Geografski pregled No.

45; Year 2021 ONLINE ISSN: 2303-8950

ARTICLES

APPLICATION OF GIS IN THE PROCESS OF IDENTIFICATION

AND TOURIST VALORIZATION OF DOLINE KARST
LANDSCAPES AND TERRAINS IN BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA

AUTHORS
Ahmed Džaferagić, Amina Sivac
Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Zmaja od
Bosne 33-35, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
e-mail: ahmed.dzaferagic@pmf.unsa.ba; e-mail: amina.sivac@pmf.unsa.ba

UDC: 338.48[911.2:551.4](497.6)

DOI: 10.35666/23038950.2021.45.19

ABSTRACT
Application of GIS in the process of identification and tourist valorization of
doline karst landscapes and terrains in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Soluble rocks where karst and genetically related types of relief are represented
characterize over 50% of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The karst of
Bosnia and Herzegovina is characterized by various shapes, while a great
number of different terrains make the "locus typus" of karst in the world. The
main tourist motives include numerous caves, springs, mountain peaks and cliffs,
canyons and gorges, rivers with travertine waterfalls, and karst fields.
Independently or as part of a larger whole, some of these motives represent
protected areas, they make the most crucial tourist motives and are the most
visited tourist destinations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Doline karst is a
widespread karst landscape phenomenon in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but there
are only a few sites that are known to the overall population. Through the use of
GIS, this study identifies the areas of doline karst in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it
explains the ways how sinkholes and doline karstlands are formed and identifies
the fundamental factors contributing to their development, but it also highlights
the possibilities for making the doline karst a part of the future local tourist offer.

KEY WORDS
Doline karst, application of GIS, karst terrains and landscapes of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, tourist valorization of karst terrains and landscapes

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1.Introduction

Soluble rocks, such as limestone, dolomite, and marble, but also evaporite rocks
represented predominantly by the sedimentary mineral called gypsum, on which
karst and other genetically related relief types are typically developed, make up
over 50% of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to Jovanović
and Avdagić (1981, 56), karst is present in more than 60% of the territory of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is a part of the Dinaric karst, which is a typical karst
formation in this region. From the geomorphological and hydrogeological points
of view, due to the great diversity and a variable development of the forms and
manners of water runoff, it also captures a great deal of interest worldwide. From
J. Cvijić, A. Grund, and F. Katzer, who made a significant contribution to
clarifying the phenomenon of karst by exploring the terrain of Bosnia and
Herzegovina in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, extensive karst research
was conducted primarily for the purpose of putting to use the hydropower of
karst streams.

Little attention is paid to other, particularly the tourist and geoecological aspects
of the karst landscapes. Numerous karst phenomena were destroyed
spontaneously, even those that were provided with highest degree of legal
protection. Numerous localities have already been well-established in terms of
tourism, but the lack of tourist infrastructure and the absence of carefully
designed tourist offers have not resulted in the creation of the more significant
economic benefits. The reason behind this deficiency often lies in the fact that
the tourist offer was tied exclusively to a single specific tourist motive. The
remoteness and detachment of the karst areas from the transport infrastructure
system but also the lack of interest in karst among the overall population, as a
result of the general perception of karst as an economically and socially deprived
area, are often the main reasons why numerous karst phenomena have remained
unknown to the public. Today, however, they are becoming the focus of interest
among the "ordinary" population and smaller groups of visitors and tourists. This
is also the case with the doline karst, which has a great potential to become part
of the future tourist offer in some areas.

The term doline karst was first introduced by J. Cvijić, who is recognized as the
father of karst geomorphology, by defining the term doline karst as the karst
areas in which the number of sinkholes per square kilometer is 40-60 and more.
Etymologically, the term is associated with human skin infested with smallpox.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the doline karst corresponds to a flat and slightly
inclined sloping terrain in the karst landscape, formed by carbonate rocks of
Jurassic and Cretaceous age situated within the Outer Dinarides. Numerous, less
predominantly corrosive, and round and shallow sinkholes situated at short
mutual distances have been developed on these terrains.

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Their development is related to the dissolution of carbonate rocks within the

karst evolution process. Rainwater enriched with carbon and other acids of
atmospheric or biogenic origin dissolves rocks, thus forming the surface
depressions on the Dinaric karst terrains known as sinkholes, swallow-holes or
sinks, and locally known as doline, dolinice, doli and dokice. These are the names
for typical or corrosive sinkholes. The collapsing sinkholes are called japage,
while the suffusion sinkholes situated in western Bosnia are called abezi (English
- abyss).

Their occurrence is determined by a number of factors, primarily by the

lithological composition of the terrain and the cracking of rocks. In the terrains
predominated by pure limestone (over 95% CaCO3), where rocks are cracked
and the landscape is flat or slightly sloping, allowing the water to flow mostly
vertically into the underground, and where the climate is humid, there are ideal
conditions for the development of doline karst. The frequency of sinkholes is
most often associated with lithological, structural, tectonic, and climatic
conditions. The combination of these and biogenic and pedological factors
determines the development and the morphological appearance of sinkholes.

According to A. Grund's theory of karst evolution, as one of the initial

hypotheses formulated in order to explain this process, doline karst is regarded
as the most developed in the second stage, which is followed by a gradual
lowering of the sinkhole edge and leveling of the surrounding terrain with a loose
vegetation cover, leaving the hills in the form of hummocks. The advancement
of this theory has triggered a series of discussions, as a result of which some new
theories and opinions have emerged including also a number of computer-
assisted models designed to explain the process of karst terrain development.
However, the karst evolution and the doline karst formation are still the
phenomena that have not yet been fully clarified. The karst terrains of Bosnia
and Herzegovina have captured the attention of karst researchers since the late
19th century.

The sinkholes as surface forms of the karst relief have been explored for a wide
range of various reasons. In the works of a local and regional character, an
attempt was made to explain their number and appearance in a particular area,
depending on the lithological composition, the composition of the terrain and the
prevailing climatic conditions. These works have explored the relationship
between the slope inclination and the appearance of sinkholes, the position and
the number of sinkholes in relation to windward and leeward slopes, the number
of sinkholes and the degree of water permeability of the terrain, etc.. As far as is
known to date, no serious attempts have ever been made in the territory of Bosnia
and Herzegovina to take the doline karst into consideration as a potential tourist
resource. There is only one research that was conducted in order to identify
geomorpholocalities that may serve any potential tourist purposes, which was

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part of research carried out in the area of Blidinje during the evaluation of
individual parts of its relief (Misilo, 2016). Thelien-Willige (2014), Artugyan
(2016), and Martín-Vivaldi Caballero (2016) believe that geographic
information systems (GIS) and remote sensing are nowadays two of the most
important tools to analyze and study the karst areas and landforms. Antonić
(2001) and Jenness (2013) have proposed numerous GIS-based processes to
estimate the surface depressions by using the said technologies and tools.
According to a study made by Moreno-Gómez (2013), automatic or
semiautomatic depression mapping methods based on digital elevation models
(DEMs) represent a great advantage compared with the mere visual or manual
delineation, when study areas are considerable in size or where vegetation is
dense. Nevertheless, as claimed in a study by Evans (2012), automated extraction
of specific types of landforms from DEMs still remains a considerable challenge.

High-resolution data does not necessarily reflect better results, as in the case of
doline karst analysis. The number of sinkholes tends to increase with the
application of high-resolution DEMs, thus making an extra analysis a necessity
in order to eliminate artificial depressions. However, the sinkhole estimation is
also affected by coarser DEMs, since the sinkholes that are smaller than the grid
size cannot be clearly defined by using DEMs only. Therefore, as claimed in a
study made by Zandbergen (2006), the effects of cell resolution or DEM
accuracy on these results must always be taken into account. In accordance with
the said studies, an analysis based on multiple criteria was used for the purposes
of conducting research in the process of digitization of doline karst in Bosnia and
Herzegovina,. This analysis included the use of scientific research methodology
that is based not only on the application of GIS tools, but also on the detailed
research of remote sensing images and field observations of the analyzed area.

2. Research area

The research covers the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina with a total area of
51,210 km2. The central part of the Dinaric karst is situated in the territory of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is where, according to many researchers, the
karst geomorphology is most complete and most developed. The Dinaric karst
of Bosnia and Herzegovina represents the typical karst in which some karst
features and phenomena were first observed and explained. Karst terrains are
characterized by a distinctive polymorphism, and, as far as sinkholes are
concerned, these terrains are permeated by almost all known types of them. This
is strongly conditioned by a number of lithological, structural, tectonic, general
geomorphological, climatic, pedogenetic, and biogenic factors.

The lithological-stratigraphic composition and tectonic structure are highly

complex. The most common rocks on which karst is formed are carbonate rocks
- limestone and dolomites.

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These rocks are most commonly present in the Outer Dinarides, i.e. southeast of
the line on the stretch Tržačka Raštela - Bosanska Krupa - Ključ - Prozor -
Glavatičevo - Gacko. Their thickness exceeds 8 km in this area, as a result of
which this karst is classified as a deep, complete holokarst. Carbonate rocks are
also found in several separate entities northeast of the mentioned line. It is
merokarst or shallow karst where dolomites dominate, and where sinkholes and
caves are the dominant karst relief forms. In addition to limestone and dolomite
rocks, the presence of sinkholes is also observed on marls, quartz sandstones,
carbonate breccias and conglomerates, but also on evaporite rocks with gypsum,
anhydrite, and halite substrates.

The dolomites, especially the limestones, have cracked heavily due to a tectonic
stress that followed after the consolidation of the rock masses. Due to these rock
fractures, there is a possibility of vertical seepage of water from the surface into
the underground. In dolomite masses, these cracks, fractures and fissures are
often filled with dolomitic sand or the so-called pržina, which is why these
masses are water impermeable and do not let water seep underground. There is
a surface runoff of water in these cases and the formation of line shapes
characteristic of the fluvial karst relief. Consequently, this is perpetuated by a
reduced number of sinkholes. The structural-tectonic relations, such as e.g. the
position of faults and fault zones and the orientation of layers, significantly affect
both the location and the morphology of sinkholes. These are highly complex
tectonic terrains. It is possible to single out several tectonic units at different
levels. The most commonly used division in recent times is the one according to
H. Hrvatović (2009), who singles out 10 large geotectonic units. Karst
phenomena are most developed on the Dinaric carbonate platform and in the
Bosnian flysch zone.

According to numerous researchers, climatic conditions have a more significant

impact on the appearance of sinkholes but less on their spatial distribution. An
analysis of the location of sinkholes requires a close study of the basic parameters
of individual climatic elements. Since the karst development is closely
associated with rock solubility and water regime, the precipitations are among
the most essential elements that have to be taken into account here. The amount
of precipitation is corelated with cyclone trajectories (where cyclones are most
often generated in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea) and orographic
barriers that affect their accumulation, release and intensity. It generally
decreases from West to East and South to North, so the karst terrain is very rich
in precipitation. In the southwestern and southern parts of the country, there is a
strong prevalence of the maritime type of pluviometric regime, which means that
most precipitation is released in the warmer half of the year. Altitude and air
temperature are factors that have a considerable effect on the form of
precipitation.

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The geomorphological structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina was created in the

zone of subduction of the Adriatic microplate into the Eurasian megaplate. In the
conditions of the tectonic compression regime, large rock masses were
compressed, shifted, and displaced, while thrust-related fold and horst
morphostructures were being formed. The tectonic depressions were
characterized by basins, valleys and karst field basins between them. From the
structural-geomorphological point of view, there is a predominant of denudation-
tectonic relief, while according to the genetic types, there prevail the karst and
fluvial-karst forms of relief, followed by the slopes with the gradient of over 12°
and a fluviodenudation (valley) in the conditions of the watertight rock base. The
accumulation (gradient and fluvial) relief is characterized by valley extensions
and vast valleys in the north of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while abrasion, limnic,
glacial, aeolian, and other types of relief are represented only locally.

From the point of view of general geomorphometry, it is important to mention

several facts. According to hypsometric relations, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a
hilly and mountainous country. The most common are hypsometric zones within
a range of 500-1000 m and 200-500 m. The parts of the terrain that reach the
highest altitude are situated on the mountain range stretch from Maglić - Lelija -
Treskavica - Bjelašnica - Bitovnja - Vranica - Raduša - Cincar - Velika Golija -
Klekovača - Plješevica, and further from that point towards northeast and
southwest the altitude decreases. These terrains are generally characterized by
high values of relief energy, by the existence of vertical and horizontal
disintegration, and by the presence of steep and extremely steep slopes. In
addition to the more erodible non-karst terrains, the terrains situated on the more
resistant carbonate rock masses are tectonically strongly displaced, which is
often characterized by an intensively segregated relief and marked by the
intensive slope erosion processes.

3. Material and research methods

Although the spatial identification of doline karst can be made only through
analyses of topographic maps and satellite images, a number of digital spatial
databases and maps of the spatial distribution of sinkholes and sinkhole density
have been developed for the purpose of a precise spatial distribution of doline
karst in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The digital database established in order to
present the spatial distribution of sinkholes was based on the data collected from
the analogue topographic maps whose map scale is 1: 25,000 and the
orohydrographic maps whose map scale is1:100,000, which were published by
the Military Geographical Institute in Belgrade, mainly according to the situation
during the 1970s. ArcGIS - ArcMap 10.1 software was used in the analysis
process. All sinkholes that are featured manually for the territory of Bosnia and
Herzegovina by using the proportional and graduated symbols on the

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topographic maps have been digitalized manually, including both primary and
secondary sinkholes, regardless of whether are dry or filled with water. Due to
the fact that, during the production of topographic maps, significant attention
was paid to the presentation of details related to the karst phenomena, the largest
number of sinkholes present in the field were mapped. The correlation of
topographic maps and modern satellite images and orthophoto images of the
terrain indicate slight deviations in the number of sinkholes shown on the
topographic maps. While digitizing the sinkholes by using the Basic Geological
Map 1: 100,000, the dilemmas were addressed about the existence of individual
depressions in the karst landscape that cannot be regarded as sinkholes.

In the digital database, the sinkholes are represented by dots, which is why a map
of the spatial arrangement of the sinkholes is generated from the database which
is basically made as a stigmogram. Based on this map, a map of sinkhole density
was made by using the method of unit squares, thus calculating the number of
sinkholes per square kilometer. The appearance and position of the unit field can
significantly determine the differences in the number of sinkholes in a locality,
but the method is sufficiently reliable compared with other known methods.
Based on the correlation between the results obtained by the unit squares method
and the kernel method, it is concluded that the unit squares method is more
objective (Pahernik 2012). After making a map of sinkhole density, all areas
where the number of sinkholes is 40> per square kilometer were selected. The
classification of doline karst was made on the basis of the factor of sinkhole
density . Thus, several classes of spatial density of sinkholes were singled out,
which can also be helpful in the process of evaluating the doline karst because
more sinkholes per unit area are associated with higher values (Figure 1).

As the doline karst that it is not covered with forest vegetation is more easily
noticeable, which in turn makes the overall experience of the potential tourists
more intense, the localities of doline karst that are covered with non-forest
vegetation have been singled out by using the database on land use.

Figure 1: Procedure for spatial identification of doline karst with non-forest cover in
Bosnia and Herzegovina

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The CORINE land cover base for 2018 was used, which is characterized by a
high degree of accuracy and reliability due to a high degree of spatial resolution.
In this way, more valuable parts of the doline karst were identified preliminarily
from the point of view of their potential use in tourism. In the context of the
research value, it is worth noting that a more objective research of the perception
of doline karst from the tourism point of view requires the conduct of a survey
among the local population and tourists, which should include at least 100
respondents. In this way, the perception of attractivness of the doline karst would
be examined to a much greater extent by conducting the study on a relatively
large sample. More importantly, for the purpose of a proper tourist evaluation of
doline karst (independently or as part of the evaluation of geomorpholocality of
an area) it is possible and necessary to include some additional criteria, such as,
e.g. the level of accessibility to these sites for local traffic, anthropogenic
content, visibility analysis, distance analysis, abundance analysis, sinkhole
morphological features, etc. An assessment based on the analysis of the number
of sinkholes and the vegetation cover alone can only be used as a rough indicator.
The doline karst will likely be the subject of tourist evaluation in the future,
including by using the tools such an original methodology and a multicriteria
analysis.

4. Results and discussion

The spatial analysis in Bosnia and Herzegovina has resulted in the recording of
more than 430,000 sinkholes. Assuming that 60% of the state territory consists
of karst landscapes, the average sinkhole density is then estimated at 14 per
square kilometer. It has been established that sinkholes are distributed unevenly,
with a number of them being distributed in fairly large groups in some localities
and a number of them sparselydistributed in other localities. The spatial
distribution and density of sinkholes are a result of numerous factors, among
which most frequently examined so far have been the influences that the
lithological composition, structural and tectonic relations, slope inclination, and
climatic conditions may have on the design of sinkholes. Certain regularities
were established in terms of their design and layout, which led to the realization
that they were not distributed erratically as it was thought until the mid-20th
century.

Sinkholes are morphographically and morphometrically very different,

depending on the process by which they were created and the degree of
development reached. The database and field observations show that small round
and shallow corrosion sinkholes dominate in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A typical
example of such sinkholes is in the Bravsko Polje in northwestern Bosnia and
Herzegovina.

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In Lowland and Highland Herzegovina, morphologically, the sinkholes and the

doline karst differ significantly, in general terms and locally, compared with
those situated in the area of northwestern BiH. An interesting example of the
appearance of sinkholes and doline karst is the doline karst situated on the terrain
of the Treskavica mountain in Highland Herzegovina (Figure 2). It is assumed
that this is influenced by climatic conditions and the possible intensity of tectonic
uplift of the terrain because the lithological conditions are more or less identical.
In Highland Herzegovina, where the average annual air and soil temperatures are
such that the daily amplitudes of air and soil temperature are more pronounced,
thus affecting the processes of mechanical rock disintegration, and where the
larger quantities of precipitation are released in the form of snow and where the
snow cover stays longer, the conditions of sinkhole formation are very different
compared to the conditions prevailing on the terrains of western Bosnia and
Herzegovina.

Figure 2: Sinkholes in Bravsko Polje (left) and on Mount Treskavica (right)

Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/OO6f6YD5vNo/maxresdefault.jpg (19.07.2021.), Gams
(2000, 134)

During the mapping of doline karst in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a total of 3597
unit fields were singled out, with 40 or more sinkholes per square kilometer.
Therefore, doline karst is present in about 7% of the state territory, mainly in
western Bosnia and eastern Herzegovina, where there are large unbroken areas
of the doline karst entities.

Of the 123 the doline karst entities that have a spatial continuity and whose size
exceeds 5 square kilometers, most of them are situated on the mentioned terrains.
From the geomorphological point of view, these are mainly karst plateaus and
floors and karst fields in which there are no larger centers of accumulation of
Quaternary sediments. These terrains are marked by subhorizontal and gently
inclined slopes characterized by low values of vertical relief of the landscape in
the foothill hypsometric zone, which is one of the main reasons for such a high
density of sinkholes compared with the terrains of eastern Herzegovina, which
has the typical karst features.

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In addition, the bottoms of the fields situated in the karst of eastern Herzegovina
are often covered with thick deposits of younger sedimentary rocks and
sediments, and the slopes of the surrounding hills are steep and not prone to the
formation of sinkholes. However, on the northwestern slopes of the Gacko
Bjelašnica towards Ljubinsko Polje and south of the settlement of Kruševica,
189 sinkholes were recorded per square kilometer, which is the highest value
recorded in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Research in the Dinarides has shown that
the lithological-structural factor and the slope inclination factor are decisive for
the distribution and density of sinkholes and that the climate has a significant
impact on the development of sinkholes, primarily in terms of their appearance.
Spatially, the largest entity of doline karst, with the size of 189 km2, includes the
terrain between Bosanska Krupa and Bihać. It is mostly part of the Una-Korana
karst plateau.

The doline karst landscapes with a spatial continuity that extends over the large
areas are situated mainly in northwestern Bosnia between Bravsko and Ribnik,
and in turn between Mount Vitorog and the Janj River (Podovi), on the Grmeč
mountain range west of its mountain peak of Javornjača, on the mountains of
Monte Negro and in the northwestern part of Nevesinje field. The entities
situated between the Zavelim and the Grabovica mountains, i.e., southeast of
Buško Lake, and the terrains of Mount Ljubuša and the terrains northwest of
Glamočko Polje also stand out distinctively in terms of their size. There are yet
another 10 unbroken areas with the size of over 50 km2, four of which are situated
in western Bosnia and four in Lowland Herzegovina between the Lukavac and
the Popovo Fields. The terrains of the eastern part of Mount Treskavica and the
terrains between the towns of Posušje and Široki Brijeg in western Herzegovina
are among them.

Among the most compact are the two entities that correspond to the terrains
around Podovi and Vitorog, which are dissected by the spring of the Pliva River.
They occupy a total area of 217 km2 and are characterized by a very high density
of sinkholes, which in some places exceeds 150 of such geomorphological
phenomena per square kilometer. They look particularly impressive on the
terrains of Podovi between the valleys of the Korana River (a tributary of the
Sana River) and the Pliva River, because it is an area where the steppes are
represented predominantly. Many smaller entities are extended along the line
between the ridges and beams with a medium and high concentration of
sinkholes and grassy ground cover, as a result of which the doline karst is clearly
visible from the elevation (Figure 3).

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Figure 3: Spatial distribution of doline karst in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Since the visual impression of doline karst is considered to be much more

reinforced in cases where this form of landscape is not overgrown with forest
vegetation, a digital CORINE Land Cover database from 2018 was used to
identify the land cover and the areas of doline karst covered with non-forest
vegetation, which are perceived as more valuable and thus having greater
potential from the tourism point of view. The following areas are singled out as
parts of the ("non-forest") land cover in which sinkholes are best observed,:
pastures (CLC code 231), groups of arable plots (CLC code 242), agricultural
areas with natural plant cover (CLC code 243), natural grasslands (CLC code
321), bare rocks (CLC code 332) and areas with sparse vegetation (CLC code
333).

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The doline karst entities occupying an area of 5 and more square kilometers were
singled out at an earlier point, where the relationship with the land cover was
analyzed. Based on a subjective assessment of the presence of non-forest
vegetation in the areas of doline karst, several areas have been identified that
have the greatest preliminary potential for use in tourism (Figure 4). Most of
these areas are situated in the karst landscapes of western and southwestern
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Some of the possible reasons of this selection have
already been mentioned: the terrain flatness and the lack of larger accumulation
zones in the karst fields. The ways in which the land was used in the past have
also affected the current land cover. Some parts of the karst terrain were used as
pastures and arable land and were cleared of forests and "stones." Cultivated
areas have not been used extensively over the last few decades due to an
advanced processes of depopulation and deagrarization of karst, and instead they
have been used more or less as natural pastures. In these areas, the phenomena
of doline karst can be best experienced and explored visually, and the examples
of such landscape design are ubiquitous in the terrains of western Bosnia,
especially around Bosanski Petrovac and Bosansko Grahovo. A number of
uncultivated and unforested areas are also present in the arid climatic conditions
of Lowland Herzegovina. Frequent fires also contribute to keeping these areas
in such a state.

There are fewer such localities in eastern Herzegovina, while the areas of doline
karst covered with non-forest vegetation are smaller. The reasons for that lies in
the fact that these areas have steeper slopes that are not prone to the development
of sinkholes, while the bottom of the field slopes are hardly ever filled with thick
quartz deposits. The flattened parts of the field were used mainly as agricultural
land, so there was no need to cultivate steeper terrains of doline karst, and since
they were overgrown mostly with forest vegetation, they are hardly visible,
which is the main reason why they are not suitable as a landscape that could
potentially become part of the future tourist offer. Frequent fires also contribute
to keeping these areas in such a state.

The doline karst terrains whose size exceeds 4 km2, which are predominantly
covered with grass vegetation, are most common in western Bosnia and western
Herzegovina. In the extreme northwest of Bosnia and Herzegovina, these are
parts of the Una-Korana karst plateau with doline karst, which is situated in the
vicinity of the settlements of Prošić, Brekovica, Miostrah, Spahić, Jezera,
Srbljan, and Grmuša. Compared to other isolated parts of the doline karst, at this
place some large areas are used as agricultural land. To the southeast, there are
the terrains of the Bjelajsko Polje and the Bravsko Polje near the town of
Bosanski Petrovac, which are used mainly as pastures. Due to their high
environmental value, ease of access, and an increased possibility of observation,
these are some of the most interesting localities.

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Figure 4: Doline karst areas with non-forest vegetation cover in Bosnia and
Herzegovina

Parts of the Dabar Plateau and the Hrustovac Plateau, situated in the karst areas
west and southwest of Sanski Most, and Crkveno Lowland near Gornji Ribnik
in the Sana Valley, are also some of the most interesting areas in terms of their
potential use in tourism. The plain landscapes of Kamenica and Vidovo Selo near
Drvar and the large areas of the Pašić Polje and the Grahovsko Polje near the
town of Bosansko Grahovo stand out distinctively in terms of their size and
significance. The landscapes situated between the Unac Valley and the
Glamočko Polje are among Bosnia and Herzegovina's most important green
doline karst areas that are covered with non-forest vegetation. In the central part
near the settlement of Rore, the doline karst is a highly remarkable phenomenon.
In western Bosnia, among the most significant doline karst landscapes are also
the terrains of the Podovi doline karst west of the town of Šipovo, the terrains of

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Grbavičko Polje and Janja also in the vicinity of Šipovo, the terrains situated on
the right bank of the Vrbas River near the town called Krupa na Vrbasu and the
slopes of Mount Hrbina and Mount Vitorog, with the largest share of doline karst
covered with non-forest vegetation. In western Herzegovina, the most
remarkable doline karst landscapes that have the greatest potential to become a
part of the future tourist offer in terms of both visual impression and
environmental value are the vast terrains around the town of Duvno
(Tomislavgrad), such as e.g. Mount Ljubuša and Mount Kovač in particular,
including also the terrains southeast of Buško Lake. Natural grasslands are the
dominant type of land cover present in the karst landscapes of these areas.

On the southern slopes of Mount Bjelašnica (around Čuhovići and Vrdolj

villages) and the southeastern slopes of Mount Treskavica around the town of
Kalinovik, the doline karst landscape is characterized by an apparent density of
sinkholes (up to 110 sinkholes/km2) and by some parts where the vegetation
cover is practically absent. Unlike the terrain of western Bosnia and western
Herzegovina, the sinkholes are sporadically deeper, they have steep sides and
sharp edges, which is probably a result of climatic conditions. In Highland
Herzegovina on the terrains of Mount Zelengora (north of Pridvorice and near
Tmuš) and Vranje (east of Morin and near Prenj Dol) there are also some
interesting doline karst landscapes situated on bare rocks and covered with very
scarce vegetation represented by a low grass cover. The terrains between Fojnica
and Nadinić northwest of Gacko and the southeastern part of the Gatačko Polje
shaped on flysch may also have a future potential use in tourism. Outside the
mentioned areas of doline karst within the deep karst, the terrains of Medojević
and Žunovo southeast of Olovo with about 50 sinkholes/km2 are also interesting
from the point of view of becoming a part of the future tourist offer.

5. Conclusion

Bosnia and Herzegovina has long been recognized by the general public as a
country of exceptional geodiversity. Some parts of the country's landscapes and
relief, such as karst springs, canyons, travertine waterfalls, mountain peaks, etc.,
have an oustanding and genuine tourist value and represent the most important
tourist motives in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The most important tourist places in
central Bosnia and southern Herzegovina are of particular tourist importance and
generate significant amounts of financial income. On the other hand, despite the
fact that they have an exceptional tourist potential due to their natural features,
due to their distance from emitting areas, and poor traffic connections and tourist
infrastructure, many parts of the landscape and relief are mainly not used for
tourism purposes. This is primarily the case with the karst terrains of western
Bosnia and western and eastern Herzegovina.

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In these terrains, there are some of the most valuable karst phenomena, one of
them being the doline karst, which is present in about 7% of the country's
territory, and which has recently attracted an increasingly great deal of attention
among the "ordinary" population and visitors alike. In this paper, an attempt was
made to make a preliminary analysis in order to identify the areas of doline karst
landscapes that can be used in tourism as independent or complementary tourist
motives. According to the spatial distribution and the level of attractiveness from
point of view of their appearance, most of such localities are situated in the karst
regions of western Bosnia and western Herzegovina, i.e. Una-Sana Canton and
Canton 10. These are generally less developed tourist areas, but having in mind
an ever increasing interest among the overall population, it would be necessary
to conduct a series of detailed research in order to explore the possibility of
making the doline karst landscapes become part of the tourist offer. This will
undoubtedly involve a number of analyses based on multiple criteria.

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