Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The Turag River is the upper tributary of the Buriganga which is a major river in Bangladesh.

The Turag originates from the Bangshi River, which is an important tributary of the Dhaleshwari
River, flows through Gazipur and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka District. The Turag
River, running by the side of Dhaka City, is one of the most polluted rivers in Bangladesh. Many
industries have been grown up in the bank of Turag River during last decade and the numbers of
new industries are continually increasing (DoE, 1997). This chapter provides a total review of
the pollution scenario of Turag river, Tongi, identifying major sources of pollutants of the river.
This chapter also provides essential information on heavy metal contamination of soil around
Tongi industrial area. The transfer rate of heavy metal contaminants from soil to vegetation also
described with mathematical equation and a general assessment of health risk level from these
contaminants also attached here. It also includes description of different contamination
assessment procedures.

2.2 River pollution around Dhaka city

Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh which is surrounded by six rivers. Balu and Shitalakhya are
on the eastern side. Turag and Buriganga on the western side. Tongi khal to the north and
Dhaleshwari to the south. Dhaka is one of the congested cities in the world. The rivers
surrounding it are an advantage to it and essential for the survival of this mega city as these
rivers provide drainage system, drinking water, different kinds of fishes, and also waterways for
travelling.

Major industrialization has been observed in Dhaka especially dyeing, washing, and textile
sectors. Estimation reveals that there are over 7000 industries in Dhaka metropolitan area
located in mostly three clusters, namely, Hazaribagh, Tejgaon, Dhaka-Narayanganj- Demra area
(Roy, 2009). However, among all these industries dyeing factories and tanneries are the main
polluters of the rivers. Waste from these industries is usually connected to the sewerage system
that directly follows to the rivers around the city. The rivers have become a dumping ground of
all kinds of solid, liquid and other chemical waste.

Polluted water of Buriganga, Turag, Balu, Shitalakhya, Narai flowing around the greater Dhaka
city is posing a serious threat to public life as the water is unfit for human use. People living near
these polluted rivers, having no other alternatives are forced to use this polluted water which
results in skin disease and water-borne disease.

Figure 2.1: River pollution (https:// www.littlecitizensforclimate.org)

2.3 Sources of Water Quality Parameters

Water quality parameters include chemical, physical, and biological properties and can be tested
or monitored based on the desired water parameters of concern. Parameters that are frequently
sampled or monitored for water quality include temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity,
ORP, and turbidity. Water Quality parameters are basic to life within aquatic systems.
Impairments of these can be observed as impacts to the flora and or fauna with a given
waterbody. Ten different spots were chosen at Turag river to collect water sample as a source of
measuring water quality parameters. Two types of parameters are described :

 Chemical parameters
 Physical parameters
2.3.1 Chemical Parameters of Water Quality

Chemical characteristics involve parameters such as pH and dissolved oxygen. These parameters

are relevant not only to surface water studies of the ocean, lakes and rivers, but to groundwater
and industrial processes as well.

2.3.1.1 pH

pH is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is defined as the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration ( Spellman FR.,2017). It is a
dimensionless number indicating the strength of an acidic or a basic solution (APHA,2005).
Eventually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. Acidic water contains extra
hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions. As shown in Figure 2,
pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a pH of
greater than 7 indicates a base solution (WHO; 2011). Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to
7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) and it owes to
atmospheric carbon dioxide gas. Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for
domestic use and for the living organisms. A change of 1 unit on a pH scale represents a 10-fold
change in the pH (APHA,2005), so that water with pH of 7 is 10 times more acidic than water
with a pH of 8, and water with a pH of 5 is 100 times more acidic than water with a pH of 7.
There are two methods available for the determination of pH: electrometric and colorimetric
methods (APHA,2005).
 Fig 2.2 pH of water (range) (DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89657

Excessively or extremely high and low pH can be detrimental for the usage of water. A high pH
makes the taste bitter, it decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, for that it needs
for additional chlorine. The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will
corrode or dissolve metals and other substances (APHA,2010). Pollution can modify the pH of
water and it can damage animals and plants that live in the water.

2.3.1.2 Acidity

Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution. The acidity of water is its quantitative capacity in
order to neutralize a strong base to a selected pH level. Acidity in water is usually due to carbon
dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates. Acids can
influence and circulate many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions and biological
activities. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic organisms
causes acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid (H 2CO3). The level of acidity is
determined by titration with standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N) using phenolphthalein as an
indicator.

2.3.1.3 Chloride
Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of relatively high
chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate wastewater
pollution with contaminants. Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources including
chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater. Chloride ions Cl− in drinking
water do not cause any harmful effects on public health, but high concentrations can cause an
unpleasant salty taste for most people. Chlorides are not usually harmful to people; however, the
sodium part of table salt has been connected to kidney and heart diseases . Small amounts of
chlorides are essential for ordinary cell functions in animal and plant life. Sodium chloride may
impart a salty taste at 250 mg/L; however, magnesium or calcium chloride are generally not
detected by taste until reaching levels of 1000 mg/L (APHA,2005). Standards for public drinking
water require chloride levels that do not exceed 250 mg/L. There are many methods to measure
the chloride concentration in water, but the normal one is the titration method by silver nitrate.

2.3.1.4 Sulfate

Sulfate ions (SO42-) occur in natural water and in wastewater. The high concentration of sulfate in
natural water is usually caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt)
or magnesium sulfate (Epson salt) (Davis ML,2010). If high concentrations are consumed in
drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative effects, but there is no
significant danger to public health. We determined the sulfate range by adding Sulfaber reagent.

2.3.1.5 Nitrogen

There are four forms of nitrogen in water and wastewater: organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen,
nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen (APHA,2005). If water is contaminated with sewage, most
of the nitrogen is in the forms of organic and ammonia, which are transformed by microbes to
form nitrites and nitrates. Nitrogen in the nitrate form is a basic nutrient to the growth of plants
and can be a growth limiting nutrient factor (APHA,2005). A high concentration of nitrate in
surface water can stimulate the rapid growth of the algae which degrades the water quality
(APHA,2005). Nitrates can enter the groundwater from chemical fertilizers used in the
agricultural areas. Excessive nitrate concentration (more than 10 mg/L) in drinking water causes
an immediate and severe health threat to infants (Tchobanoglous,2003). The nitrate ions react
with blood hemoglobin, thereby reducing the blood’s ability to hold oxygen which leads to a
disease called blue baby or methemoglobinemia.

2.3.1.6 Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters of water
quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution (APHA,2005). The higher
the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality. Oxygen is slightly soluble in
water and very sensitive to temperature. For example, the saturation concentration at 20°C is
about 9 mg/L and at 0°C is 14.6 mg/L The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending
on pressure, temperature, and salinity of the water (Tchobanoglous,2003). Dissolved oxygen has
no direct effect on public health, but drinking water with very little or no oxygen tastes
unpalatable to some people. There are three main methods used for measuring dissolved oxygen
concentrations: the colorimetric method—quick and inexpensive, the Winkler titration method—
traditional method, and the electrometric method (APHA,2005).

2.3.1.7 BOD

Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they metabolize organic
material, they consume oxygen. The organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as
CO2 and H2O, and the microbes use the energy released for growth and also for reproduction.
When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO in the water. If oxygen is not
continuously replaced by natural or artificial means in the water, the DO concentration will
reduce as the microbes decompose the organic materials. This need for oxygen is called the
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The more organic material there is in the water, the higher
the BOD used by the microbes will be. BOD is used as a measure of the power of sewage; strong
sewage has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD. The complete decomposition of organic
material by microorganisms takes time, usually 20 d or more under ordinary circumstances
(Tchobanoglous,2003). The quantity of oxygen used in a specified volume of water to fully
decompose or stabilize all biodegradable organic substances is called the ultimate BOD or
BODL. BOD is a function of time. At time = 0, no oxygen will have been consumed and the
BOD = 0. As each day goes by, oxygen is used by the microbes and the BOD increases.
Ultimately, the BODL is reached and the organic materials are completely decomposed.

2.3.1.8 COD

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics: the
biodegradable and the non-biodegradable substances. (APHA,2005). It is a chemical test using
strong oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat, and the result can be
available in just 2 h (APHA,2005). COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same
sample.

2.3.2 Physical Parameters of water Quality

Parameters that are frequently sampled or monitored for water quality include turbidity, color,
taste and odor, conductivity and temperature.

2.3.2.1 Turbidity

Turbidity in drinking water is esthetically unacceptable, which makes the water look
unappetizing. The impact of turbidity can be summarized in the following points:

1. It can increase the cost of water treatment for various uses.

2. The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby shield
them from the disinfection process.

3. Suspended materials can clog or damage fish gills, decreasing its resistance to diseases,
reducing its growth rates, affecting egg and larval maturing, and affecting the efficiency of fish
catching method.
4. Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as mercury, chromium,
lead, cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides

5. The amount of available food is reduced (Cole S,1999) because higher turbidity raises water
temperatures in light of the fact that suspended particles absorb more sun heat. Consequently, the
concentration of the dissolved oxygen (DO) can be decreased since warm water carries less
dissolved oxygen than cold water.

Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which expresses

turbidity in terms of NTU or TU. A TU is equivalent to 1 mg/L of silica in suspension
(APHA,2005). Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person while turbidity in
muddy water, it exceeds 100 NTU. Groundwater normally has very low turbidity because of the
natural filtration that occurs as the water penetrates through the soil.

2.3.2.2 Color

Pure water is colorless. Therefore, any types of color appearance in water indicates water
pollution.

Natural water system is often colored by foreign material. If color is due to suspended material, it
is called as apparent color. Color given by dissolved material that remains even after removal of
suspended material is called true color or real color.

The guideline value (maximum acceptable level) for color of drinking water is 15 TCU (True
color unit).

2.3.2.3 Taste and odor:

 Pure water is always tasteless and odorless. Therefore, if any types of taste and
odor is present, it indicates water pollution.

 Water taste and odor may develop due to natural or artificial regions.
  Artificial region for taste and odor in water is due to disinfection process
(chlorination). Some natural impurities dissolved in water can also give taste and
odor.

 Inorganic salts such as NaCl, KCl etc. dissolve in water give taste whereas
compounds like H2S can give both taste and odor.

 Compounds giving taste and odor to water may be toxic to consumer, so drinking
water should be taste less and odor less.

2.3.2.4 Temperature:

 Temperature is not directly used to evaluate whether water is potable (drinkable) or

not.

 In natural water system like lake and river, temperature is very important physical
factor that determines water quality. If temperature increase, solubility of Oxygen
in water decreases.

 Furthermore, rise in temperature increases the growth rate of aquatic

microorganism, so they consume dissolved O2 faster and level of dissolved O2
decreases.

 Similarly, temperature affects disinfection process because efficiency of

disinfection is lower at lower temperature.

2.3.2.5 Electrical Conductivity/Salinity

Solids can be found in nature in a dissolved form. Salts those dissolve in water break into
positively and negatively charged ions.

Conductivity is the ability of water to conduct an electrical current, and the dissolved ions are the
conductors. The major positively charged ions are sodium, (Na+) calcium (Ca+2), potassium
(K+) and magnesium (Mg+2). The major negatively charged ions are chloride (Cl-), sulfate (SO4
-2), carbonate (CO3 -2), and bicarbonate (HCO3 -). Nitrates (NO3 -2) and phosphates (PO4 -3)
are minor contributors to conductivity, although they are very important biologically.
Salinity is a measure of the amount of salts in the water. Because dissolved ions increase salinity
as well as conductivity, the two measures are related. The salts in sea water are primarily sodium
chloride (NaCl). However, other saline waters, such as Mono Lake, owe their high salinity to a
combination of dissolved ions including sodium, chloride, carbonate and sulfate.

Salts and other substances affect the quality of water used for irrigation or drinking. They also
have a critical influence on aquatic biota, and every kind of organism has a typical salinity range
that it can tolerate. Moreover, the ionic composition of the water can be critical. For example,
cladocerans (water fleas) are far more sensitive to potassium chloride than sodium chloride at the
same concentration. Conductivity will vary with water source: ground water, water drained from
agricultural fields, municipal waste water, rainfall. Therefore, conductivity can indicate
groundwater seepage or a sewage leak.

2.4 Sources of Heavy metals

Heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has relatively high densities, atomic
weights, and atomic numbers. According to one definition, heavy metals are a group of elements
having atomic weights between 63.5 to 200.59 and specific gravities greater than 4.0. The heavy
metals are toxic and poisonous at low concentrations. Examples of heavy metals include
Mercury(Hg) , Cadmium(Cd), Arsenic(As), Lead(Pb), Chromium(Cr) etc.

2.4.1 Cadmium (Cd): As per Nordic Council of Ministers, Cadmium is a heavy metal with a
high toxicity. Cadmium is very poisonous at very low concentrations. At a very low exposure
level, it has acute and chronic effects on health and environment. Cadmium and cadmium
compounds are water soluble compared to other heavy metals. These compounds are more
mobile in soil.

If the concentration of Cadmium exceeds background level, it can cause a serious health effects
on aquatic lives. Only a small amount of cadmium remaining in the human body after eating
cadmium contaminated food can lead to kidney disease and bones become weak. Large amounts
of cadmium can cause kidney damage, liver, heart disease and also cause death. Cadmium is also
toxic to plants and micro-organisms.
2.4.2 Arsenic (As): Arsenic is the most abundant element on earth. It is a heavy metal with the
atomic number 33. Arsenic is dangerous to human health. It is highly carcinogenic and can cause
cancer of lungs, bladder, liver and skin. Exposure to arsenic for a long day can cause irritation of
the stomach and intestines, reduced production of red and white blood cells.

Plants can absorb arsenic easily. When humans and animals consume these plants, arsenic is
transferred from plants to human body. Aquatic lives also die because of the high concentration
of arsenic.

2.4.3 Chromium (Cr): Chromium is one of the most abundant element in earth. The
concentrations of chromium range in soil is between 1 to 3000 mg/kg, in sea water the range is 5
to 800 μg/L and in rivers and lakes the range is 26 μg/L to 5.2 mg/L.

Chromium is toxic to human lives. It is very toxic by inhalation and dermal route and causes
lung cancer, nasal irritation, nasal ulcer and asthma. Chromium also affects the immune system
of human body. Chromium also affects the growth of plant. Chromium (VI) is mainly toxic to
organisms. People working in different industries especially in the steel and textile industries are
exposed to Chromium (VI). In animals, chromium causes respiratory problem, lowers ability to
fight disease and formation of tumor.

Chromium is usually not known to be accumulated in the bodies of fish, but high concentrations
of chromium on fish can cause death.

2.4.4 Lead (Pb): Lead is one of the most toxic elements. It is extremely toxic to human bodies. It
may cause anemia, weakness, high blood pressure, kidney and brain damage. Lead can be
accumulated with the soil and water. Very low concentrations of Lead can lead to health effects
of aquatic lives. Soil functions can be disrupted if lead is present in the soil. Lead can be
transferred from soil to plants. Lead can remain in the soil for 2000 years. Lead disrupts the seed
germination process, root and plant growth, seedling development, transpiration and chlorophyll
production.

Lead is extremely toxic to aquatic lives, especially to fish. Immune alterations, neurotoxicity are
caused to fishes by the lead exposure. Lead exposure can also cause bioaccumulation in specific
tissues in fish.

2.5 Pollution in water of Turag river

Turag river, passing through the northwestern part of the Dhaka city plays an important role as
the main drainage channel and carries water to the Buriganga river. Due to rapid and unplanned
industrialization, Turag river is experiencing severe pollution. The major pollution sources are
untreated effluents from different industries, domestic, human wastes from surrounding and slum
area.

As per DoE (1997), the water color becomes pitch-black to almost normal both from the
Buriganga Third Bridge and the Tongi Bridge to Goran Chatbari, near Mirpur Botanical Garden.
The main reason behind this spatial pollution pattern in the Turag which is mentioned above area
is that huge load of untreated toxic liquid chemical waste is directly dumped into the river from
Hazaribagh tanneries through the Bashila Canal at the downstream and from the Tongi Industrial
Area at Tongi Bridge and Iztema Field area. Currently Turag river is being polluted by 15-point
sources including industrial effluent and municipal wastes. Specific point sources such as
Azmeri Knit Composite, Hossain dyeing, Tongi bridge waste, Mehmud Industries limited and
fish market (Nehreen,2018).
Figure 2.2: Present condition of Turag river (01.01.2021)

Pollution concentration normally increases in dry season and gradually decreases during wet
season. Along the south-eastern bank of the river, there have been found four sluice gates which
dispose huge load of sewerage waste of the DCC (Dhaka City Corporation) area into the river
(Ahmad, 2010). The sample collected in dry season and the pollution is so acute that no aquatic
lives can survive here. Many species of fish were found floating dead.

2.5.1 Industrial units around Turag river

Tongi area situated in the Bank of Turag River is primarily known and developed as industrial
zone according to the Bangladesh Master Plan of 1959. Various categories of industries include
metal industries, garments, jute, textile, spinning, pharmaceutical, food manufacturing industry,
lot of tanneries, chemical factories etc. are available in Tongi area (RAJUK, 2010, Rahman et al.,
2012). Most of the industries discharge their effluents directly or indirectly into the Turag River
without any treatment causing pollution of the surface water. Industries by types around Study
area, Tongi are:

Table No 2.1: Types of Industries in Tongi, Gazipur. (around study area)

 Type of Industry Numbers
Dyeing, painting, printing 10
Paper, pulp, wood 1
Tannery, shoe 2
Dairy, Poultry, Fishery 5
Chemical 7

2.5.2 Sources of contamination in water

Water is known as universal solvent because of its vulnerability to pollution. Water pollution by
anthropogenic heavy metal pollution is a critical issue in Bangladesh. Rapid urbanization,
industrialization, agricultural development, excessive population growth and upstream
withdrawal of water have degraded the river water quality in Bangladesh (Haque, 2018). Water
pollution occurs when chemical substances from different sources e.g. Industrial activities,
landfill leakage, sewage and wastewater, the burning of fossil fuels, marine dumping, mining
activities, chemical fertilizers etc.

Table no 2.2: Standards for water quality parameters with methods.

Water quality Bangladesh standards WHO Methods/ equipments

parameters (mg/L) guidelines(mg/L)
pH - 6.5-8.5 pH meter
TDS 1000 - Multimeter
Salinity -%0 - Multimeter
Conductivity -us/cm - Multimeter
Turbidity 10 NTU Turbidity meter
DO 6 - Multimeter
BOD 0.2 - 5 days incubation
COD 4 - Closed reflux method

Cadmium(Cd) 0.005 0.003 AAS

 Chromium(Cr) 0.05 0.05 AAS
Lead (Pb) 0.05 0.01 AAS
Arsenic(As) 0.05 0.01 AAS
Source: WHO (1996), ECR(1997)

2.5.3 Previous studies on heavy metal concentrations of water

C. Jane Wyatt et al.,(1996) analyzed the concentration of water samples taken from wells or
storage tanks, direct sources for domestic water for the presence of Pb, Cd, As, Hg and Cu. Pb
found in highest level (0.05-0.12ppm), 43% of samples in Sonora exceeded the action
level(0.015ppm) established by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). As, Hg, and Pb
contamination in the drinking water for some areas of the state of Sonora is a cause for many
health hazards.

Mondol, M. et al., (2011), studied the Seasonal Variation of Heavy Metal Concentrations in
Water and Plant Samples Around Tejgaon Industrial Area of Bangladesh.  The concentrations of
Fe, Pb, Cd, Mn, Ni, Zn, Cu and Cr in water samples during dry season ranged from 0.11 - 2.78,
0.733 - 2.171, 0.05 - 0.1, 0.019 - 0.34, 0.02 - 0.17, 0.01 - 0.348, 0.10 - 0.846, and 0.02 - 0.09
mg/l respectively. Cadmium and Lead in plant samples found in the group of "in excess of
tolerable level" was 26, 79% (> 10 mg kg), and 33, 59% (> 20 mg/kg) during wet and dry
season, respectively.

Rahman, M. S., Molla, A. H., Saha, N., & Rahman, A. (2012, study on heavy metals levels and
rsk assessment in some edible fishes from Bangshi river,Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh. The
concentrations of the studied heavy metals, except Pb in Corica soborna were found to be below
the safe limits suggested by various authorities and thus gave no indication of pollution.
ANOVA analysis clearly revealed that there was a significant variation (CI = 95%) of the heavy
metal concentrations in different fish species in the Bangshi River. This study showed that there
was no possible health risk to consumers .It revealed that the ranking order of mean
concentrations of the heavy metals in the fish muscles were, Zn (168.97) > Mn (23.77) > Cu
(22.80) > Pb (4.64) > As (3.55) > Ni (2.59) > Cr (1.12) > Cd (0.30) (mean; mg/kg dry wt.)
respectively. Among the analyzed fish samples, Pb was detected in amount ranging from 1.76–
10.27, Cd from 0.09–0.87, Ni from 0.69–4.36, Cr from 0.47–2.07, Cu from 8.33–43.18, Zn from
42.83–418.05, Mn from 9.43–51.17 and As from 1.97–6.24 mg/kg-dry wt. basis.

Bhuiyan, M. A. H., Suruvi, N. I., Dampare, S. B., Islam, M. A., Quraishi, S. B., Ganyaglo, S., &
Suzuki, S. (2010),evaluated the heavy metal pollution level of tannery effluent-affected lagoon
and canal water in the southwestern Dhaka, Bangladesh. The measured physicochemical
parameters (electrical conductivity, chemical oxygen demand, pH, SO2− 4 , PO3− 4 , Cl−, and
NO− 3 ) and metals (As, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were subjected to
principal component (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analyses, and examining correlation matrix
as well in order to explain the behavior and sources of the parameters/metals. The mean
concentrations of the heavy metals was very high in the lagoon and canal water and, in most
cases, exceeded the standard limits recommended by the Bangladesh Government. Potassium,
Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Zn, As, and Cd occurred as important anthropogenic markers in the lagoons and
lower part of the canal. The high mean concentrations (in mg/l) of Cr (5.27), Pb (0.81), Cd
(0.13)and As(0.59) observed in the water samples may haveserious public health and potential
environmental hazard implications.

Alam, M. G. M., Snow, E. T., & Tanaka, A (2003). Arsenic and heavy metal contamination of
vegetables grown in Samta village, Bangladesh.  The amount of the heavy metals Cd and Pb
found in the foods studied were generally higher than those reported for the vegetables and
cereals consumed in other parts of the world. The results revealed that the individual vegetables
containing the highest mean As concentrations (mg g ) are snake gourd (0.489), ghotkol (0.446),
taro y1 (0.440), green papaya (0.389), elephant foot (0.338) and Bottle ground leaf (0.306),
respectively. The As concentration in fleshy vegetable material is low. In general, the data show
the potential for some vegetables to accumulate heavy metals with concentrations of Pb greater
than Cd. Some vegetables such as bottle ground leaf, ghotkol, taro, eddoe and elephant foot had
much higher concentrations of Pb. l. From the heavily As contaminated village in Samta, BCF
values for As in ladies finger, potato, ash gourd, brinjal, green papaya, ghotkol and snake gourd
were 0.001, 0.006, 0.006, 0.014, 0.030, 0.034 and 0.038, respectively.

Ahmad M.K , ISLAM S, et al(2010), determined the heavy metals in water , sediment and some
fishes in Buriganga river.  In water concentration of Pb, Cd, Ni, Cu and Cr varied seasonally and
spatially from 58.17 to 72.45μg/L, 7.08 to 12.33mg/L, 7.15 to 10.32mg/L, 107.38 to 201.29mg/L
and 489.27 to 645.26mg/L, respectively. Chromium was the most abundant Cd was the most
scarce in the water. The sediment also showed spatial and temporal variation of Pb, Cd, Ni, Cu
and Cr ranged from 64.71 to 77.13 mg/kg, 2.36 to 4.25 mg/kg, 147.06 to 258.17 mg/kg, 21.75 to
32.54 mg/kg and 118.63 to 218.39 mg/kg, respectively. Ni was the highest at Foridabad and Cd
was the lowest at Shawaryghat during monsoon. In six species of fish studied, the concentration
of Pb, Cd, Ni, Cu and Cr varied seasonally from 8.03 to 13.52 mg/kg, 0.73 to 1.25 mg/kg, 8.25 to
11.21 mg/kg, 3.36 to 6.34 mg/kg and 5.27 to 7.38 mg/kg, respectively. Fishes are not completely
safe at all for those higher recommended heavy metal concentration.

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Md. Shafiqul Islam et al,(2017), investigated critical review of heavy metal
pollution in Bangladesh. This paper reviewed the various area of Bangladesh to make
information on the sources of metal pollution, dissemination of metals in the environment and
their possible effects on atmosphere, water, sediment, fishes and vegetables (plants).

samad M.A.,* , Mahmud Y. , Adhikary R.K., Rahman S.B.M., Haq M.S., Rashid H.(2015)
evaluted the chemical profile of the water and to determine heavy metal concentrations in water
and muscles of certain freshwater fish and crayfish species of Rupsha River, Bangladesh. The
concentrations of heavy metals were determined in six fish and crayfish species.

The demand of drinking water in Dhaka is meet up by several deep tube wells which were
installed by Dhaka Water Supply Authority (DWASA) of Bangladesh that tap the upper aquifers.
Study shows that 78% of water comes from groundwater sources tapping through deep tube
wells and the remaining 22% come from the water treatment plant located at Saidabad,
Chadnighat and two small units of Narayanganj (DWASA, 2014). In this process the ground
water is decreasing in an alarming rate which can cause severe environmental hazards such as
land subsidence, prolonged water logging, alteration in vegetation etc. This emphasizes the
conjunctive use of groundwater and the water from Dhaka peripheral river network as the water
supply sources to maintain the balance between anthropogenic demand and water’s natural
availability.

Rahman and Hossain (2008) analyzes the present water quality scenario along the surrounding
rivers of Dhaka City and proposed a new intake point by using GIS tools (Rahman and Hossain,
2008). Magumdar (2005) studied the water contamination of Dhaka peripheral river network
including the historical trend of the pollution. The study found that the water of the upper and
lower reaches of the Shitalakhya river and Dhaleshwari river is least polluted and can be used for
the treatment of contaminant water of Dhaka peripheral river network (Magumdar, 2005).

Whitehead et al. (2018) studied the Turag-Tongi-Balu river system and found that in dry season
dissolved oxygen tends to be almost zero, high organic loading together with extreme levels of
Ammonium-N and total coliform in the water (Whitehead et al.,2018).

2.6 Soil pollution around Turag river

Gazipur District is situated north of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Gazipur district is situated between
23˚53’ to 24˚20’ North latitudes and between 90˚09’ to 90˚42’ east longitude. Gazipur district is
highly vulnerable to environmental pollution especially soil pollution due to rapid
industrialization and urbanization.
A soil is polluted when it contains an excess concentration of chemical compounds which is
dangerous to human health, plants, and animals. Soil contamination refers to the mixtures of
unwanted contaminants or elements into or onto soil, as a result of human derived activity like
industrial, agricultural or natural processes, and can have adverse effects on quality of both the
environment and human health because plants uptake the contaminants as a nutrient by root and
accumulates in the leaves, seed, shoot and finally it goes into the food chain which has
significant health impacts of human being and on biota (RPSMSQ 2010).
Soil pollution by heavy metals, e.g, copper, lead, chromium, zinc, nickel, arsenic etc. is a major
problem of concern. Heavy metals are naturally present in soil, but also it can be polluted from
local sources such as different industries, automobile, pharmaceuticals, power plants, iron, steel
and chemical industries; agricultural sources such as fertilizer, especially phosphates,
contaminated manure and pesticide containing heavy metals; waste incineration, combustion of
fossil fuels and road traffic (PEA 1995; Jolly et al. 2013).

Figure 2.3: Present condition of soil at Tongi industrial area (01.01.2021)

2.6.1 Heavy metal concentrations in soil

There are 29 heavy categorized industries around Turag river in Tongi from which a large
amount of industrial effluents are discharged into the surrounding agricultural lands daily (BBS,
2013). The soil quality along with the heavy metal concentrations in these soil exposed to
different industrial effluents is needed to investigate to understand the extent of effects of
industrial effluents of each category on soils.

2.6.2 Sources of contamination

The most common heavy metal contaminants are: Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, As and Zn. Metals are
natural components in soil. Contamination has resulted from different industrial activities, such
as mining and electroplating, gas exhaust, energy and fuel production, fertilizer and pesticide
application, and generation of municipal waste (Pendias,1989). Soil concentration range and
regulatory limits for several major metal contaminants are shown in Table no 2.3 (Riley &
Zachara, 1992; NJDEP, 1996).

Table 2.3: Soil concentration ranges and regulatory guidelines for some toxic metals

Metals Soil concentration range Regulatory limits

mg/kg mg/kg

Cr 0.05-3950 100

Pb 1.00-6900 600

Zn 150-5000 1500

Hg <0.01-1800 270

Cd 0.10-345 100

Source: Riley et al., 1992, NJDEP, 1996

Table 2.4: WHO permissible limits for soil

Metals Targeted value of soil(mg/kg)

Cr 100
Pb 85
Zn 50
Cu 36
Ni 35
Cd 0.8
Notes: Target values are specified to indicate desirable maximum levels of elements in
unpolluted soils

Source: Denneman and Robberse (1990), WHO (1996).

2.6.3 Previous studies on heavy metal concentrations in soil

Ahmed et al.,(2009) investigated the level of Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Cr, Fe and Ni in irrigation water,
soils and in vegetables from agricultural land near Dhaka Export Processing zone. The
concentration of heavy metals (mgkg-1 dry soil) in agricultural soils of the study area ranged from
31.25 to 45.16 for Cu, for Zn 103.20 to 123.49, for Pb 44.31 to 52.21, for Cr 33.89 to 67.58, for
Cd 6.21 to 16.11, for Fe 1054.82 to 2214.18 and 36.03 to 74.16 for Ni.

Das et al.,(2011) investigated the concentration of heavy metals in tannery and textile effluents
and water of adjacent rivers. Zn concentration in tannery effluents was lower than in textile
effluents while in adjacent river water is varied both dry and wet season.

Elik, A. (2003) determined heavy metal contents of street dust samples of Sivas City by atomic
absorption spectrometry. The mean concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cu and Cd in soil were 197, 206,
68, 84, 2.60 μgg-1 respectively.

A Al Zabir et al., (2016) analyzed the intensity of heavy metals pollution in soil at 0, 30 and 60m
distances from waste carrying canal of Bhaluka industrial area of Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
Maximum concentration was found at 60 to 0 m distance varied from 67.13-90.93, 52.23-76.73,
32.75-133.85, 61.18-422.10, 2690-36900 and 240-540 μgg-1 for Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn
respectively.

Marshall (1998) experimented a survey to the heavy metal pollution of roadside soils in
Bangladesh. Pb, Ni, Cr, Cu and Zn metal accumulation was found in roadside soils along Dhaka-
Mymensingh highway, possibly due to the heavy traffic of vehicles. On the other hand, sporadic
high Zn accumulation was noticed in soils along Dhaka- Aricha, Dhaka-Chittagong and Dhaka-
Mymensingh highways, which was ascribed to the industrial discharge.

Barman and Lal (1994) carried out an experiment in industrially polluted field in
Kalipur, West Bengal. Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb concentration of the soil samples were 309.74 ±
146.47; 41.50 ± 14.52; 6.11 ± 1.65 and 180.43 ± 75.61 μgg-1 soils, respectively.

M.A Halim et al.,(2014) analyzed the heavy metal contamination in paddy soil and subsoil and
uptake by rice plants which was collected from Barapukuria coal mine area of Bangladesh. The
average values of As, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn have exceeded the world normal levels by
2.34, 1.62, 1.25, 1.88, 3.02, 6.50, and 2.39 orders, respectively.

Ahmed et al.,(2016) analyzed metal pollution and their sources in surface soil by pollution
indices and multivariate statistical techniques in association with a geographical information
system (GIS). Average concentration of heavy metals was found to be 67100 to 187800 for Fe,
17000 to 87100 for Al, 11000 to 77000 for Ca, 39800 to 63100 for K, 2540 to 12400 for Mn, 290
to 640 for Zn,

S. Islam et al., (2015) assessed the potential ecological and health risk of trace elements in soil of
different land use types in the urbanized area of Bangladesh. Soils of the study sites were
severely polluted with trace elements which can lead to potential ecological risk and adverse
impact on human health.

Mottalib et al., (2016) analyzed that out of eight metals in tannery effluent contaminated soil in
Dhaka leather industrial area, concentration of heavy metals (mg/kg) were found ranged from
994 to 1120 for Cr, 34.35 to 39.66 for Cu, 46.70 to 55.16 for Pb, 24.10 to 26.73 for Ni, 0.32 to
0.54 for Cd, 1.49 to 2.21 for As, 0.44 to 1.10 for Sb and 20812 to 21216 for Fe.

Sattar and Blume (2000) conducted an experiment on total and available trace
metals like Cr, Mn, Co, Zn, Pb, Cu, As, Mo, Ag, Cu, Sn, Sb, Ti, Hg and Ni contents were
determined from the representative general soil types of Bangladesh at 0 – 15 depth. A variable
available trace metals contents were recorded from the twenty soils and they are Pb (3.6 – 90 mg
kg-1), Cd (0.69 – 1.00 mg kg-1), Cr (42 - 74 mg kg-1) and Mn (26 – 716 mg kg-1).

Domingo and Kyuma (1983) showed that the mean trace elements status of Cu, Zn, B, Mo, Co,
Ni and Cr of paddy soils of Bangladesh were 27.0, 68.0, 68.0, 3.3, 58.0, 22, and 133.0mg kg-1
respectively. All the elements tested in this study were below the contamination limit.

2.7 Agricultural Contamination around Turag River

In Tongi,Gazipur industrial wastes and effluents are being released at random without treatments
onto soils, lakes, canals and Tongi river. Some of the solid wastes are also used in land fillings.
And thus, they pollute soils, natural water systems, ground water and the greater part of the
environment as a whole. The agricultural area around Turag river in Tongi industrial area is a not
different than this. As a result, the agricultural lands are losing their fertility and the crop
production is decreasing. They put human health, aquatic lives and crop production in grave
danger in that area. Effluents from Tongi industries contain heavy metals such as copper (Cu),
nickel (Ni),zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr) and Cadmium (Cd).Some of them are toxic to
crops and plants and animals (Gerzabek and Ullah, 1990).

2.7.1 Sources of contamination for agriculture

Heavy metals are accumulated with the environment due to anthropogenic activities. The metals
can enter into surface and ground water, soil, and crop plants. The heavy metals are not really
necessary for plants but are taken up by plants in toxic form very easily. Heavy metals cause
serious concerns to human health when crops contaminated with them are then consumed. The
use of waste water which is contaminated with heavy metals for irrigation over long periods of
time increases the heavy metal concentration above the permissible limit. The most important
sources of heavy metals in the environment are from anthropogenic activities like mining,
smelting procedures, different kinds of steel and iron industry, chemical industry, traffic,
agriculture, domestic activities, and tannery (Nath, Saini, and Sharma 2005) sewage sludge
(Dheri, Brar, and Malhi 2007), compost refuse, and fly ash (Kihampa, Mwegoha, and Shemdoe
2011). Chemical and metallurgical industries are the most important sources of heavy metals in
soils (Pantelica et al. 2008).

The vegetable samples were taken from the site irrigated with the Turag river water. The river
Turag is extremely polluted by industrial effluents, sewage sludge, municipal waste water and
urban pollution and anthropogenic activities (Islam et al., 2012b).

Table 2.4: WHO permissible limits for plants

Elements Permissible value of plants(mg/kg)

Cr 1.30
Pb 2
Zn 0.60
Cu 10
Ni 10
Cd 0.02
Source: Denneman and Robberse (1990), WHO (1996) .

2.7.2 Previous studies on heavy metal concentrations in Agriculture

H.M Jakir et al.,(2018) conducted an experiment on study heavy metals and major nutrients
accumulation pattern and to assess possible health risk for adult male and female human through
consumption of spinach which was grown in farm and industrial contaminated soils. The study
showed that spinach grown in both type of soils accumulated higher amount of Cr, which could
pose potential health concern to the local residents. Heavy metals accumulation in leaves of
spinach was in the sequence of Fe > Zn > Cr > Mn > Cu > Pb and K > S > Ca > Mg > P, for
industrial contaminated soil, while the order was Fe > Mn > Cr > Zn > Cu > Pb and S > K > Ca
> Mg ≥ P for farm soil.
R.K Sharma et al.,(2007) carried out an experiment on the contributions of heavy metals in
selected vegetables through atmospheric deposition were quantified in an urban area of India.
Deposition rate of Zn was recorded maximum in Cu, Cd and Pb. The concentrations of Zn and
Cu were found highest in Brassica oleracea, Cd in Abelmoschus esculentus and B. oleracea, and
Pb was highest in Beta vulgaris.

Barman and Lal (1994) conducted an experiment in industrially polluted field in

Kalipur, West Bengal. They reported that the Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb concentration of the soil
samples were 309.74 ± 146.47; 41.50 ± 14.52; 6.11 ± 1.65 and 180.43 ± 75.61 μgg-1 soils,
respectively.

Andrew A . Meharg (2003) determined arsenic contamination of paddy field soil throughout
Bangladesh. Paddy soils survey throughout Bangladesh showed that arsenic levels were high in
zones where groundwater was used for irrigation, and where these tube-wells have been in
operation for the longest period of time. Arsenic levels raised to 46 μg g-1 dry weight in the most
affected zone, compared to levels below 10 μg g-1 in areas with low levels of arsenic in the
groundwater.

Domingo and Kyuma (1983) experimented that the mean trace elements status of Cu, Zn, B, Mo,
Co, Cr and Ni of paddy soils of Bangladesh were 27.0, 68.0, 68.0, 3.3, 58.0, 133.0, and 22mg kg-
1 respectively. All the elements tested in this study were below the contamination limit.

Mottalib et al., (2016) conducted an experiment and found that the PCF values of the
investigated heavy metals in current study for the root of spinach was found Cr 0.06, Cu 0.60 –
0.79, Pb 0.13 – 0.43, Ni 0.15 – 0.27, Cd 0.74 –0.94, As 0.13 –0.34, Sb 0.65 – 0.82 and Fe 0.15 –
0.17. Metal uptake by the root of spinach was found in the following order: Cd >Sb > Cu > Pb >
As > Ni > Fe > Cr.
Napattaorn (2014) found that the highest metal concentrations were found in Soybean. Metal
accumulation factors in plants were calculated as 1.2, 0.003, 0.14, 0.080 and 0.001 ppm for Cu,
Pb, Zn, Cd and Fe, respectively.

Naser et al., (2012) carried out an investigation and found that the concentrations of lead (Pb)
and nickel (Ni) in soil and vegetables (bottle gourd and pumpkin) decreased with distance from
the road, which was indicating their relation to traffic and automotive emissions.

M.T Hasan et al., (2008) conducted a study to investigate the impact of different industrial
effluents such as Tanneries, Pharmaceuticals, Textile, Food and Beverage on agricultural
productivity near the industrial area located in and around Gazipur, Bangladesh. The
concentration of trace metals P, Fe, Mn, Pb, and As were determined. P was found to be 29.41,
26.52 and 26.80 mg /kg , Fe values
were found 111.66, 89.72 and 97.63 mg /kg , Mn values were found 58.28, 51.79 and 51.96
mg /kg , Pb values were found 39.77, 31.05 and 32.16 mg /kg , As values were found 6.13, 4.91
and 5.21 mg /kg from direct effluents of the industry. In these effluents the toxic metallic
contamination of water and soil samples of different industrial areas of Gazipur was not good
and it showed bad impact on the surrounding environment affecting agricultural productivity
such as crop, fisheries and livestock’s.

Naser et al., (2011) carried an experiment on leafy vegetables in BARI, Gazipur. He found that
the Cd and Cr contents in leafy vegetables in this study were detected higher while Pb and Ni
were within the permissible limits as per the WHO standard but all the metals were within the
maximum allowable level as per PFA, 1954, India.

Hibben et al., (1984) resulted that a mean Pb concentration of 15.20 μg g-1, in some vegetables
of Spain and 4.61 μg g-1, 3.80 μg g-1 and 1.24 μg g-1 were in some vegetables of USA, Egypt
and Netherlands, respectively.
Wang et al., (2008) carried an experiment on 48 vegetable samples which was collected from the
midstream and downstream of the Xiangjiang River (the Hengyang-Changsha section) in Hunan
Province. The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in vegetable soils were significantly higher than
the contents in paddy soils. 95.8%, 68.8%, 10.4% and 95.8% of vegetable samples exceeded the
Maximum Levels of Contaminants in Foods (GB2762-2005) for As, Cd, Ni and Pb
concentrations, respectively.

Metz and Wilke (1997) carried out a pot trial experiment on the influence of irrigated sewage
affected soil and heavy metal uptake by plant. They reported that contents of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn
increased in crop with increasing soil pollution, but Cd and Zn uptake increased relatively more
that of Cu and Pb. The Cd in leaves ranged from 0.10- 8.20 mg/kg, dry matter, respectively.

2.8 Scenario of Quality Assessment

This assessment provides a brief of the quality indexes which are being used to asses the study

2.8.1 Water Quality Index:

WQI is defined as a rating of that reflects the composite influence of different water quality
parameters (Sahu and Sikdar, 2008). Firstly, each of the chemical parameters was assigned
different weights (wi) in a scale of 1 (least effect on water quality) to 5 (highest effect on
water quality) based on their perceived effects on primary health and according to its relative
importance in the drinking water quality (Table 3). The highest weight of 5 was assigned to
parameters, that have critical health effects and whose presence above the critical
concentration limits could limit the usability of the resource for domestic and drinking
purposes (Yidana and Yidana, 2010; Varol and Davraz, 2015). NO3, NO2, Pb, Cr and Mn
were assigned the highest weight (5) because of their major importance in water quality
assessment; the minimum weight of 1 was assigned to parameters Ca, Mg and Na due to the
least importance in water quality assessment. The relative weight (Wi) is computed from the
following equation:
Wi=wi/ ∑ ni=1wi………………………………………………………. (2.1)
where Wi is relative weight,
 wi is weight of each parameter and
n is number of parameters.
Then, a quality rating (qi) for each parameter is assigned by dividing its concentration in
each water sample by its limits values given by theWHO (2008) and
the result multiplied by 100:

qi=ci/si×100 …………………………………………………………. (2.2)

where qi is the quality rating,

Ci is the concentration of each chemical parameter in each water sample in mg/L,
and Si is the drinking water standard for each chemical parameter in milligrams per litre
according to the guidelines of the WHO (2008).
To calculate WQI, firstly SIi value should be determined with the following equations,
Sli=wi×si………………………………………………………. (2.3)

WQI=∑ ni=1sli……………………………………………… (2.4)

where, SIi is the subindex of ith parameter;
qi is the quality rating based on concentration of ith parameter (Ramakrishnaiah et al., 2009).

A general WQI approach is based on the most common factors, which are described in the
following three steps:

1. Parameter Selection: This is carried out by judgment of professional experts, agencies or

government institutions that is determined in the legislative area. The selection of the
variables from the 5 classes namely oxygen level, eutrophication, health aspects,
physical characteristics and dissolved substances, which have the considerable impact on
water quality, are recommended.

2. Determination of Quality Function (curve) for Each Parameter Considered as the Sub-
Index: Sub-indices transform to non-dimensional scale values from the variables of its
different units (ppm, saturation percentage, counts/volume etc.).
 3. Sub-Indices Aggregation with Mathematical Expression: This is frequently utilized
through arithmetic or geometric averages.

A huge number of water quality indices viz. Weight Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WAWQI),
National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index (NSFWQI), Canadian Council of Ministers
of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI), Oregon Water Quality Index (OWQI)
etc. have been formulated by several national and international organizations.

Table 2.6: The computed WQI values are classified into five categories

<50 Excellent water

50-100 Good water
100-200 Poor water
200-300 Very poor water
>300 Unsuitable for drinking

Sources: a)Sahu and Sikdar (2008), Yidana and Yidana (2010).

Table 2.7: Water Quality Rating as per different Water Quality Index methods

Table 2.7.1

National sanitation foundation water quality index

WQI Rating of water quality

91-100 Excellent water quality

71-90 Good water quality

51-70 Medium water quality

26-50 Bad water quality

0-25 Very bad water quality

Table 2.7.2

Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment

Water Quality Index (WQI) Rating of Water Quality

95-100 Excellent water quality

80-94 Good water quality

60-79 Fair water quality

45-59 Marginal water quality

Table 2.7.3
Oregon water quality index(OWQI)

90-100 Excellent water quality

85-89 Good water quality

80-8 Fair water quality

60-79 Poor quality

0-59 Very poor quality

2.8.2 Previous Studies on Water Quality Index

Begum Tahmina1, Dey Sujan1*, Roy Karabil, Mostofa Kamal Abu Hena2 , Khan Ruhul Amin
and Sultana Sharmin, (2018), calculated the WQI (PH, TDS, DO, salinity, EC, odor,
temperature, color) for dry and wet season and also compared the important physicochemical and
microbiological parameters value.

S.M. Didar-Ul Islam*, Gausul Azam, (2015) studied seasonal variation and toxic properties in
three different rivers in Dhaka city. The results envisaged the, deteriorate of water quality with
significant seasonal changes. In order to characterize the seasonal variability of surface water
quality in these three rivers, Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated from 14 parameters,
periodically measured at three sampling sites of each river round a year. The results indicated a
relatively good water quality was found in monsoon and the seasonal order of pollution
magnitude is post-monsoon gt; pre-monsoon gt; monsoon. Water quality conditions were critical
during post monsoon, due to increase of anthropogenic interferences, low rainfall and river flow.

Nazeer, S., Hashmi, M. Z., &amp; Malik, R. N. (2014). Heavy metals distribution, risk
assessment and water quality characterization by water quality index of the River Soan, Pakistan.
According to the classification carried out on the basis of EF, the bed sediment samples were
significantly contaminated with Cd and moderately contaminated with Pb and Zn. While Cd, Pb,
Ni, Cu and Cr showed significant contamination and Zn showed moderate contamination in the
suspended sediment samples. Potential risk index revealed moderate ecological risk in the
suspended sediment samples of urban areas. The results suggested that Cd, Zn and Pb threats to
aquatic ecosystem should not be ignored.

Saquib Ahmad Khan1, Shaikh Sayed Ahammed2, K. Ayaz Rabbani3, Md. Abdul Khaleque,
(2020), The study was conducted to calculate the WQI of Turag River using water quality
parameters collected from 11 different sampling locations along the river. Five water quality
parameters were used to calculate the WQI. It was found the upstream Turag has very poor water
quality and gt;76 and 50 and lt;100 due to congested, dense and unplanned growth of housing
and industries who use the river as extensively dumping grounds. When moving towards
midstream the WQI improves slightly to poor &gt;50 and &lt;75 due to decrease in industries,
factories and residences and increase in agricultural lands leading to less pollutant discharge into
the water.

2.9 Soil-water partitioning of contaminants assessment

Soil adsorption coefficient (Kd) is used to measure the amount of chemical substance adsorbed
onto soil per amount of water. It is also known as Freundlich solid-water distribution coefficients
(Kf). To determine the soil-water partitioning of contaminants, Soil adsorption coefficient plays
an important role.

Here,

Kd or Kf= Concentration of chemical in soil/Concentration of chemical substance in water

Values for Kd will vary greatly because the organic content of soil is not considered in the
equation.

Kd or Koc is measured to determine the mobility of a substance in soil. A very high value means
it is strongly adsorbed into soil and organic matter and does not move throughout the soil. If the
value is low, then it has high mobility. Kd or Koc is a very important input parameter for
estimating environmental distribution and exposure level of a substance.

For pesticides, higher Koc or Kd is better because pesticides are less likely to leach or flow as
surface runoff to contaminate ground water. If Koc of a substance is very high (for example, log
Koc >4.5), the potential adverse effects of the substance on terrestrial organisms should be
evaluated, e.g earthworms. To confirm the toxicity of a substance to soil organisms, additional
terrestrial toxicology tests should be conducted. McCall's Soil Mobility Classification is given in
Table no 2.8.1

McCall et al.'s classification scheme is the most frequently used soil mobility classification
scheme for chemicals. To determine the mobility class of a compound in soil, Koc is the only
parameter.

Table 2.8.1: McCall's Soil Mobility Classification

Range of Koc/Kd Mobility class

0-50 Very High

 50-150 High

150-500 Medium

500-2000 Low

2000-5000 Slightly

>5000 Immobile

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) has developed its own soil mobility classification
criteria for pesticides and they are recommended for use by the US EPA (United States
Environmental Protection Agency).

Table 2.8.2: FAO soil mobility classification

KOC (mL/g or L/kg) Log KOC (mL/g or L/kg) Mobility Class

<10 <1 Highly Mobile

10-100 1-2 Mobile

100-1000 2-3 Moderately Mobile

1000-10000 3-4 Slightly Mobile

10000-100000 4-5 Hardly Mobile

>100000 >5 Immobile

2.10 soil pollution assessment:

In many industrialized areas such as Tongi area, the use of land is impeded by soil pollution from
a variety of sources. Decisions on clean-up, management or set-aside of contaminated land are
based on various considerations, including human health risks.

2.10.1 Geochemical index

Geochemical index is measured to determine the metal pollution in soil sample. Igeo is
calculated to determine the enrichment of metal concentrations above the background level
which was proposed by Muller (1969).
Igeo is calculated using following equation:
Igeo = log2 (Cn/1.5×Bn)………………………………………….(2.5)
where
Cn = concentration of the element in the enriched samples
Bn = background value of the element

The factor 1.5 is multiplied to minimize the effect of possible variations in the background
values which is attributed to lithologic variations in the soils (Stoffers et al. 1986). Muller (1969)
proposed the descriptive classes for increasing Igeo value (Table No 2.9)

Table 2.9: Classification of Geo chemical Index

Class Value Soil dust quality

0 Igeo≤0 Uncontaminated

1 0< Igeo <1 Uncontaminated to moderately contaminated

2 1< Igeo <2 Moderately contaminated

 3 2< Igeo <3 Moderately to heavily contaminated

4 3< Igeo <4 Heavily contaminated

5 4< Igeo <5 Heavily to extremely contaminated

6 Igeo≥5 Extremely contaminated

Source: Muller (1969)

2.10.2 Contamination factor and degree of contamination

To assess the soil contamination, contamination factor and degree was measured as suggested by
Hakanson (1980)

CF= C Heavy metal/C Background ……………………………. (2.6)

Where,

C Heavy metal = content of metals in the soil (mg/g dw)

C Background = preindustrial concentration of metal.

Contamination factor is used to estimate the pollution of the environment by single substances.
The sum of contamination factors expresses the value of contamination degree by which we can
determine the contamination of the environment by all examined substances.

The degree of contamination defines the quality of the environment is given in table no (2.10)

Table No. 2.10: The degree of contamination characterization range

CF<1 Low Enrichment Factor

1≤ CF<3 Moderate Contamination Factor

 3 ≤ CF < 6 Considerable Contamination Factor

6 ≤ CF Very High Contamination Factor

Source: Hakanson (1980)

Notes: By determining the proportion of a given element in the contan-fination, the value of
contamination degree may be utilized in characterizing the role of a given element in the global
contamination of the reservoir, (Hakanson 1980; Hakanson and Jansson 1983).

2.10.3 Pollution load index

The Pollution Load Index (PLI) determines the degree to which the soil sediment is
associated with heavy metal which might impact the micro flora and fauna of soil. It is an
important tool to determine the degree of soil pollution.
The Pollution Load Index (PLI) is obtained as concentration Factors (CF). The PLI of the study
area are calculated by obtaining the n-root from the n- CFs that was obtained for all the metals.
The PLI value of which is greater than 1 is polluted, whereas <1 indicates no pollution
(Harikumar et al. 2009). Generally, Pollution Load Index (PLI) was developed by (Tomlinson et
al. 1980), which is as follows:

PLI= n√(CF1*CF2*CF3*…….CFN)……………………………….. (2.7)

where,
CF=Contamination Factor= (C sample/C background)
PLI=Pollution Load Index
2.11 Uptake and Transport processes of heavy metal contaminants from soil to plant

The strong ability of heavy metals uptake by leafy vegetables were possibly due to the leaves being
the main part responsible for photosynthesis, because higher metals were carried to the leaves by
mass flow during strong transpiration. As red amaranth and Malabar spinach are dwarfish plants
with leaves closer to the ground, so the leaves were easily exposed to the soil which may be
contaminated with heavy metals. Furthermore, another reason for elevated
concentration in leafy vegetables may be due to the atmospheric deposition of heavy metals in
mining and smelting areas (Zhou et al., 2016). The concentration levels of Pb in Cucumber, water
spinach, Malabar spinach, cauliflower and green banana; Zn in Malabar spinach; Cd in tomato,
water spinach, red amaranth and Malabar spinach; and Cr in all vegetables exceeded the
recommended levels of contaminants in foods given by FAO/WHO (2001).

2.11.1 Previous studies

H. Vandenhove, G. Olyslaegers et al., (2009) experimented soil to plant metal transfer based on the
extensive literature survey. The metals are U, Th, Ra, Pb and Ro. Transfer factor was also
calculated as per soil group, by their texture and organic matter content and also for major groups of
leafy crops, non -leafy crops and root crops.

Kim, Ji-Young et al., (2012) experimented transfer factor of heavy metals from soil to plant. The
study was conducted to experiment the transfer ability of heavy metals As, Cd and Pb. The result
was found to be 0.006-0.309 for As, 0.002-6.185 for Cd and 0.003-0.602 for Pb. The mean valur for
TF was found to be 0.309 in rice, lettuce 6.185, pear 0.717 for As, for Cd, 0.308 in rice, lettuce 0.602,
pumpkin 0.536 in Pb.

Rukie Agic, Lidija Milenkovic et al., (2015) conducted an experiment on accumulation of heavy metals
on 10 different crops. The crops were corn (Zea mays L.), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), potato
(Solanum tuberosum L.), cabbage (Brassica oleracea var.capitata L.), onion (Allium cepa L.),
tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris
subsp.vulgaris L.), pepper (Capsicum annuum L, plantain (Plantago major L.). The study indicated
that Cd and Zn accumulated most of the transfer factor of 1.0-10, followed by Cu with TF of 0.1-
1.0, while Pb had the lowest accumulation with TF usually 0.01-0.1.

Heavy metals may enter into different vegetables by various ways. It can be uptake by soil pore
water, diffusion from soil to air, by deposition of soil and by direct applications. The main process
that heavy metal can enter to vegetable from plant are
1. uptake with transpiration water
2. diffusion from soil to roots
3. attachment of soil particles

2.11.2 Formula

Transmission of heavy metals from soil to plant was determined using an index called Transfer
factor index (TF). It is calculated as a ratio of concentration of a specific metal in plant tissue to the
concentration of same metal in soil.( Nataša Mirecki, December 2015)

TF = C Plant / C Soil ……………………….. (2.8)

Where,
C plant= Concentration of specific metal in plants, mg/kg fresh weight
C Soil= Concentration of specific metal in soil, mg/kg dry weight

Quality of the plants using transfer factor is given in table no 2.11

Table No. 2.11: Quality range of plants by Transfer Factor

TF>1 Plants have accumulated heavy metals
TF=1 Plants are not influenced by heavy metals.
TF<1 Plants exclude the heavy metals from the
uptake
2.12 Assessment of daily intake of heavy metal
for assessment of the heavy metals concentration in the human body contributed by contaminated
vegetables, are discussed. These methods include the daily intake of metals (DIM) or DMI (Daily
Metal Intake).

2.12.1 Previous Studies

S. khan, Q. Cao., (2008) conducted an experiment on health risks by the consumption of food crops
irrigated from wastewater which was collected from Beijing, China. Study showed that heavy metal
concentration in crops were higher than plants grown in unpolluted soil. Health risk index values
were also determined in both children and adult.

Amir Ismail, Saeed Akhter et al., (2015) estimated daily intake and health risk of heavy metals by
consumption of milk. Heavy metals Cd, Co, Pb and Ni were determined in 480 milk samples by
flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Mean concentrations were found 0.001, 0.061, 0.014, 0.738
and 0.028 mg/kg for the metals respectively.

Kifayatullah Khan et al., (2013) conducted an experiment on heavy metal accumulation for soil and
crops and health risks of local people in Swat district, Northern Pakistan. The study was conducted
on heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni and Zn for agricultural soil and crops. The health risk
showed that there was no health risk except for the metal Cd. Metal transfer factor was found higher
for Cd also.

2.12.2 Formula

Health risk assessment with heavy metals can be evaluated by calculating Daily Metal Intake
(DMI). (BBS,2015)

DMI= (VIR*C)/BW…………………………………. (2.9)

Here,
DMI= Daily metal intake
VIR= Vegetable ingestion rate (mg person-1day-1)
C= Individual metal concentration in edible parts of vegetable sample
BW= Body weight
How much heavy metal is consumed by a person is estimated by DMI. As heavy metal is poisonous
for human health, it plays a significant role to determine the health risk.
Tolerable metal intake values for adults are given in Table no 2.12

Table 2.12: Tolerable metal intake values for adults

Hazard Provisional tolerable weekly intake(PTWI)
mg/kg of body weight
Arsenic PTWI 0.015 mg/kg body weight
Cadmium PTWI 0.007 mg/kg body weight
Lead PTWI 0.025 mg/kg body weight
Mercury PTWI 0.0016 mg/kg body weight
Source: World Health Organization (WHO), (May 2007)