Newton’s Law

first law of motion is often stated as

An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and
in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

Inertia: the resistance an object has to a change in its state of motion.

The second law states

that the acceleration of an object is dependent upon two variables - the net force acting upon
the object and the mass of the object.
𝒎
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 (𝒌𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝑵)
𝒔𝟐
The net force (Fnet)

is the resultant of all the forces acting in the object. The Fnet can be calculated using the formula

Fnet = Fnormal + Fg (Object at rest)

Fnet = Fnormal + Fg + Ffriction + Fapplied (Object in motion)

Since the Fnet is a vector quantity, the direction of each force should also be considered when solving
the Fnet.

! The value of acceleration can never be below zero, so its value can never be negative. The negative in
acceleration only indicates its direction being opposite of the velocity of the object.

Newton's third law is:

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

! Some system doesn't have zero Fnet because of the difference of acceleration in each object.
Acceleration is dependent on mass and force as the 2nd law of motion stated, thus resulting in the
cancelation of force acting in the object when it is in motion.

Introduction to Energy

Law of conservation of Energy

Can’t be created nor destroyed, but can be converted to another form. Energy is constant

Matter + Energy = Universe; E=mc2

Ek = Ep

Various forms of Energy

Radiant, Thermal, Motion, Chemical, Stored Mechanical, Nuclear, Sound, Gravitational, and
Electrical
Types of Energy

Potential Energy

Stored energy, has the potential to do work. Ep = 0 in reference level

ex. Gravitational potential energy: energy stored due to elevated position.

Egp = mgh (J); g = 9.8 m/s2

Elastic potential energy: energy stored in objects that are stretched, compress, bent, or twisted.

Kinetic Energy

Energy of motion, depends on the m and v

Ek = ½ mv2 (J)

Work

Product of the energy

In terms of F and d: W = Fd (J or Nm)

! F and d must be parallel in direction

! W=0 if F and d is perpendicular in direction

In terms of energy: W = ∆K [∆K = K2 – K1] and also W = -∆U

Electric charge

Basic Attribute and a fundamental quantity that underlies all electric phenomena

Atom: (+) proton Outwards = (-) Electron Inwards

Electric Fields

aura emitted by the charge

E = F/q
Like charge repel, and opposite charge attract
Conductors

Materials that has free charged particles that easily flow through it when an Electric field acts on
them.

Insulators

Materials that does not contain free charged particles and through which charge does not easily
flow.

Induced charge

Charging of conductors by Redistribution of charges without touching the conductor

Coulomb’s law

Relationship between electric force, charge, and distance.

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝒌
𝒅𝟐
k = 9.0x109 Nm2/C2
! if F is (-) it is attractive, and if it is (+) it is repulsive

Electric Dipole

Two equal charges of opposite sign, and separated by a small distance.

! Distribution of charge is not perfectly even

Test charge
Test to probe the amount of charge inside the box
Efield = F/q0
Electric Flux
The word “flux” comes from a Latin word meaning “flow.”
Product of the magnitude of the electric field and the area

ΦE = EfieldAsurface (Nm2/C)

! (+) Outward Flux, and (-) Inward Flux

Gauss’s law

states that the total electric flux through any closed surface (a surface enclosing a definite volume) is
proportional to the total (net) electric charge inside the surface. Gaussian surface is a closed
symmetrical surface used to calculate the electric flux

ΦE = q/ϵ0 (Nm2/C)
ϵ 0 = 8.854x10-12 F/m
 ! Electric field for a point charge: E = q/4πr2ϵ0
! Electric field for a line charge: E = λ/2πrϵ0
Charged Conductors

When excess charge is placed on a solid conductor and is at rest, it resides entirely on the
surface, not in the interior of the material. (By excess we mean charges other than the ions and
free electrons that make up the neutral conductor.)
E = Q/ϵ0
For more info on charge conductors please watch this link or else shits will befall on ye
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HHvmQ254JoM

Convertion Factors

Energy Formula

Conservative Force: ∆K = -∆U Uniform Electric Field: ∆UE = - qEd

External or Other Force: K1 + U1 + W0 = K2 + U2

Electric Potential:

∆V = ∆U/q (J/C or v)
∆V = -Ed (V/m) for movement along a uniform Electric Field

Electric Potential due to point charges:

V = kq/r
! voltage is a scalar quantity.
Electric Potential due to multiple charges:

V = ∑kq/r
! voltage is a scalar quantity.
Equipotential Surfaces in single charge

Perpendicular to the electric field of the charge. The electric field and V is weakening as it travels
farther away from the charge.

Equipotential Surfaces are the broken red line

! Value of U, V, and W if we move along the equipotential surfaces is zero

 Equipotential Surfaces in two opposite charge

Equipotential Surfaces are the broken green lines

The V = 0 at the middle point of the two opposite charge

Equipotential Surfaces in two like charge

Equipotential Surfaces are the green lines

Dielectrics

Capacitor store electrical energy. The two terminals of a capacitor are connected to two metal plates
separated by an insulator called a dielectric any type of insulator.

! consists of two parallel conductive plates

Capacitance

measure of the ability of a component to store charge

All passive components have three electrical properties. Resistance, capacitance and inductance.

C = q/V (F)
! capacitance is always positive in unit

C = ∈oA/d
! consists of two parallel conductive plates

Capacitors in parallel

The voltage (V) connected across all the capacitors that are connected in parallel is THE SAME.

Cparallel = C1 + C2 +…Cn
! Capacitors in parallel is the sum of the individual capacitance’s added together as the effective area of
the plates is increased.

In a parallel connection the equivalent capacitance is always greater than any individual capacitance