Art Appreciation Module 5 or the more complex sucrose.

These formulations are almost the same with elements

of art when they are joined together, in a variety of ways. In the same line of
reasoning, elements of art are the aspects of an artwork that can be isolated from each
Name: _____________________________________________________________
other.
Year and Course: _______________ These elements of art are generally produced when something is done to the
medium after the technique is carried out. It must be underscored, however, that all
works of art require all elements to be present. Some art forms also necessitate some
LEARNING OBJECTIVES of the elements as they are inherent in the very nature of them. For example,
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to: sculptures automatically have the following elements with or without the decision of
1. enumerate the different elements of visual and auditory art; the artist to include them: shape, form, and space. Without these elements, there is no
2. differentiate the principles of art: sculpture to begin with. Elements are the necessary preconditions for the creation of
3. provide examples of the interrelatedness of some of the elements and art.
principles of art; To enumerate, the elements of art and design are the following: line, shape
4. explain the relevance of the elements and principles of art in the study of art and form, space, color, and texture.
and its products (artworks); and 1. Line
5. illustrate examples of hybrid art and dissect what art forms are combined A line refers to a point moving at an identifiable path-it has length and
therein. direction. It also has width. It is one-dimensional, however, it has the capacity to
either define the perimeters of the artwork (edges) and/or become a substantial
component of the composition. Although a line is "simple," it has variations in view
LESSON 6
of its orientation/direction, shape, and thickness. These variations import not only the
ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF ART
visual elements into the artwork, but suggest meaning or message being conveyed by
the artist.
INTRODUCTION Known for using lines to
In the chapter on Subject and Content, it was mentioned that arts have a provide the outline or contour of the
specialized language. And to be able to understand this language, the familiarity with figures ne portrays in his work, Keith
some of the elements and principles that make it legible is required. Think of it as the Haring first executed the public
letters—the stringing of letters to formulate words, and perhaps even the different mural "Todos juntos podemos parar
pronunciations and enunciations that assist comprehension. el sida" (Together We Can Stop
The next chapter endeavors to take art and break it into its smaller parts. Like a AIDS) in Barcelona in lines, on the
scientist who takes a splice or a sample and places it under a microscope, the next other hand, are reminiscent of
lesson will allow for a better view, not of the final picture; rather, the parts that violence, conflict, or struggle.
complete it. Keith Haring, "Todos juntos podemos parar el sida" (We
Curved lines-these are lines that
Can All Together Stop AIDS). Plastic paint on wall. bend or coil. They allude to softness,
Let's Get Down to Business MACBA Collection. Barcelona City Council long-term. 1989. In 2014, it was recreated at the
Elements of Art: Visual foyer of the Museu d'Art
Taking off from the scientific reference, elements of art are akin to the atoms Contemporani de Barcelona (Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art) to
that are defined as the units or "building blocks" of matter. Together, in a variety of commemorate it. Haring battled with HIV/AIDS to which he succumbed to in 1990.
combinations and formations, they have the ability to create molecules such as water
A quality that is ascribed to lines is its ability to direct the eyes to follow movement
or provide hints as to a work's focal point. The orientation in which we are most
accustomed to such as the assertive force of gravity grounding objects, or the
sideways or up-and-down vibration that informs us of an earthquake, the gustiness of
wind from the window, or the direction of the rainfall conjures different images of
lines.
a. Horizontal and vertical lines - refers to the orientation of the line. Horizontal
lines are normally associated with rest or calm. Landscapes often contain
these elements as works like these often connote a visual sense of being
parallel to the ground. It also alludes to position of the reclined body at rest.
Vertical lines, on the other hand, connote elevation or height, which is usually
taken to mean exaltation or aspiration for action. Together, these lines
communicate stability and firmness.
b. Diagonal and crooked lines - diagonal lines convey movement and instability,
although the progression can be seen. Crooked or jagged lines, on the other
hand, are reminiscent of violence, conflict, or struggle.
c. Curved lines – these are lines that bend or coil. They allude to softness, grace,
flexibility, or even sensuality.
One of the most important Spanish artists is Francisco de Goya. Known for his
prints, he is a master of etched works and use of aquatint. He made use of this
medium to articulate his political views about the ills of society, war scenes, and even
the dreamlike and grotesque while still engaging with what was happening around
him. As with most etchings and other types of prints, lines are dominant visual
components.
Lines may not necessarily be explicit or literally shown. As what many examples
will portray, implied lines may be just as powerful, if not more. In "The Raft of
Medusa," the position and orientation of the bodies that are aboard the raft are
predominantly diagonal in direction. This creates not only movement but also tension
in the scene. Based on an actual event, the painting depicts the 1816 wreckage of the
French government ship called Medusa.
2-3. Shape and Form
These two are related to each other in the sense that they define the space occupied by
the object of art. Shape refers to two dimensions: height and width, while form refers
to three dimensions: height, width, and depth. Even if shapes are part of a bigger
picture, each can be identified by breaking the visual components apart and making
distinctions based on what we know and what we have seen. Two categories can be
used as a broad distinction:
a. Geometric - these shapes find origin in mathematical propositions, as such, its
translation and use are often man-made. These include shapes such as squares,
triangles, cubes, circles, spheres, and cones, among others.
b. Organic - organic shapes are those readily occurring in nature, often irregular
and asymmetrical. The design of the vase in Figure 55 is foliage, a sample
from a series that made use of morning glories.
Figure 55. Louis Comfort Tiffany (designer), Tiffany Furnaces
(Maker). Vase made of favrile glass. (c.a. 1913). Gift of Louis
Comfort Tiffany Foundation, 1951. The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York.
Shapes may also be implied. For instance,
Raphael's famous painting "The Madonna of the
Meadows" depicts three figures: Mary, the young
Jesus (right), and the young John the Baptist
(left). The positions in which the group takes
allude to a triangular shape reinforced by the garb of Mary.
4. Space
Related to shape and form is space. It is usually inferred from a sense of
depth, whether it is real or simulated. Real space is three-dimensional. Like what has
been previously mentioned, sculptures are a perfect example of artworks that bear this
element. However, this can only be manifested in two-dimensional artworks through
the use of different techniques, or the use (or non-use) of area around a drawing or
picture.
In the middle of the AT&T Plaza at the Millennium Park in the Loop
Community area in Chicago, the iconic "Cloud Gate" occupies a considerable space.
Shaped like a bean, hence its other referent, the public sculpture was unveiled in
2004. The dent in the middle offers a gap in which people can pass through and gaze
at the sculpture in a different perspective.
However, not all works are sculptures. In two-dimensional artworks, they may
be implied.
a. Positive and negative space - usually identified with the white space is the
negative space. The positive space, on the other hand, is the space where
shadow is heavily used.
 b. Three-dimensional space - can be simulated through a variety of techniques
such as shading. An illusion of three-dimensionality can be achieved in a two-
dimensional work.
5. Color
Color is perhaps one of the elements that enhances the appeal of an artwork.
Its effect has range, allowing the viewer to make responses based on memory,
emotion, and instinct, among others. This element is a property of light, as it is
reflected off the object. Color is not intrinsic to an object and without light, one
cannot perceive color. Much of what we know about colors begin with the notion of a
Color Theory that was first unraveled by the experiments undertaken by Sir Isaac
Newton in 1666. A ray of sunlight passing through a prism reveals an array of colors
akin to that of a rainbow.
An upshot of this color theory is the creation of a color wheel.
The color wheel corresponds to the first property of color, hue.
Figure 58. Color Wheel courtesy of Jaime
Costiglio.
a. Hue - this dimension of color gives its name. It can be subdivided into:
 Primary colors - red, yellow, and blue
 Secondary colors - green, orange, and violet
 Tertiary colors - six in total, these hues are
achieved when primary and secondary
colors are mixed
b. Value - this refers to the brightness or darkness of color. Often, this is used by
artists to create the illusion of depth and solidity, a particular mood, communicate
a feeling, or in establishing a scene (e.g., day and night).
 Light colors-taken as the source of light in the composition
 Dark colors - the lack or even absence of light
However, we can identify the color even when a range is presented to us.
Expectations are also established based on the notion that yellow is within the light
value; whereas, violet is in the dark. Each primary color has a range of values based
on the addition and diminishing quantity and quality of light.
 Tint - this is a lighter color than the normal value (e.g., pink for red)
 Shade - this is a darker color than the normal value (e.g., maroon for red)
C. Intensity - this is the color's brightness or dullness. It is identified as the strength of
color, whether it is vivid or muted. To achieve a specific intensity of a color, one may
add either gray or its complementary color.
 Bright or warm colors - positive energy
 Dull or cool colors - sedate/soothing, seriousness or calm
To better understand intensity of color harmonies are to be considered. In
interior design, we often hear designers refer to color schemes-a guide for selecting
not only wall paint but also furniture and decor. However, color harmonies are also
integral considerations not only for pictorial arts but also for other art forms.
 Monochromatic harmonies - use the variations of a hue.
 Complementary harmonies - involve two colors opposite each other in the
color wheel. Since they are at contrary positions, the reaction is most intense
 Analogous harmonies - make use of two colors beside each other in the color
wheel.
Other harmonies have emerged such as triadic harmonies, which make use of
three colors from equidistant sites within the color wheel. This, however, does not
mean that artists will limit themselves to these kinds of harmonies. These are but
jump-off points that artists and other creatives use.
All in all, color presents a multitude of possibilities that affects how works of
art are taken in by the viewer. Just taking a look at fiery and passionate reds of the
clouds and the sky in Edvard Munch's "The Scream," would bring oneself to ask: Did
Munch depict a romantic sunset or a warning of coming horrors? A clue is not in the
colors alone, but rather, in the face of the man himself that is prominent in the
painting. His shriek would point to the latter. What is illustrated is that colors and
imagery work together to deliver a message, whether the one intended by the artist, or
what is facilitated by our own experiences.
1. Texture
 Like space, texture can be either real or implied. This element in an artwork is b. We were taught that parallel lines never meet. However, when they, too, seem
experienced through the sense of touch (and sight). This element renders the art to converge when they recede into a distance, at a point, they both disappear.
object tactile. This point of disappearance is called the vanishing point.
Often, texture is commonly associated with textiles. In the portrait rendered by An example often used to illustrate linear perspective is the railroad where tracks
court painter Frans Pourbus the Younger, Princess Margherita's garb is adorned in disappear off at a distance.
opulent bead and stitch work that are befitting her rank. This was achieved using the A viewpoint may also be construed as normal (view standing up), low (view
techniques employed by the artist in creating the work. from a lower angle), or high (view looking down on a scene) depending on the
position the viewer takes.
a. Textures in the two-dimensional plane - texture can be implied using one
There are three types of perspective, grounded on the number of vanishing
technique or a combination of other elements of art. By creating this visual
points used by the artist:
quality in the artwork, one can imagine how the surface will feel if it was to be
a. One-point perspective - often used in depicting roads, tracks, hallways, or
touched. Some of the words used to describe texture are the following: rough
rows of trees; this type of perspective shows parallel lines that seem to
or smooth, hard or soft, hairy, leathery, sharp dull, etc. To be able to simulate
converge at a specific and lone vanishing point, along the horizon line.
the of a surface in a flat, two- dimensional plan is one important skill that an
b. Two-point perspective - pertains to a painting or drawing that makes use of
artist must be familiar with, especially if his idea or concept necessitates it.
two vanishing points, which can be placed anywhere along the horizon line. It
b. Surface texture - refers to the texture of the three-dimensional art object. The
is often used in depicting structures such as houses or buildings in the
elements of art make it possible to engage with the visual and tactile qualities
landscape that are viewed from a specific corner.
of the artwork through a "common language that may be widely understood.
c. Three-point perspective - in this type of perspective, the viewer is looking at a
Through these elements, there is something from which the idea, concept,
scene from above or below. As the name suggests, it makes use of the three
message, or intended mood of the artist may be inferred. It offers a starting
vanishing points, each corresponding to each axis of the scene.
point or a baseline from which analysis may take place. This kind of analysis
is called formal analysis of art.
Elements of Art: Auditory
Together with literature, music as an art form is classified as auditory art.
Planes and Perspective
However, some would argue that it is under the broad category of performance art.
Some art forms work with actual spaces, such as sculptors, architects, and stage
Either way, music, much like the visual arts, has its own building blocks or elements.
designers. However, with pictorial art that is two-dimensional, notions of depth and
Perhaps one of the most widespread forms of art, whose intersection in daily
hence perspective requires the implementation of principles and techniques in
life is most perceptible, is music. Music is sound organized in a specific time. It is
creating an illusion that will fool the eye to three-dimensionality when in reality there
considered an implement to cultural activities, answering a specific role or function.
is none. Picture plane is the actual surface of the painting or drawing, where no
During the times when man had to hunt for food, music was used as a corral to herd
illusion of a third dimension exists. Here, the elements lay flat, as if one was looking
animals, or as an element of specific rituals or rites. Singing or dancing to music was
through a window into what lies on the other side of the glass.
also often included in opportunities for members of society to gather and interact.
During the Renaissance, specifically in the fifteenth century, chiaroscuro was
Some are adept with the skill and sense to produce music, while others consume it as
developed. It made use of light and dark contrasts and tones in which paintings not
listeners, audiences, and even performers.
only looked three-dimensional, but also more dramatic. Aside from this technique,
If there is an important quality that music has, it is having the capacity to
linear perspective changed the way pictorial representation was done. Credited to
transcend barriers, even that of differences in language or conventions in sound.
Renaissance artists, its early proponents include Leon Battista Alberti, Paolo Uccello,
Different demographics, groups, and individuals may have specific preferences as to
Alberti's On Painting in 1435.
the genre of music. However, in order to establish this preference, listeners often take
Its use was based on the following observations:
to its elements for its evaluation. Some of the common elements of music are the
a. As forms and objects recede, the smaller they become.
following: rhythm, dynamics, melody, harmony, timbre, and texture.
 Harmony can be described in terms of its "harshness": dissonance is the harsh-
sounding combination while consonance is the smooth-sounding combination.
5. Timbre
1. Rhythm Timbre is often likened to the color of music. It is a quality that distinguishes a voice
Often associated to the terms beat, meter, and tempo, rhythm is the element of or an instrument from another. Dependent on the technique, the timbre may give a
music that situates it in time. It is the pulse of the music. Beat is the basic unit of certain tone or characteristic to music, much like how a painter evokes different
music while tempo refers to its speed (beats/second). Beats can be organized into a effects or impressions onto the canvas.
recognizable recurrent pattern, which is called the meter. 6. Texture
Classical terms are used to refer to the variations in tempo, some of which are: The number of melodies, the type of layers, and their relatedness in a
 Largo - slowly and broadly composition is the texture of music. It may be:
 Andante - walking pace  Monophonic - single melodic line
 Moderato - at moderate speed  Polyphonic - two or more melodic lines
 Allegro - fast  Homophonic - main melody accompanied by chords
 Vivace - lively Akin to artworks whose style, medium, and technique emphasize some of the
 Accelerando - gradually speeding up elements in visual arts, a composition and genre of music may emphasize the
 Rallentado - gradually slowing down elements of music previously outlined. Some elements may even be de-emphasized or
 Allargando - getting slower, broadening omitted altogether. Like what was mentioned, these elements may be isolated from
 Rubato - literally "robbed time," rhythm is played freely for expressive each other. However, as visual or musical compositions, the combination of these
effect elements in art is what we initially engage with.
2. Dynamics Most often, elements do not only coexist in the artwork, but are fused together or
The element of music that refers to the loudness or quietness of music is dynamics. overlap with each other. In visual arts, most artworks have overlapping elements.
Classical terms are used to refer to the different levels pertaining to this:
Principles of Art
 Pianissimo [pp] - very quiet
To reiterate, the appreciation and engagement of art relies substantially on
 Piano [p] - quiet
being equipped with the appropriate language that allows it to be more
 Mezzo-piano [mp] - moderately quiet comprehensible. If the elements of art were like the letters (i.e., combining these
 Mezzo-forte [mf] - moderately loud letters will form words, phrases, and sentences), then the principles of art would
 Forte [f] - loud perhaps be the closest to the rules of grammar and composition. Learning these
 Fortissimo [ff] - very loud principles will lessen the intimidation and might even open vast possibilities for the
When composers indicate an increase, or decrease in loudness, they use the terms novice looker to have a more pleasurable experience of art. These principles will
crescendo for the former; and decrescendo or diminuendo for the latter. provide explicit ways in which these elements are used, how they are manipulated,
how they interact, and how they inform the overall composition of the artwork to
3. Melody assist the artist in conveying his intention. It is the principles of art that influence the
Melody refers to the linear presentation (horizontal) of pitch. By horizontal, it effect achieved by the elements, and the linkages of other principles. These principles
means that in musical notation, it is read in succession from left to right. Pitch is the are: balance, scale and proportion, emphasis and contrast, unity and variety, harmony,
highness or lowness of musical sound. movement, rhythm, and repetition and pattern.
4. Harmony
If melody is horizontal, harmony is vertical. It arises when pitches are combined 1. Balance
to form chords. When several notes are simultaneously played, this refers to a chord.
 This principle refers to the distribution of the visual elements in view of their
placement in relation to each other.
There are three forms of balance:
a. Symmetrical - the elements used on one side are reflected to the other. This
offers the most stable visual sense to any artwork.
b. Asymmetrical - the elements are not the same (or of the same weight) on each
side, putting the heaviness on one side.
c. Radial – there is a central point in the composition, around which elements
and objects are distributed
2. Scale and Proportion
Scale pertains to the size in relation to what is normal for the figure or object
in question.
Sculptures of exaggerate scale are common all over the world as many artists
are taken by the whimsical quality of these objects. One cannot help but smile upon
seeing them in public spaces. In the Philippines, Arturo Luz has created enormous
sculptural versions of the paper clip. For a long time, it occupied a prominent spot at
the entrance of the Ayala Museum.
Proportion, on the other hand, is the size of the components, or of objects in
relation to one another when taken as a composition or a unit. This can also refer to
values such as amounts or number of elements or objects in the composition.
One of the most common cannons asserted relates to the proportion of the
body. This varies from one culture or tradition to another. For the Egyptian artists, the
human form follows a square grid and is informed by the palm of the hand as a unit of
measure. To complete a standing human figure, 18 units (squares) are needed from
head to foot. On the other hand, Greeks held that numerical relationships—the golden
ratio-was the key to beauty or to perfection. In the golden ratio, the figure is divided
into two unequal segments wherein the smaller is the same ratio to the larger segment,
and that the longer segment is the same ratio in relation to the whole. In figures, it can
be valued at 1:1.618.
Leonardo da Vinci's "Vitruvian Man" is an exploration on the ideas of the
Roman architect Vitruvius, in which the human body is an example of a classical
proportion in architecture. For da Vinci, man's body can be used to better understand
the symmetry that exists in nature and the universe.
Proportion can be:
a. Natural - relates to the realistic size of the visual elements in the artwork,
especially for figurative artworks. When it is the accuracy in relation to the
real world that the artist is after, this is now referred to as the principle of
scale.
b. Exaggerated - refers to the unusual size relations of visual elements,
deliberately exaggerating the immensity or minuteness of an object.
In relation to this, there are notions in scale that differentiate when
an element is smaller than expected (diminutive), and when something
appears to be larger than what is presumed (monumental).
c. Idealized - most common to those that follow canons of perfection, the size-
relations of elements or objects, which achieve the most ideal size-relations.
3-4. Emphasis and Contrast
Emphasis allows the attention of the viewer to a focal point(s), accentuating or
drawing attention to these elements or objects. This can be done through the
manipulation of the elements or through the assistance of other principles, especially
that of contrast.
Contrast is the disparity between the elements that figure into the composition.
One object may be made stronger compared to other objects (hence, emphasis). This
can be done in many ways using the elements of art. For instance, space, specifically
the use of negative and positive space, is an example of contrast. Another example is
the use of complementary
colors in a work of art.
5-6. Unity and Variety
Unless intended to be otherwise, compositions are intended to imbue a sense
of accord or completeness from the artwork. This is unity. Variety, on the other hand,
is the principle that aims to retain the interest by allowing patches or areas that both
excite and allow the eye to rest.
7. Harmony
Like what is hinted above, unity and variety is related to the principle of
harmony, in which the elements or objects achieve a sense of flow and
interconnectedness.
8. Movement
This refers to the direction of the viewing eye as it goes through the artwork,
often guided by areas or elements that are emphasized. These focal points can be
lines, edges, shape, and color within the work of art, among others.
9. Rhythm
This is created when an element is repeated, creating implied movement.
Variety of repetition helps invigorate rhythm as depicted in the artwork.

10-11. Repetition and Pattern
Lines, shapes, colors, and other elements may appear in an artwork in a
recurring manner. This is called repetition. In addition, the image created out of
repetition is called pattern. With repetition, there is a sense of predictability that is
conveyed, which in turn imbues the feelings of security and calmness.
Combined or Hybrid Art
Looking at the elements and principles of art previously discussed, it is
apparent that art may be defined under strict lines that separate one art form or style
to another. In a broad sense, it is easy to decipher visual arts from auditory arts. In the
same vein, when looking at more specific art forms, there is a considerable ease when
one is confronted with the challenge of differentiating a painting from a sculpture, a
print from a drawing, or a soundtrack from a poem. However, with the complexity of
contemporary times in which experimentation and innovation are encouraged, the arts
are not exempted from the increasing overlaps, merger, and fusion of different aspects
of art production and their resultant consumption. One of the buzzwords at the tail
end of the twentieth century is interdisciplinarity. Rooted on the realization that the
problems of society are becoming more and more complex, it is necessary that
solutions become innovative, wherein alternative routes to what is familiar, common
and customary are given premium. It was also a direct upshot of postmodernist ideas
in which barriers were more porous-strict delineation of art forms was overthrown to
make way for collaborations and partnerships between fields, professionals, and
creatives. The idea of a single-medium-based art seems like a strange past that no
longer holds in an interdisciplinary reality we live in.
In contemporary art, these developments were mirrored in the multifaceted
nature of artworks that were created. It is not surprising that themes, subjects, and the
or more art forms and styles are combined. Some examples of combined arts include
dance, theater, installation art, film, video art, documentary, photography, puppetry,
design, and other forms of production.
These combined art forms are interesting specimens that can be studied to
understand what art forms and styles have been combined, and furthermore, what
skills, techniques, or creative processes can be put together to produce interesting and
innovative compositions. In combined arts, improvisation is often tapped in addition
to practical and logical considerations of creating an artwork. From a specific vista of
an art form, there is a seeming road map to creation. However, in combined arts, the
artist is challenged to deconstruct an idea or stimulus, from which the content,
narrative, technique, art forms, and styles will take form. Often improvisation or
inventiveness is necessary to create an artwork that is to some extent unprecedented.
As different art forms and styles are tapped, inspiration may come from numerous
sources, and documenting the process of fusing these influences may be part of the
production. A clear example of combined art is a theatrical performance that taps into
many art forms such as music, 2D and 3D art, literature, lighting and set design,
among others. Another movement that is reminiscent of the motivations of the
Renaissance, and whose emergence is hinged on the frontiers of science and
technology, is called hybrid arts. Referencing and tapping into the fields of robotics,
artificial intelligence, biotechnology, natural and computer sciences,
telecommunications, information, digital and interface technologies (sof programs,
speech and face recognition, social media and online platforms, among many other
emergent developments), artists whose works tread under this movement disrupt the
norms in terms of what is considered as art, and even the way people envisage artistic
production. More than anything else, hybrid arts are driven by the expansion of the
imagination and what is possible through the "blistering pace of scientific and
technological development" (Piirma, 2014). At its heart is an inquiry-and through
information and data, the capacity of the artist to move around platforms, and the
implementation and manipulation of newfound tools in production, the artist is able to
address that inquiry.
Let's Wrap It Up
In any art appreciation course, the module or lesson on the elements and
principles of art are considered one of the most rudimentary stages in easing the
student into a meaningful experience with art, regardless of its form. A familiarity
with these building blocks of composition and formal analysis will aid the viewer in
his or her attempt to come into terms with the intention of the artist.
The elements and principles of art are essential to any artwork. Some of them
will be more obvious than others, becoming the anchors in which the viewer may
Watch on to engage with the artwork. The focal point(s) that draw the attention of the
viewer is also interesting to note, as this provides insight as to the interests and values
that are of most weight to him or her. These perhaps will help create a bridge in
Which a person, who may not normally find pleasure in looking at art, may consider
future engagements with it. In short, familiarity of the elements and principles has the
potential to break the barriers in which art becomes ineffable.
Let's Work on this Art Appreciation Module 5
1. What are the elements of art?
Name: _____________________________________________________________

Year and Course: _______________

2. In two-dimension artworks such as paintings, cite the elements and

principles of art that when utilized in the composition of the artwork, will
help simulate or suggest the three-dimensional space?

3. What is the relevance of combined arts and hybrid art in the twenty-first
century?
REFERENCE
Bernardo Nicolas Caslib, Jr., Dorothea C. Garing, Jezreel Ann R. Casaul, 2018, RBS
Art Appreciation, Published, copyrighted and distributed by Rex Book Store, Inc.
(RBSI) with main office at 856 Nicanor Reyes Sr. St., Sampaloc, Manila