BIOLOGY NOTES

CHAPTER 13

13.1

Respiration and photosynthesis are opposite processes.

● Photosynthesis makes glucose. Respiration breaks glucose down.
● Respiration in plants and animals uses oxygen. Photosynthesis returns
oxygen to the atmosphere.
● Respiration is an exothermic reaction – It releases energy.
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction because it takes in light energy.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS WORD EQUATION

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, mainly in leaf cells. These cells take
carbon dioxide from the air. Most leaves are very thin so gases diffuse in and out
quickly. The water needed for photosynthesis is brought up from the roots in xylem
vessels.
Some of the sugars made by leaf cells are moved to cells that have no chloroplasts.
The sugars travel through the plant in phloem tubes. Other sugars are converted to
starch and stored in leaves. Iodine can show where photosynthesis has taken place.
It turns any stored starch dark blue.

13.3

Roots replace the water plants lose by transpiration.

As their leaves lose water by transpiration, more water moves up through xylem
vessels from their roots to replace it. The roots take in fresh water from the pipes.
Growing plants like this is called hydroponics.

Roots take in minerals by active transport. The minerals can’t simply diffuse into
plant cells like oxygen does. They need to be moved from where they are very
spread out (in soil) to where they are concentrated (in plant cells). So the roots need
to use energy when they take in minerals. To release the energy they need for active
transport, roots must respire – so they need oxygen. When roots grow in soil they
take oxygen from the air between soil particles. They can take some oxygen from
water, but oxygen isn’t very soluble. Aeroponics lets roots get extra oxygen. The
roots are left dangling in the air. They are sprayed with water and dissolved minerals
every few minutes. The roots stay moist and get as much oxygen as they can use.
Aeroponics makes plants grow faster and use less water.

13.5

Flowers contain male and female sex organs. They let plants reproduce by making
seeds. Seed development begins when a male sex cell fertilises a female sex cell.
Some plants produce male and female sex cells in separate flowers. Others have
their male and female sex organs in the same flowers.

The male parts of a flower are called stamens. The most important part of a stamen
is its anther. This produces pollen which carries the male sex cell. Each anther has a
filament to hold it in a good position to spread its pollen

The female part of a flower is called a carpel. At the base of each carpel there is an
ovary. This produces ovules which contain female sex cells. Above the ovary is a
sticky stigma which catches pollen. The style separates the stigma from the ovaries.

Male and female sex cells are called gametes. To bring them together, pollen needs
to be moved from a stamen to a stigma. This is pollination. Many flowers can
self-pollinate. This happens when pollen moves to a stigma in the same flower, or a
stigma in another flower on the same plant. For the long-term future of the species,
cross-pollination is better. This means the pollen moves to the stigma of a flower on
another plant. It gives the plants’ offspring a greater variety of characteristics. To stop
self-pollination happening, flowers can produce their male and female gametes at
different times.

Many flowers use insects such as bees to spread their pollen. They use scents,
coloured petals, and sugary nectar to attract the bees. When a bee visits a flower it
gets covered with sticky pollen grains. As it moves from flower to flower, it leaves this
pollen on their stigmas. Most grasses and many trees rely on the wind to spread
their pollen. They do not need to attract insects so their flowers lack petals and
nectaries. Their pollen is small and light and their stamens and feathery stigmas
hang out to catch the wind.

A pollen grain begins to grow when it lands on a stigma. It sends a pollen tube down
through the style to an ovule. The male gamete’s nucleus moves down through this
tube, enters an egg cell, and fuses with the egg cell nucleus. This is fertilisation.
The fertilised egg grows into an embryo, and the ovule produces a seed to protect it.
As the seed develops, the ovary forms a fruit around it. If the ovary wall becomes
very hard, the fruit is called a nut.

13.6

Cool, dry seeds can last for years. The embryos inside them are dormant. That
means they are alive but not growing. They start to grow when they have water, a
suitable temperature, and oxygen. This is germination. Some seeds also need light
to germinate. While it is dormant an embryo inside a seed can travel long distances
and survive conditions that would kill a growing plant, such as extreme temperatures
or lack of water.

Seedlings would struggle to grow in the space between these tree trunks. There is
too much competition for light and water. Older trees block off most of the light and
extract nearly all the water from the soil. Any seedlings that germinated here would
not survive for long. To increase their chance of survival, they need to get a long way
from their parents. Spreading seeds away from the parent plants is called seed
dispersal. Some plants rely on the wind, or water, to carry the seeds away. Some
use animals. Others simply shoot their seeds into the air.
Some animals deliberately collect seeds and nuts. Others carry sticky fruits and
seeds accidentally. Many plants rely on their fruits being eaten and their seeds
deposited elsewhere.
CHAPTER 14

14.1

Adaptations are specialised characteristics that help an organism survive.

Adaptations help animals to find food and avoid predators. They can be
physical features or behaviours. Most adaptations take many generations to
develop.

Prey animals have adaptations that make them hard to see, hard to catch, or
difficult to eat. They might have spines, hard shells, nasty tastes, or produce
toxins. These adaptations put off most predators. Defenceless prey can hide
underground or use camouflage to blend with their surroundings. A few use
colour to mimic more dangerous species. Prey animals have eyes on the
sides of their heads. This gives them good all-round vision to spot predators.
Large ears also help, or a good sense of smell. Living in large groups makes
life easier for prey. They can take turns to look out for predators, which gives
them more time for eating. A predator will only catch one group member – the
slowest or weakest. Predator animals have different adaptations.
Forward-facing eyes help them locate their prey. Weapons are also useful, like
a sharp beak, teeth, or claws. Predators can also use camouflage to avoid
detection.

In open spaces, speed is a useful adaptation. It can help predators catch their
prey, and help prey to avoid being eaten. Fast land animals usually have long
legs and efficient lungs. Those that live in water have strong tail muscles. The
fastest animals have smooth streamlined shapes that are narrow at both ends.
In crowded forests speed is not so useful. Animals that live in trees need a
good sense of balance and feet that can grip the branches. On loose sand or
snow, wide feet are useful. They don’t sink in. Animals that push themselves
through water, or dig, also need wide feet. On ice or steep mountainsides a
good grip is essential. Animals that fly or glide need to be lightweight and have
a large surface area
14.2

Some desert plants have long horizontal roots, thick stems, small fleshy
leaves, spines, or waxy coatings. Others are able to dry out without dying.
Desert animals extract water from food, avoid sweating, and produce
concentrated urine.

Adaptations that conserve heat help animals survive in cold places. Animals
need to keep warm to survive in the Arctic.

A large rounded body, fat, and thick feathers or fur help them to retain heat. A
large body holds more heat and a rounded shape cools down more slowly.
Long thin bodies with large ears lose heat quickly. Layers of fat, and the air
trapped in fur, are both good insulators, so they also cut heat loss. Animals
also use behaviours to control their temperature. They can keep warm by
huddling together.

Deep in the oceans it is cold and dark and there isn’t much oxygen. Many of
the animals here use feelers or smell instead of eyes. They move slowly to
save energy and can survive for months without food. Some fish use chemical
reactions to create light so they can see. Others use light to attract prey or find
mates. The light is produced by bacteria living inside their tissues.

14.3

When the environment changes, existing adaptations can become less useful.
Species that can’t move away or adapt become extinct. Environmental
changes can affect some species more than others.

14.5

Ecologists study animals in their environments by:

● direct observation
● studying their tracks
● using automatic cameras and electronic tags.