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REMOTELY PILOTED AIRCRAFT FLEET DEVELOPMENT

Remotely Piloted Aircraft Fleet Development

Dustin Allsbrook

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

SYSE 641 Systems Psychology

Dr. Clint R. Balog

March 7, 2021
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Abstract

This research paper aims to establish the necessary procedures required to develop a remotely

piloted aircraft pilot and maintenance unit. The use of a model-based approach involves

compiling sufficient information to make an accurate assessment of required pilot training

programs, aircraft availability levels, and spare part stockpiles. The use of models allows

designers to precisely assume the components’ as mentioned above correct levels to ensure

undue stress is not imposed on the pilots and workers. A review of the stressors placed on drone

pilots and maintainers solidifies the requirement to develop a healthy working environment by

utilizing a macroergonomics perspective. Viewing the organization as a dynamical system allows

developers to understand the organization’s complexity, identifying feedback loops. Remotely

piloted aircraft units are highly complex sociotechnical systems that involve human and machine

intricacies, demanding a moderate level of automation for both planning purposes and system

operation. The following review portrays an incredibly intricate dynamical system that requires a

calculated approach to ensure viable sustainment when subjected to exogenous inputs and

environmental influence, as well as endogenous variations.

Keywords: remotely piloted aircraft, drones, dynamical systems, cybernetics, ergonomics,

macroergonomics, system development, systems engineering, sociotechnical systems

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Remotely Piloted Aircraft Fleet Development

This paper reviews a model-based approach to developing the sociotechnical orchestra of

remotely piloted fighter aircraft units. The use of remotely piloted aircraft removes pilots from

the high-risk locations where aerial attacks are engaged. This situation represents a complex

adaptive system where aircraft are subjected to scheduled and unscheduled maintenance, and

pilots manipulate ergonomically specialized operational pods during interaction with their

aircraft. Those involved in the employment of such aircraft have deployments, and other

movements levied upon them. Pilots experience post-traumatic stress due to witnessing civilian

casualties or perceiving themselves as contributors to the death and injury of those not involved

in the fight (Dunn et al., 2020).

The inherent movement involved with deployable fighter drone aircraft contributes to the

dynamical systems nature of the system. The fighter units’ operational requirements impose a

steady-state dissipative dynamical system status as units are often required to move to new aerial

engagement locations, where they return to a steady-state during aerial interdiction. Additionally,

these aviation maintenance units continuously develop forecasted plans based on the status,

representing the perturbation and stabilization design of dynamical systems (Hayes & Strauss,

1998). The systems theory approach to this topic applies as aircraft and human interaction lend

themselves to emergent traits and unintended consequences due to the interdependence between

machine and human. Human performance directly affects the aircraft’s performance as aircraft

performance and requirements affect the requirements of operators.

Remotely Piloted Aircraft Unit Design

Remotely piloted aircraft units pose a unit situation compared to those of typical aircraft

units. The incorporation of remote-control technology removes aviators from the battlefield
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while also subjecting them to similar psychological effects as their direct human-machine

interface compatriots. Employing drone capabilities means that operators will not always be

located in the same environment as their machines. This displacement adds a layer of complexity

to the dynamical systems’ operational abilities that are usually not present. Operators maintain

the ability to control their aircraft from other continents. There still exists a level of

interconnectedness that must be addressed using systems theory, as interconnectedness is the

foundation of both humble and arrogant systems theory (Ogilvy, 2013)

These unmanned aircraft units represent dynamical systems involving a sociotechnical

construct that gives way to emergent properties. The ability to launch aircraft from within the

United States borders, attack a target on another continent, and return home drastically extends

the context of warfighting. In this scenario, the humans experience front-line horrors and return

to their homes at the end of the day, creating a complex scenario that contributes to similar post-

traumatic stress experienced by infantry personnel but maintaining the same working and living

environment. It is difficult to mentally separate the two elements, thus creating an additional

layer of complexity. This dynamical system instills requirements that are difficult to fathom.

Groesser & Schaffernicht (2012) discussed the blind spots within the human psyche to pinpoint

dynamic behavior outcomes and the inability to forecast emergent properties.

Humans do not provide the only variable in this scenario. Aircraft required scheduled and

non-scheduled maintenance to remain usable for their various mission sets. An aircraft that is not

airworthy is not contributing to the mission and costing the unit money by both taking up space

and consuming spare parts and maintenance workers’ time. There exists some level of

predictability in the maintenance of these aircraft. Unmanned aircraft indeed possess a higher fail

rate than commercial aircraft (Petritoli et al., 2018). The higher levels of failure, in turn, generate
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the need for a robust logistic system and increased maintenance personnel numbers to service the

aircraft. Tokgöz et al. (2018) describe aircraft maintenance practices as an uphill battle to combat

deteriorating systems while simultaneously contributing to those systems’ deterioration.

Returning the aircraft to their perfect state is the goal, though that goal is tested by continuously

flying operationally capable aircraft. This feedback loop of flying aircraft, fixing aircraft that

break, and adjusting functions based on current aircraft status showcase dynamical systems’

characteristics, as dynamical systems are continuously moving towards the desired end-state.

Simultaneously, interdependencies between subcomponents influence the entire system (Kaplan

& Garner, 2017).

It is vital to identify the predictable traits of the system to prepare and adapt to the

unpredictability. Pilot training requirements and high-failure components are aspects of the

system which are quantifiable. The need to establish robust training programs and fortify logistic

chains produces the desire to utilize a model-based systems approach. As we understand models,

they do not duplicate reality but provide a representation of our perception of reality. Nielsen et

al. (2015) expand on the increased fidelity returned by utilizing a model-based approach while

shedding light on the necessity to use extremely precise calculations of how subcomponents

interact. A model is only as accurate as the information that is input into the system.

Using a model-based systems approach can help provide insight for future endeavors

within an already created system or the possibility of future systems. Our aircraft maintenance

units’ systems design requires an understanding of the requirements that are being tasked against

the unit. This information is necessary for the creation of the unit and for developing accurate

models. Employing a systems engineering approach to designing this system means systems

engineers must clearly define customer needs and required functionality and create a lifecycle
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management plan based on the system’s projected duration (Monat & Gannon, 2018). This plan

for developing a deployable drone unit entails using a model-based approach to assess the

required number of pilots, maintenance personnel, spare components, and aircraft to execute the

customer’s taskings. This plan assumes that the drone aircraft provides the necessary mission set

to accomplish the customer’s requirements.

Firstly, there must be a deliberate effort to understand the customer’s requirements, such

as the ability to engage enemy combatants from across the globe with little notice while

primarily providing operating capabilities from within the United States. Using the model-based

approach, this team of designers can project the required number of aircraft to fulfill the

functions based on attrition rates and component support. Additionally, the model-based

approach provides insight into the projected number of maintenance personnel and pilots

required to complete mission requirements and maintain safe and reliable aircraft. Aircrew must

maintain proficiencies which means models also help identify the projected amount of downtime

each sensor operator needs to stay effective in their duties. Overall, models will provide an

abundance of assistance in projecting spare parts quantities and manning requirements before

making large-scale purchases that can lead to losses in revenue or low aircraft availability due to

unintended extensive downtime.

System Design

Employing a model-based systems approach, as mentioned earlier, is only as accurate as

the information input into the model. The planning team will utilize mental models to develop a

precise understanding of component functionality and the interdependence between components

within the system. A mental model is an individual’s understanding of how a system functions,

though this is only an abstract representation (Groesser & Schaffernicht, 2012). As the systems
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engineering team evaluates the interdependencies within the systems, they can begin to develop

accurate models to project the outputs from their interactions. In the drone unit scenario, pilot

training and aircraft availability are two interdependent functions. Pilots can only maintain their

flight training and mission accomplishment based on the number of aircraft available. The

number of aircraft available is directly reliant on how often aircrew fly the aircraft to maintain

their training and to complete mission requirements as requested by the customer. From this

understanding, we can develop the mental models that the more we fly aircraft, the more aircraft

will break, and the less pilot training will be accomplished. The less pilot training that is

performed will drive the need to fly aircraft more often to complete make-up training, thus

causing the breakage of more aircraft.

This understanding of the interconnectedness of the system requires an interdisciplinary

approach to analyze interdependence properly. This interdisciplinary is not necessarily an

assessment of different engineering types. Psychology, in the evaluation of safety culture, along

with mechanical reviews, such as the repair of the aircraft and the logistical requirements to

maintain spare levels, drives the need to employ a systems engineering understanding of the

system. Customer needs a vital input in developing the system, but we must also consider the

psychological effects of overtasking and underproducing. The models used to assist in

developing this system must address the required maintenance fix times for each aircraft. A

period after each mission that the aircraft is not available can be referred to as setup time (Kim &

Kim, 2011).

Gurbuz & Yildirim (2019) described how maintenance personnel are folded into every

facet of airline operation, and the organization’s ability to safely operate is a direct reflection of

their perception of their self-efficacy. Individuals who experience autonomy in the workplace
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and self-efficacy trend towards higher performance (Gurbuz & Yildirim, 2019). Based on this

information, one could assume that a toxic work environment that creates unneeded time

constraints and increased pressure would lead to poorer performance. The nature of a dynamical

system is that the system will change over time and where no one state will be a lasting status

(Gelfand & Engelhart, 2012). This variability means there must be an active effort to maintain

reasonable work and aircraft demand levels if the organization is to enable a safety culture.

Pilots must also be provided the same level of adequate rest and reduced pressure.

Sociotechnical systems create a problematic situation where the complex integration of humans

and machines demands a particular level of automation to maintain safe operations (Kyriakidis et

al., 2018). Placing pressures on aircrew that drive training encourages corner-cutting and sparks

unsafe performance. The system designers must pay adequate attention to this point during the

development of manning requirements within the system. Too many pilots produce a level of

training starvation, where the flying schedule struggles to keep up with the demand of aircraft

availability. At the same time, too few pilots result in aircraft underutilization and lost revenues.

A stringent training program may appear to produce little pressure within the organization at first

glance, but the long-term effects of small unsafe actions within a sociotechnical system are

challenging to envision (Kyriakidis et al., 2018). The model-based approach is meant to identify

these demands and assist with requesting the appropriate number of aircraft and pilots to avoid

unmet quotes and prevent “stat chasers.”

The system design examines the unique situations created by employing drone aircraft in

the place of manned aerial vehicles. Chappelle et al. (2014) thoroughly investigated the stressors

faced by drone operators, including difficulties in balancing a warfighter mindset with domestic

operations, such as returning to their household after duty. According to Chappelle et al. (2014),
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drone operators are at higher risk for developing post-traumatic stress disorder than other

noncombatant airmen stationed at the same base. Therefore, extra attention must be paid to

maintaining a healthy organizational culture if sensor operators continue to operate 24 hours a

day, seven days a week. Several actions must be employed to facilitate this healthy working

environment.

An integrated design approach helps ensure an interdisciplinary approach is taken to

achieve the system’s desired stability. Enabling increased automation in landing procedures may

prove to relieve situation-specific stress of sensor operators, but automation, hypothetically,

could lead to increased landing gear stress and more frequent repairs. An interdisciplinary

approach, such as integrated design, ensures multiple disciplines are carrying out the same

design process to create a product that suits the needs of all those involved (Zheng et al., 2018).

This approach is, in essence, a macroergonomics approach to resolving functionality issues. This

approach addresses organizational level issues down to the ergonomics within the sensor

operator stations. A study by Chappelle et al. (2019) found that RPA pilots who worked longer

than 51 hours a week within a specific age group were more likely to meet the symptoms criteria

for PTSD. At a macroergonomics level, establishing healthy working schedules with sufficient

rest could lessen these occurrences. This same mindset will be applied to maintenance personnel

to ensure safe operations in maintaining the fleet of aircraft.

Sociotechnical systems can benefit from different levels of automation. The cybernetics

systems theory views a system as a feedback look, requiring an input object to communicate to a

receiver, and that receiver’s actions act as an influencer for the input function (Kennedy, 2011).

Kennedy (2011), in his research paper, also makes a point to recognize that cybernetic systems

self-regulate based on exogenous inputs and environmental influence. This author views the
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dynamical system of a drone unit as a cybernetic function. The ideal state of aircraft availability

is to ensure missions can be flown based on environmental factors, such as weather or combat

engagement. There must exist feedback. Sociotechnical systems incorporate living beings who

can address moral issues.

Now, to tie this to automation and artificial intelligence (AI), some researchers believe

that involving too high levels of AI in drone functions allow the AI to know more than the

supervising humans, allowing the AI to make decisions that the supervising humans cannot know

the full purpose (de Swarte et al., 2019). Sociotechnical systems rely on a balance of automation

between humans and machines, making them not a purely mechanical construct. When engaging

military targets that often contain the risk of collateral damage, it is necessary to maintain a level

of humanity in the process. From an ergonomic standpoint, this system’s design would employ

some automation level to ensure individuals are not overwhelmed with information processing.

This automation ranges from highly technical digital flight control computers within the aircraft

to scheduling and analysis programs for aircraft maintenance schedulers determining the most

efficient method in preparing for downtime.

Conclusion

RPA fleet management and pilot training involved an orchestra of moving pieces that

contribute to an effective organization. The complications involved in developing this type of

unit are extensive, even considering the removal of pilots from the battle airspace. As reviewed

in this paper, RPA sensor operators are subjected to similar PTSD symptoms as their fight

aircraft pilot brother. The difference being that sensor operators may experience this type of

stress when engaging in domestic operations and returning home after encountering difficult

situations. This paper analyzed the use of a model-based approach to developing a system that
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addresses the difficulties in pilot training and the issues that need attention in the sector of fleet

health and aircraft maintainer well-being. As mentioned earlier, maintainers are involved in every

aspect of flight readiness, so it is understood that they play a massive role in forming an effective

organization.

Using a model-based approach to formulate an effective organization provides developers

with the insight to establish sociotechnical norms that do not impose an excessive burden on

workers and pilots. Designers drafts fleet scenarios that facilitate adequate working environments

and ensuring fleet health pressures do not create the desire to “chase stats.” This paper also

addressed the use of moderate automation from a macroergonomics perspective where

automation does not lead to ethically cloudy situations with human input removed from

potentially deadly decision-making. The incorporation of organizational norms that support a

safety culture, appropriate working hours, and ergonomically sufficient human-machine

interfaces ensures that the organization is not employing behaviors that may contribute to long-

term harmful emergent properties, which are not uncommon in dynamical systems. Overall,

developing a model-based approach to designing this system provides designers with accurate,

mental model-supported data to project satisfactory support for a healthy system.

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