two forms viz. Absorption at the boundary and absorptioin in the medium. CA’ Scattering of Ultrasonic waves result if the material is not strictly homogeneuous. It contains boundaries on which acoustic impedance changes abruptly because two materials of different density or sound velocity meet at these interfaces. - 24COSHH HHEHEEEKHKH CHEECH EES: /RDSO TRANSMISSIO} N OF ULTRASONIC BEAM FROM ONE MEDIUM TO ANOTHER MEDI 'UM AT NORMAL INCIDENCE TO THE BOUNDARY AND AT AN ANGLE TO THE BOUNDARY. Ultrasonic waves are comparable to visible light wa only the laws which hold good in op reflection and refraction of Ultraso1 Ultrasonic waves which strikes refracted or both and therefore, they obey al phenomenon. This is true in the case of waves but only up to a point. A beam of ata boundary between two media may be reflected or 1. TRANSMISSION OF ULTRASONIC AT NORMAL INCIDENCE FROM ONE MEDIA TO ANOTHER 1.1 When an ultrasonic beam st kes ata and II at normal incidence ‘occur, as shown in Fig. 1. boundary between two media, say medium 1 angle of incidence being o, two phenomenons will 1) Reflection at the boundary. 2) Transmission through the boundary. Fig. 1. Transmission of longitudinal beam at normal incidence from medium I to medium II. jlitude of the reflected and transmitted ultrasonic beam will depend on a east impedance of the medium I and II. This can be expressed as:~ i = (Zr-ZilZrtZi) «00% it of reflected ultrasonic energy R=(Zy-Zy eee the transmitted ultrasonic energy D=42,Zy/(Zr+21)*x 100% Where - 2, Acoustic impedance of medium 1 i.e. equal to density of medium I x ponies of the longitudinal or transverse ultrasonic beam as used in medium I. Z,~- Acoustic impedance of medium Il. 1.3. Asan example, we can calculate R & D when a longitudinal beam strikes at the boundary of steel and water. ~25-Z; for steel = 45x 10° ke/m’ Zp for water = 15x 10° kg/m’ sec, Thus R= (15-457 /(1.5 +45)? =0.875 xi00% 87.5% D = 4x15/(1.5 +457 125 x100% = 12.5% This indicates that 87.5% of the longitudinal beam energy is reflected at the boundary and only 12.5 % is transmitted in the second medium i.e. in water. ‘The acoustic impedance of some of the important materials are given below:~ Material Specific Acoustic impedance x 10° kg/m’, sec. (Z=p xv) Steel 5 2.__| Cast Iron 2510 40 3.___ | Copper a2 4.__| Aluminium 178 5.__| Perspex 13.2 [6c] Water Ths 7,__| Diesel Oil L1to 13 $.__| Rubber soft 1.9 103.7 9. __| Rubber Vulcanised 2.51037 1p-_[ Air 0.0004 2. TRANSMISSION OF ULTRASONIC BEAM AT AN ANGLE OF INCIDENCE TO THE BOUNDARY Fig2 =26- @eeoaoeaevoeeooaoenoeeoseesd sd e2eoe @ ee Ae@oe odCEST HHH HHH HHH HH HHH EEHO KKK ~ HK 241 When an ultrsonie beam strikes a boundary , at an angle other than normal ‘ reflected and transmitted waves arise as in optic. The transmitted waves arc also called refracted waves because their direction change relative to the diection of incidence.Depending upon the angle of incidence . refracted longitudinal and transverse waves frist in a second medium, The angle of refraction and relative amplitide of longitudinal and transverse beam depend upon the acoustic impedence of the two medium. 2.2 In ultrasonic testing of a material it is advantageous to introduce the ultrasonic beam at an angle. But itis necessary to take note of the conversion of longitudinal waves into transverse waves and vise- versa. Let us consider a Tongitudinal beam as in Fig. 2 incident on the boundary between two solid ‘media [ and IT ,at an angle to the normal ( Ref. Fig .2) . 23 In transmission of a Jongitudinal beam at an angle of incidence to the boundary, four phenomenon may occur- 1) _ Reflection back into medium I as a beam of longitudinal waves ( Beam 1 at an angle a) 1) _ Reflection back into the media I as a beam of transverse waves ( Beam 2 at an angle B) TM) It may be refracted into the media II as a beam of longitudinal waves ( Beam 3 at angle 7) - IV) _ It may be refracted into the medium II as a beam of transverse waves (Beam 4 at an angle 6) 2.4 The angie of incidence or angle of refraction for the above two types of beams can be calculated according to the Snell’s Law, which states- Sine le of incidence = Velocity of ultrasonic in medium 1 Sine of angle of refraction Velocity of ultrasonic beam in medium II 2.5. While calculating the angle of incidence or angle of refraction, velocities of longitudinal beam in medium I and medium II should be taken into account, Similarly it shall be done for transverse waves also. If the longitudinal waves velocities In the two media are respectively VLI & VII, whilst the transverse waves velocities are VSI & VSI, the relationship between the angle of incidence and other reflected refracted -27- 0.25D? A =0.25 D? xf/V mm Diameter of the Crystal Frequency of the ultrasonic beam in Mc/s ‘Wave length of the ultrasonic beam in particular medium in mm. Speed of the ultrasonic energy in particular medium in km/sec. uo jee : ' ity — ze ——+1 Far fiela Let } (Fraunhefer ip Wear field | zone) °° (Fresnel 2 zone) Fig-2 Near zone and Far zone of ultrasonic beam coming out from crystal, -48-" C9COCLCEE LES ECO e e e © ° @ ® ° . eyor Digital Ultrasonic Flaw Detector cpu ‘AmplifiedFitt| er ckt & Gain with, Control Program memory Analog to Digital Converter Temporary memory Power Supply and Battery Monitor Supervisory control Figure 1 ‘Transmitter Damping Control = ‘Transmition pulse it might be spike or s control circuit controls efsctrical damping of the transducer. Pre-Amplifier: It amplifies incoming ultrasound with lower noise. It also having some impedance matching network. Amplifier/Filter ckt & Gain Control: It is Voltage control gain Amplifiers. As per gain rernal gain of the amplifier section. This amplifies signal Ik rectifies signal as per requirement say Full wave, half ‘Then this signal passes through filtering circuits for value selected by user it sets int passed through rectifier circuit wave positive, half wave negative. the smoothing of ultrasound. 4 : This section generates high voltage Ultrasound quare wave with different pulse width. Dampingasound sigaal to werts hi-frequency ultrasoun! al ae rpisplay signal on LCD il is must to es in only Digital form. ‘ansfer to PC for hard Analog to Digital Converter: This section co Digital form for the post processing. For to convey/Display © tal because LCD can communica ily stored in memory, can be 1 convert analog signal to Digitized signal can be documentation. passed trough Digital signal converts huge no of samples and Velocities h PEF and data Digital Signal Processing: High frequency digitized signal process its further apply some digital filtering processes and to appropriate values which can be displayed to LCD as per Range selected by user. It is very fast processing section to cope UP with hig! update rate. Video-Memory: It holds Bitmap image of LCD data. Main CPU generated appropriate bitmap image from digital signal processed. It holds data of individual pixel soy color imforfation’as well a8 pixel position. This Bit map image is transferred to LCD for display purpose. Data transfer take place in very very high speed. Permanent Memory: Current A-Scan data, Calibration Set-up, Note detail etc are stored memory for permanent storage. It holds data even if battery removed from main unit, ‘This stored data can be recalled in unit, transferred to printer, transfer to PC for the documentation purpose. Key Board: It detects key press and sends appropriate information to Main CPU for the conirol/change of appropriate parameter in unit RS-232 Interface: This one of the standard digital interface protocol. Using this interface ‘main Unit can be connected to Serial data printer or, PC using standard cable. CPU: This is main processing and controlling section. It communicated with internal all section, issue control signal to all section, monitors function of all section, process data and takes suitable action, This is main section of unit, It holds program memory as well as temporary memory, which is used during processing, Power supply and Battery Monitor supervisory control: Power supply ‘generates - different voltages for the different section. Battery monitor circuitry monitors battery voltage and issue suitable signal to main'CPU if battery voltage fall below certain voltage then it terminates unit to off for to prevent deep discharge of battery. Supervisory circuitry monitors execution of main CPU if it found male function of CPU then it asserts signal and stops main unit. §8 @a 2®eaG@aanme GOA OG@@ea@Get@aeaanxexnx2x2nxcexn eeeBitmap Image Generation: After processing analog signal is converted to digital form in as per detail given below. Now for to display signal on ‘LCD its illuminates appropriate pixel with appropriate color. Generally in Digital UFD LCD screen is QVGA s0 it pixe! is 340 x 240 pixel. For eg. To display A-Scan pattern as per shown in figure 2 now consider you have graph paper having 320 x 240 block then super impose A-scan pattern fon Graph paper (refer figute 3) so where ever trace fall in block that pixel need to be illuminate as per color selected by user (refer figure 4). Figure 3 Figure 4CIty eet ttle et a ve Se RDSO IMPORT, me a De Merona CHARACTERISTICS OF ULTRASONIC FLAW OF AMPL RS VIZ. LINEARITY OF TIME, BASE, LINEARITY AN m LIFIC ‘ATION, RESOLUTION AND DEAD ZONE EF’ ; AND THEIR MEASUREMENT 1 wo " uses cr Ultrasonic Flaw Detection equipment often wish to verify the charactristies of an instrument probes prior to purchase, while users may sh to compare different instruments in their possession, so as to ensure that the most suitable equipment is used for a particular examination. Hence, itis essential to establish comparatively simple methods by which the over all performance characteristics of Ultrasonic Flaw Detector can be assessed. 1.2. To conduct a thorough check on all the variables involved in an Ultrasonic equipment, it would be necessary to make electrical tests on the various parts. such as the transmitter, the amplifier and the time base etc. of the equipment. However, not all users laboratories are equipped to make such tests, further more, in many cases these electrical tests are not essential and can be replaced by simple Ultrasonic ‘ones, using a known calibration block such as the block recommended by I.1.W. or recommended in IS:4904. With this calibration block several functions and probes can be checked with sufficient accuracy to meet practical requirements. It may be ceraphasized that the persons responsible for assessing the performance characteristics of the equipment should be fully conversant with the use of different controls of an Ultrasonic Flaw Detector. 2, IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS_OF AN_ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTOR & PROBES mance of an Ultrasonic Flaw Detector, the following In order to assess the perfor important characteristics are studied in detail. It has been discussed as per IS: 12666- 1988. ‘These characteristics are studied by Ultrasonic Method only : 1) Linearity of Time Base 1) _ Linearity of Amplification I) Dead Zone TV) Resolution ; V) Maximum penetration power VI) Probe Index VII) Probe Angle ETHOD OF_STUDY _OF THE CHARACTERISTICS _OF AN ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTOR the details of method of study of the above mentioned characteris ‘oned that supply voltage fluctuations may affect the performance o itis also important to note that accurate 52 3.1 Before starting it may be menti the equipmentcomparison of the performance of different combination of instruments and probes can only be achieved if the probes have identical characteristics. 3.2 LINEARITY OF TIME BASE _: This involves the measurement of positions of successive bottom echoes obi ‘a standard test block of known length. ined from a ‘The distance between two successive echoes should be constant. The proportional deviation with respect to the linear scale is calculated from the position of echoes on the display screen. 3.2.1 RANGE: The linearity of time base should be checked for all the ranges with the help of standard test blocks. ‘The LW. block is used to check the linearity of time base only upto 500 mm range. 3.2.2. SELECTION OF PROBES : For checking the linearity of ranges up to 100 mm probe of any frequency may be used. For ranges greater than 100 mm, it may be necessary to use a probe having similar beam spread than that initially selected.(Mostly used 2/2.5 Milz. frequency of 20mm dia) 3.2.3. PROBE POSITION ‘or time base ranges, up to 100 mm the probes shall be placed at position ‘A’ , and for time ase ranges from 100 mm to 500 mm at position ‘B’ on the calibrated block . (see Fig.1) 3.24 SETTING OF TIME BASE: The time base shall be adjusted in such a way that a multiple echo pattern is displayed. At least two of the bottom echo indications Generally the first and the last on the screen), separated by at least two other indications, shall coincide with particular scale markings. ‘The intermediate echoes should then line up with appropriate positions on the scale. e 3.2.5 GAIN SETTING : The successive bottom echoes shall be brought to substantially the same amplitude (i.e. greater than half ~ full scale usable e deflection) when taking reading of the time base scale. Precautions shall be taken to avoid errors from parallax. e 3.2.6 ASSESSMENT OF LINEARITY : To assess the linearity of the time base the e intervals between the leading edges of the successive bottom echoes shall be measured and their deviation with respect to the graticule recorded. @ ® @ eo ® @ 3.2.7. Deviation frém linearity shall be expressed as a percentage of the time base range ‘considered over the full scale reading. In some cases, it may also be advisable to iues of linearity over a number of points on the time base c.g. at five give val regular intervals a Deviation (%)= —g'ep- 100 Where agax= Maximum deviation among deviations of the stand — up points of 4 each echo eo b = The full scale time base CResge dittns he 10) @, as @, ‘The variation (deviation) shall be within +2 %. for analog UFD & + 1.25 %for/ Digital UFD — e, %, 3 %, ®, , Nelas- Adjust the Peale ch 10% Dteitien only oie pre Spo * : @ ellPosition A aye een ae - ler cottreren of, a= — ——_—_— Position A fhe Position & Joomm Tica Cabredion He mane When 100071 4 5 Linear scale Example of Diagram Showing Linearity of the time base 0 1 2 3 S43.3 LINE compurison of echo amplitud ‘This test involves making a ellings. different gain 3.3.1 GENERAL : The linearity shall be checked for each frequency range of the equipment by comparing the echo amplitudes obtained with the different gain 8 ion /reject gain controls arc fitted, these shall be set to the 3.3.2 PROBE POSITION : For the time base range of 250 mm the probe shall be positioned at “A” on the calibration block and for a range of 500 mm shall be positioned at “B”. In the first case, ten multiple echoes will be observed and in e. The multiple echoes are indicated by the indices 1,2,3,4 ete. 3.3.3 GAIN SETTING ; The any of the echoes indi manufacturer (a,). Rejec shall firstly be set up to give the n! echo (where n is ed) on full usable scale height specified by the ippression shall be set to minimum. 3.3.4 ASSESSMENT OF LINEARITY : The gain shall be reset to obtain n" echo at half the previous scale height . ‘The linearity of the equipment shall be assessed by checking if the following bottom echo (n+1) is also reduced by 50%. ‘The percentage deviation is expressed as X 100 0 Where h, = The height of (n+1)" echo previously ha = The height of (n+1)" echo after reset. The linearity shall be within + 5% in all ranges for analog UFD &4 3% for Digital ti lis. Fig.2 . Example of Diagram for Checking Linearity Of Amplification UED. 55 be ce owee owen ree eeaedlOCH Hes 34 35 3.5.1 CHECKING oF ee ING OF DEAD ZONE : Duc to amplifier “Overdriving” there is often a distinc, n Sensitivity just behind a received pulse. Within this pulse influence the uot Possible to make quantitative measurements. Hence, it must be known to the operator who is using the Ultrasonic flaw detector. RANGE Tange, + The dead zone of the Ultrasonic Flaw Detector is checked at 100 mm PROBE SELECTION = The probe should be taken of the same frequency as. Specified by the manufacturer for dead zone. In case nothing has been mentioned about the dead zone and type of probe, a 2.5/2.0 MHz. 20 mm dia probe having single crystal should be chosen. The probe is placed at position “E” or “F” and corresponding cchoes at a distance of 5 mm or 10 mm steel should be observed. The appearance of a clear echo on the scien indicates the value of Dead Zone i.e. whether it is 5 mm or 10 mm. Step-gauge is used to check dead zone between Smm to 10 mm. The dead zone shall be less than 7 mm maximum with single robe and_3 mm for double/twin crystal probe. Fig 3(a) Step - Gauge Checking of Resolution : The resolution is defined as the ability of the ‘equipment to clearly display two nearby reflections on the screen. The test involves the measurement of two closely spaced cuts separated by 6 mm from each other on the L.I.W. block. GENERAL : The checking of resolution should be carried out with 2.5/2.0 MHz. and 20 mm dia. single crystal probe |3.5.2. PROBE POSITION : The probe shall be placed at g a time base range of 100 mm (see Fig. 4). Obt 35 the the gain to make echo: c height of 85 mm & 91 ght 100%. At full screen iat po: (the combined part of closed echoes) be below of 50%. Ithas indicated that the 6 mm distance was : istinguish clearly, it’s resolution limit is 6 mm. + Position C oimm 100 mm Initial Peak Fig4 Checking of Resolution 3.6 Maximum Penetrative Power : The number of multiple echoes obtained from the surface of the perspex disc inserted in an IW. block gives the comparative sense as to what depth the Ultrasonic energy of the parti chi will be able to penetrate. epee KM fn Vtatmreadts ae machine 3.6.1 General: Attention is drawn to the fact that this evaluation can only be used as an indication of maximum penetrative power by direct comparison of different units, that is, instruments and/or probes. A definite assessment cannot be obtained using simple methods due tc the differences in the manufacture of the plastic insert, influence of temperature on the results obtained, reflection from sides of calibration block, etc. * ed natin Hewste ofl 3d e. e. e e @ ) @ ® ®~ Try VvT ee CTT TSC TST STS SS SSS S SE EGG 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 37 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.73 Probe Posit calibration block The probe shall be placed at position D (sce fig. 5) on the ng a time base range of 500 mm. Gain Setting ; The i re Bei 8 : The controls shall be set w give maximum gain and maximum Pulse energy. Rejec/ suppression shall be minimum. Assessment of Penetrating Power : The number of multiple echoes obtained from the bottom of the plastic inserts in the block and amplitudes of the echoes shall be determined . The equipment shall give at least 5 full echo and 6" appearing in 23 mm perspex of I.I.W. block as per IS : 4904. FigS Maximum Penetration Power Probe Index : This depends only upon the probe. Probe index of an angle beam probe can be determined with the help of A2 calibration block given in IS : 4904 Gain Setting : Itis recommended that rejection control be kept at maximum and pulse energy at about middle position. Probe Position: The probe is kept on the block such as to get echoes from the curved surfaces of the blocks using a time base range of 300 mm. Assessment of Probe Index : The point of probe exactly above the centre of curved surface of block (marked on the block) is the probe index. ‘The position of the probe index should be ascertainable to within | mm. Keuge | Meleste? > 58= Probe Index Re Beam Path Fig 6. Checking of Probe Index 3.8 Probe Angle: The probe angle (beam angle) depends only upon the probe. The calibration block can be used for the evaluation of angle at which the central beam ‘emerges out from the angle beam probe. 3.8.1 Probe position : The probe is kept on the block such as to get echoes from 50 mm diameter curved surfaces of the block using a time base range of 300mm of maximum height. 3.8.2 Gain Setting : It is recommended that rejection control be kept at minimum. and pulse enezgy at about middie position. 3.8.3 Assessment of Beam Angle : The angle marked on the block and lying just below the probe index is taken as the probe angle. ‘The deviations in beam angle as specified by the manufacturer shall be within #1°. ngle Value re Fig7. Checking of Probe Angle 1 59 seeeeeeenee. uwpee eeeeeoeeveeeveeveveseses ECVV TTT CCC CSC CCC CCE RDSO 21 22 2.2.17 2.2.2 2 SCANNING TECHNIQUES -FAR END AND, LOW ANG! E & HIGH ANGLE: a PROCEDURE OF TESTING: ‘The basic scanning technig enumerated below: i) Far end Sean ques employed for ultrasonic testing of axles are - Through scanning of the whole length of axle. ii) Near End Low Angle Sean - Scanning from the axle end into the nearer wheel seat/Gear Seat inner fillet. iti) High Angle Scan— Scanning across the diameter-Inner fille/Outer fillet ‘TESTING PROCEDURE FOR “FAR END” SCANNING: PURPOSE: This testing technique is employed for ultrasonic testing of full length of axle from both end of the axle. PROCEDURE: A full scale drawing of an axle showing press fit components is used and theoreiically predicted echoes/signals for direct back reflections and delayed reflections from different fillet radii ure mathematically calculated. ‘The probable reflectors in an axle may be as follows: a) End of the axle b) Journal radii ©) Wheel seat radii d) Stress relief grooves. Clean the end face of the axle, apply the couplant and place the probe after calibrating the Ultrasonic Flaw Detector for a particular range. The Ultrasonic waves travel through the whole length of the axle and are reflected from the end of the axle and change of sections and See the observations and compare with theoretically predicted display pattems or code of procedure. The standard procedure should be made out for each type of axle. Scan the full axle from both the end faces. FAR END SCANNING USING TRACE DELAY : 1 PROCEDURE: Calibrate the equipment forg 500 mm of range scan the first $00 mm axle. Keep the probe on the 100 mm long bar. Using delay control shift the trace 500 mm toward left,Again scan the second 500 mm of the length of the axle. Follow the same sequence for the remaining length of the axle till the outer end of the axle. -6a*4 S. x 3 3 NEAR DLOW ANGLE SCANNIN ® 3a PURPOSE. . is scanning has been fo ind useful ised wi one ee ‘und useful in checking cracks in raised wheel seat and es Techni le and also for confirming the findings of Far End ‘Scanning 32 PROCEDURE: This type of scanning is carried out with lon igitudinal wave probes having an angle of refraction in steel 5° - 20° p 1) The Ultrasonic beam should be directed towards diametrically ‘posite end from the probing position. ii) Care should be taken that the Ultrasonic beam does not strike the lathe center or any other drilled hole on the axle. iti) The probe should always be positioned 2-5 mm away from the outer periphery. NOTE: {tis very important to have a control signal with respect to which the position of the flaw echo is observed and for this purpose reflections from wheel boss or the sharp radii of the wheel seat (where from the direct back reflection is possible) is taken as control signal. Before starting the low angle testing the theoretical display pattem should be predicted and drawn where in the position of control signal should clearly be indicated. The trace pattem as obtained on near end low angle scanning of an axle showing positions of control signals end cheo from a crack is given in Fig. 33 LIMITATIONS: Crack appearing at the end of the near outer wheel seat radii from the probing end (where the journal blends with the raised wheel seats) cannot be detected as the same will be under shadow zone. -6s- eo. es. & 5; fo F eo F 6 eo” aS,: SCCCHCSCCC SCS SSCSCSECEEEESE weTeeeuee > > > 2 > » > » = S = POINTS TO NOTE: 1. Always use the probe of the same angle as calculated from the full scale drawing of the axle or mentioned in code of procedure. 2. Place the probe as shown in the fig.1. 3. Apply slight rotation to the probe for proper acoustic coupling. 4. While tightening the Perspex shoe on the probe, care should be taken to avoid the presence of any air bubble between the probe end and Perspex shoe by using sufficient couplant. 5. Write the following details in your observations: a) Type of axle d) Calibration. b) Drawing number e) Range calculation ©) Probe used f) Identification marks on the axle end, TESTING PROCEDURE FOR HIGH ANGLE SCANNING TECHNIQUE: PURPOSE: 1) To check the findings obtained by Far End Scanning /NELA Technique. 2) To find out cracks which are not accessible by low angle scanning. PROCEDURE: High angle scanhing is carried out with shear wave probes with angle between 33° to 65°. In most of the axle place the probe on the axle shaft and direct the beam diametrically opposite towards near end wheel seat radii with respect to probe position. To start with, take a full scale drawing of half length axle having dimensions of press fit components and mark the vulnerable locations keeping in view the space available for placing the locations to be tested choose a suitable angle probe and mark the stand-off distance on the body of the axle. This point is taken as the probe index and is joined with the point under consideration which gives the slant range. Draw the theoretical display pattern showing the position of a control signal from a know location e.g. wheel boss etc. The trace pattern obtained on high angle scanning of an axle is shown in Fig. POINTS TO NOTE: a) Mark stand -off distanced on the axle, b) Clean and apply grease 2” beyond the stand off ©) Move probe back and forth over the stand-off line to obtain maximum height of the echo. . d) Curvature of the probe shoes must match with the axle body. Other precaution to be observed, have already been discussed while discussing the tow angle Scanning Technique. - 64-