Salam baba.A very nice and informative article masha’Allah !..

i’ve made
some corrections in red text...i did what i understood was right...hope it is
helpful to u

THE GREEN REVOLUTION OF ISLAMIC WORLD

Engr. Altaf Hussain Awan

From green energy to green industry, the word “green” has become a
reminder of a more environment friendly and a more peaceful world today.
Everyone wishes to live in a greener world .

The Green Revolution in the true sense of the word, took place by Muslims
during the 7th century A.D. With the rise of Islam, the Muslims unified the
land from Iberian Peninsula in the West to the Java Islands in the East.
Inspired by the ultimate greenery of the Paradise, as mentioned in various
verses of the Quran, the Muslims started developing the barren lands into
lush green farms and gardens. The Quran explains the process of
development of plants as:
“It is He Who sends down water (rain) from the sky, and with it We bring
forth vegetation of all kinds, and out of it We bring forth green stalks, from
which We bring forth thick clustered grain. And out of the date palm and its
spathe come forth clusters of dates hanging low and near, and gardens of
grapes, olives and pomegranates, each similar (in kind) yet different (in
variety and taste). Look at their fruits when they begin to bear, and the
ripeness thereof. Verily, in these things there are signs for people who
believe.” (6:99)

The agricultural system of the Muslims remained a model for centuries. In

the consolidated Muslim world, the farmers were able to produce four crops
per year while this was not seen in any part of the world before. According to
Professor Anderson of the University of Toronto, the Muslims were a great
Unity of the time. They welcomed innovative ideas. The people’s trends, the
cultural structures, the organizations, the facilities, the scientific progress
and the economical development, all played their role in the Agricultural
Revolution.

With this Agricultural Revolution, the Muslims not only became self-sufficient
but also started exporting the agricultural products. The prosperous cities
were surrounded by beautiful gardens of fruits and flowers. With the
agricultural developments, the Muslim Caliphate of Spain had an annual
income of 6.245 million Dinars! The economy was so strong and stable that
there was no change in the price of Egyptian wheat over a period of three
centuries (6th to 9th century A.D.). Because of the agricultural revolution, the
Muslim world was a single Global Super-power from the 7 th to 13th century

Page 1 of 11
A.D. The government not only organized counseling for the farmers but good
quality seeds were also provided free of cost for agricultural development.
This revolution also increased the average life span in the Muslim world from
35 to 84 years while it was only 22 to 28 years in the most developed
societies of the world (Greece and Rome)! Furthermore, the dedication of the
Muslim farmers transformed Cordoba into the pearl of Europe. A Western
scholar, Burke, writes, “When London was a small village of mud houses with
dark, unlit streets, Cordoba had 700 mosques and 300 Hamams (public
baths). Streets were paved and lit during the night. (closing quotation
marks?)

There were public gardens with ever-flowing fountains. The industry for
production of natural silk developed beyond borders of China. Muslims
started using esparto, a kind of wild grass for preparation of mats and
baskets in Spain.(baba it seems to me that the three sentences of this
paragragh are not coherent.please link them by giving a general
introduction.probably you can join this para with the last one and make a
separate para for lifespan part of last para)

There are four factors responsible for this Green Revolution in the history of
mankind. These are:
1. The Islamic System of land.
2. Introduction of new crops & farming techniques.
3. Effective irrigation systems and
4. Scientific knowledge.(this point is missing in the article...pls include it )

1. The Islamic System and Agricultural Reforms:

In accordance with the Islamic code of Justice, during the rule of the
Prophet (SAW) and the Khalfa-e-Rashidun (the four Rightly Guided
Caliphs), wherever Muslims conquered the land, they left it with the
farmers. This was totally opposite to the practice of other nations where
the agricultural lands were confiscated and gifted to the army officers of
the conqueror; this gave rise to the feudal systems which are still
surviving in some parts of the world. The Muslims were even not allowed
to purchase the land from the non-Muslim farmers. Only barren lands
were gifted. Hence the new landowners had no choice but to put all their
energies in the development of the land. In addition, in Muslim lands, the
rights of peasants were defined. The farmers were able to buy lands or
to work in the land owned by others. The contracts were penned down in
accordance with the Quranic principles and copies were retained by both
parties. In accordance(if possible plz replace with a synonym because it
has occurred in the last sentence as well and repetition doest look nice)
with Islamic Jurisprudence as explained by Abu Yousaf and Al
Mawardi(who are these people?scholars or what?), construction of
irrigation systems is a moral responsibility of the Islamic Government.
Hence during Muslim rule, the Government was not only constructing new
canals and dams but was also looking after and maintaining these
facilities. In accordance(again accordance...) with historian, Al Muqrazi

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 (D-1422AD), in Nile valley only, 120,000 workers were employed for
maintenance of irrigation systems of dams and bridges. For these
expenses, the Government used to collect a nominal tax of 5% to 10% of
the yield. If the yield was poor and the farmer was in loss, the tax would
be waved off. The tax in other parts of the world was levied on the basis
of the area of land under cultivation. Hence, in the case of poor yield the
farmer would pay from his pocket. Due to this justice alone, the Non-
Muslim peasant lived a prosperous life under Islamic rule than they had
experienced under Non-Muslim rulers. In `1451AD, Martin Luther(king?)
warned the Non-Muslim rulers of Europe that the farmers oppressed by
the princes and the feudals will like to live under Muslim (Turk) rulers.
(this doesn’t go with the “warning” part...i cant think of anything but this
needs to be changed......Also, this paragraph is too long..if possible plz
divide into two)

2. Introduction of New Crops & Farming Techniques:

With the consolidation of various areas under the Islamic rule, new crops
and plants were introduced. This increased the yield and became the
second factor of the Agricultural Revolution. Muslim farmers studied the
existing agricultural systems of various areas and developed those
further. The proactive attitude of the individuals played a very important
role in novelty of crops. The date palm trees were planted for the first
time in European soil by Abdul Rahman-I, the Caliph of Spain. Muawiya
bin Salah, the Qazi al Qaza (Chief Justice) of Cordoba, brought
pomegranates from Damascus and started growing these in Spain. A
Jordanian soldier named Safar, transported fig from Jordan and planted it
in Iberian Peninsula. This is still called the “Safari fig”.

Picture FIG

Muslims got the expertise in soil classification and Grafting

techniques. They introduced cotton to Spain in 9th century A.D. Here, the
word “cotton” got its name from the Arabic word “Al-Qatan”. In Spanish
it is still called “Al-Godon”. Spain, under Muslim rule, became self-
sufficient in cotton and also started exporting it. Muslims also introduced
“Shahdanj”, a kind of jute crop to Europe. Its fiber is very strong and
was used to make high quality paper.

With the development of scientific knowledge, the farmers were informed

well in time about the changes in weather. Hence, the times of sowing
and harvesting were predetermined which saved the crops. In the Jean
area of Iberia alone, there were 300 villages producing silk. A historian,
Al Idrees, mentioned about 40 miles long plantation of olive trees.
Orange trees were brought from the Middle East to Europe. Ibn Hokal, a
twelfth century tourist, writes about Muslim Spain, “The Land is fertile;
there is a proper system of irrigation from rivers. The necessities of life

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 are affordable and the public is happy.” (shouldn’t this paragraph come
under scientific knowledge?)

S.P. Scott, a 19th century American historian writes “The agricultural

system of the Muslims of Spain was the most Complex, Scientific and the
most perfect ever devised by the ingenuity of man”
Picture Grafting

Coffee, the most favorite drink of the modern world is also a gift of the
Islamic Agricultural Revolution. Coffee plant was discovered in Ethiopia in
the 9th century A.D. Its mass plantation was done in Yemen. Hajis
(Pilgrims) brought to coffee been Makkah from where it spread
throughout Islamic world. In 1554AD, the first Coffee house was opened
in Istanbul by the Muslims from Damascus.

Picture Coffee Cup

The Muslim agriculturist not only spread aroma and taste of coffee
through the world but they presented one of the most beautiful gift of
nature to the west. The “Dolub” (two lips) of Iran because Tulip of Europe
where it was planted in mass scale in the top copy(Topkapi) palace. Count
Ojerdi, the Austrian ambassador to the Muslim Claifate, took this plant to
further west in 1554AD.

Picture
Muslims also introduced sugarcane Sugar Industry to the world in Tulip
the 8 th
century A.D. Fustat alone had 58 sugar mills. Even West Indies developed
the crop of sugar cane with the help of the Muslims. In the world today,
the Muslim lands are ____ of production the best rice, the tastiest fruits
like Mangoes, Oranges, Figs & date. Muslim lands of Indonesia and
Malaysia supply 85% of the world demand of palm oil.

3. Development of Irrigation Systems:

Water is the most important factor in agriculture. The land without a

source of water in (Urdu), is called “Barani” i.e. Barren and in Persian it is
called “Biaban” derived from “Be-aab” (without water). The area having
natural supply of water is called Aabad (Aab+Bad = Water+Air) and it is a
common suffix of most of the Islamic Cities in Central and South Asia. In
Quran, Allah has emphasized on the importance of water in the following
Verse: “Who has made earth for you like a bed (spread out); and has
opened roads (ways and paths) for you therein, and has sent down water
(rain) from the sky. And we(pls check if “w” is capital here) have brought
forth with it various kinds of vegetation”. (20:53)

The areas where Islam spread initially have hot climate and do not get
plenty of rain. Water springs and rivers are very few. Hence Muslim

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agriculturists and engineers put up their energies in the development of
water resources. In the desert climate, like here in Saudi Arabia, water
was obtained from wells. Our Great Prophet (PBUH) declared digging of
wells as Sadaqa Jaria (Perpetual Charity). The wealthy Sahaba, like
Hazrat Usman (RA), spent their fortune on purchase of wells. Now for
raising water out of a well, Muslim engineers had to play their part. A
bucket tied to a string is the simplest way of taking water out of a well.
Engineers developed it to a head gear system with a windlass. However,
only a limited quantity of water is obtained by these means.For raising
huge quantities of water for agriculture, three( you have outlisted
five...plz check) major engineering mechanisms were developed in the
Muslim world.

a. SHADUF:

The first kind of machine uses human energy and is called “Shaduf”. It
is a water raising mechanism based on the principle of lever. It is still
being used to raise water from Rive Nile. The shorter arm of the lever
is loaded with a counter weight while the larger arm has a water
bucket tied to it. The operator pulls the larger arm with a string down
to water level so that the bucket is filled with water. He then releases
the string slowly and the counter weight raises the bucket to the
required level. A famous Muslim Engineer of 13th century, Al Jazri,
invented forms of Shaduf using segmental gears thus increasing its
efficiency by four times.

Picture of Shaduf

b. SAQIA:

The second machine used for raising water is called “Saqia”. It is a

chain pump mounted on a vertical gear. It is rotated by a horizontal
gear driven by an animals like a Camel, Ox or Donkey. This machine
was used at the time of Prophet (PBUH) and the Camel driving this
machine was called “Na’deeb”. A chain of pots tied to the vertical
wheels brings the water up. Before the pots go downward, they are
emptied into a water channel. This machine can raise water upto 4
meters with 60 percent efficiency( in English essays or articles, it is
always recommended to write numbers in alphabets, not in digits,
except for dates or centuries...such as Sixty instead of 60). This was
the first irrigation machine introduced to Spain by Muslims. An
Andulasian engineer of the 11th century (AD), Ibn Bassal, mentioned
“Saqia” as a standard water raising machine.
Pictures of Saqia

c. NORIA:

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The most sophisticated water raising machine used by the Muslim
Agriculturists is “Naura” (laterized as Noria). It is a developed form of
“Saqia” and is driven by hydro power instead of animal power. It is
more efficient on fast flowing channels & rivers. The flow of the river
pushes the paddles of a vertical wheel just as in the case of an
undershot turbine. The wheel rotates and raises water through a chain
pump or other mechanisms. The diameter of the wheel may be as big
as 30 meters. During 7th century AD, “Norias” were installed on canals
near Basra, Iraq. A number of such machines were also installed on
the river of Tigris to supply water to newly constructed Baghdad City
by the early Abbasid Caliphate.

In 12th century (AD), a Muslim historian, Al-Muqdasi, mentioned a

number of such machines installed on the river “Hawaz” in Iran. The
water from such machines was brought to the fields, gardens and cities
by bricked channels. In 1154 A.H, Al-Idressi wrote that such machines
were installed on the river Taghos in Telavera. One single machine can
produce six horse-powers. From the records of Muslims Geographers,
it appears that such machines were used throughout the Medieval
Islamic World. In Valencia alone, 8,000 Norias were installed to irrigate
rice fields.

Al-Jazri further developed Noria and named the pot-chain as “Sindhi”

wheel. Water can be raised to as high as 12 meters by using such
machines. These machines still exists on river Orontes, in the city of
Hamas in Syria. La Nora, at Murcia in Spain is still in operation and is a
living proof of transfer of Muslim technology to the West.
Pictures of Noria

Such machines at a smaller scale are still being used in the Northern
areas of Pakistan. Al-Jazri also invented a reciprocating pump using a
paddle wheel to raise water upto 12 meter height. British chartered
engineer, Donal Hill, writes in 1974 about Al-Jazri, contributions. “It is
impossible to over emphasize the impotence of Al Jazari’s work in
history of engineering. It provides wealth of instructions for design,
manufacture and assembly of machines”.
Pictures of Jazri Pump

Another Muslim technological whiz of 16th century (AD), Taqqi-ud-Din,

invented a six cylinder water pump almost a century before the same
was described by the West. He used scoop wheel instead of paddle
wheel. The fly wheel, used to maintain rotation of all such machines
was invented by Ibn Basal, centuries before it was “rediscovered” by
the West. In certain areas, Muslims also installed water raising
machines using wind turbines.
Picture Pump of Taqi-ud-din

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d. CANALS:

Construction of water canals is another field where Muslims engineers

helped Muslims rulers make their dream of the Green Revolution come
true. The projects for construction of canals were launched during the
period of Khalifa-e-Rashideen. Hazrat Omer (RA) ordered for
construction of a great canal in Egypt. The work was executed under
Hazrat Omro bin Ala’as (RA), the Governor of Egypt. This 120 kilo-
meters long canal, “Nehr Ameer Al Momineen”, connected river Nile to
the Red Sea. This canal not only irrigated vast lands on both sides, it
also opened a new route for ships from Mediterranean Sea to the Red
Sea through river Nile. A few of the most important canals constructed
during the period of Hazrat Omer Farooq (RA) were named as Nehr
Sa’ad (named after Hazrat Sa’ad bin Abi Waqas (RA)), Nehr Abi Musa
and Nehr Muhaqal. Even in the vicinity of Madina Al Munawara, water
canals named as Nehr Azraq, Nehr Kadama and Nehr Shuhada were
built in early periods. During the period of Abbasia Caliphate, a huge
number of canals were constructed as recorded in the history.

One of the miracles of engineering existing in the Muslim world is Nehr

Zubaida (in?). In the scrotching heat of the desert, this canal survived
for over a millennium. Makkah has only one source of water and that is
the sacred water of Zamzam. Since millions of Hajies visit Makkah,
there was always a shortage of water especially during the period of
Haj. In 808 AD, Zubaida, the wealthy widow of Khalifa Haroon Rashid,
realized the need and called upon Muslim Engineers from all areas of
the Islamic world. She asked them to study, survey and propose a
system of continous water supply to the Holy City. A canal was
proposed from the springs of the mountains of Hunain to Makkah.
Since most of the area is rocky, it required a fortune to build this
canal. To avoid loss of water due to evaporation, it was necessary to
build an underground canal with surface water stations wherever
required. All the water springs were purchased from the owners. At the
kick-off meeting of the project, the brave lady declared her
determination, “If need arises, I will pay one Dirham on each strike of
a spade or shovel”. After quenching the thirst of Hajis for over a
thousands years, it stopped functioning due to natural disasters and
lack of maintenance. King Abdullah has ,however, ordered its
rehabilitation.

In the subcontinent, the Muslim rulers also built a number of canals.

Feroz Shah Tughlaq constructed canals on Satluj river, Sultan Zain Al
Aabdin in Kasmir and Shah Jahan on the river Ravi near Lahore.

Pictures of Canal

To save water from evaporation in desert climate, underground

aquaduct system was developed by Muslim engineers. It is call “Qanet”

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 in Arabic which is root of the word canal or channel. In Pakistan it is
called Karez. To collect water form an aquaduct, a large number of
wells (openings) were provided. A duct may be tens of miles long.
Hence, knowledge & expertise in Survey and Engineering was required
for their construction. Thanks to the knowledge of Muslim scientists in
the Mathematics and Geometry that helped develop such engineering
skills. Famous Mathematicians Al-Khewarzami & Al-Khraji, guided the
Engineers through their calculations and drawings. Mathematical
formulas were also developed for distribution of water in proportion to
the land area of the farm and the requirement for a specific crop.
Muslim scientists developed trigonometry for calculations of ground
level.

Muslims took this method of irrigation to Africa & Spain. It is still in use
in Iran. The distribution of water among the farmers was done on the
basis of fixed period of time which was measured by a Water Clock.

Pictures of Qanat

e. DAMS:

Construction of dams is one of the greatest achievements of Civil

Engineering. With dams, we can store water for irrigation, control
flooding and even get hydropower. Muslim engineers realized their
importance and started construction of dams, water reservoirs and
artificial lakes at a very early stage. A curve shaped dam of 320m
height and 205 meter length was constructed in village, Qaseeba, near
Madinah Al Munawrah. The big projects like dams and canals were
normally executed by the Government while the small projects of wells
and water raising machines were undertaken by the private sector.

Beautiful dams were constructed in Tunis in 9th century AD. Here about
250 reservoirs still exist in the area of Qairwan. Such water storage
facilities are also in use in Morocco till today. The reservoirs are
normally in three stages;

Pictures of Curved Dam

(join after semicolon at the end of last paragraph)The 1st and top most
receives water and hence, silt & sand settles there. The 2 nd stage is the
actual reservoirs, while the pool of 3rd stage is for water distribution.
From here the technology was transferred to Europe. AL-Bakri, a
Muslim geographer of 11th century describes a dam as “……….. It is a
circular form and is gigantic in size. There is an octagonal tower in the

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 centre which has 4 doors. On Southern side of the reservoirs, there is
a strong wall of interlocking arches”.

In Spain Muslim engineers constructed the dams with such a mortar

which was stronger than stone! Perhaps it is the only reason that there
was no need for repair even after one thousand years! The eight dams
constructed on River Turia had their foundation fifteen feet deep in the
river bed. These foundations had a series of timber piles driven deep
into the ground. This dam has irrigated European Soil over the period
of a Millennium. The oldest dam of Spain is the river Gode Cavier, of
Cordoba. According to Al-Idrisi, a geographer of 12 th century AD, it was
constructed with the Qabtian Stone and re-enforced with columns of
marble. Carefully cut stone blocks were used in construction of these
dams. Holes were drilled for re-enforcement with steel rods. Even
molten lead was used to seal these holes. Use of Geometrical
Calculations and survey instruments such as Astrolabe made such
engineering achievements possible.

Pictures of Astrolabe

Mahmood Ghaznavi ordered construction of 3 dams in vicinity of the

capital of Afghanistan. One dam on Southern side of Kabul is named
after him. It is 32m high and 220m long. Perhaps the most important
dams in the Medieval Islamic World were constructed on the river Nile.
Al-Noveri & Al-Muqrazi, the historians of 14th century AD, proposed
construction of such dams. For repair and maintenance of these dams,
a department was established headed by “Kassf-ul-Jasoor”.

It was a crime to waste water in the Muslim Spain. The judges to settle
disputes of water distribution were elected from the local farmers. This
was called the “The Tribunal of Water”. The court had sitting in front of
the Great mosque (Jamia Masjid) on every Thursday. This court
continues to operate till today but now sits in front of Church!

Muslims exploited almost all sources of water and used different

irrigation techniques including the Drip irrigation system. Ibn Awam,
the Botanist of 12th century, advises drip irrigation system as it
minimizes wastage of water. It suits those plant which do not need
much watering. He used to bury a pot (with a hole of a specific
diameter) in bottom of the plant. The pot used to be filled with water
and irrigation was done slowly (through hole). This system is still being
used.

LITERATURE ON AGRICULTURE

For the development of any field of science, it is necessary to collect and

compile all available knowledge on the subject. Like other sciences, Muslim
scholars studied the farming techniques of the time and recorded these in

Page 9 of 11
their books and Farming Manuals. The Nabtian people of Petra, Jordan were
expert in agriculture in pre Islamic period. Abu Bakr Ibn Wahshiah Al-Kaldani
(D-912AD) authored a book titled “Book of Nabtean Agriculture”. In this book
the author explained in the detail most of the agricultural techniques from
digging of the wells to the reproduction through the Plant Tissue culture. Abu
Hanifa Al Dinawari, a 9th century scientist is considered as Father of Botany.
He authored an encyclopaedia on agriculture in 6 volumes. Al Jehaz wrote
about food chains for the first time in the world history.

The famous Muslim Geographer, Abu Abdullah Al-Idreesi wrote “Nuzhat

Mushtaq Fi Akhraq Al Afaq” in which he described plants in detail. Abu
Mansoor Ibn Soori (D-1242AD) wrote “Advia Mufrida” after he studied
various plants in the hilly areas of Lebanon. Abu Abbas al Nabati (D-1240AD)
was a famous traveller who wrote “Rehla” which describes the plants known
to the world at that time. Al Malek Fazal Al Abbas, in his book “Baghiatal
Falaheen” gave detailed description of every aspect of agriculture including
fertilizers and effect of weather.

In Muslim lands like Spain where literacy rate was almost hundred percent,
agricultural literature brought a major change in a short time. Books in
agriculture were available even in small towns.

In 1085AD Mohammed Ibrahim Ibn Basal described the preparation of land

for the cultivation of cotton in his agricultural book “Kitab Al Filaha”. Al
Maqrazi provided detailed information on production of Sugarcane. The
famous Muslim Agro Scientist, Yahya Ibn Al Awam Ashbeli (D-1165AD)
collected agricultural books in Greek, Egyptian and Persian languages,
translated into Arabic and consolidated the knowledge in his book “Filaha”.
The book covers 585 plants including 50 types of fruit trees in 35 chapters.
Grafting technique, plant diseases and their cures are all described in detail.
It was translated in Spanish language by Benqueri in 1810AD and in French
language in 1864AD by Clement-Mullet.

Agricultural Calendars were introduced to guide farmers through the

preparation of various crops. The Cordoban Calendar of 961AD has no match
in the history of the world. It describes the actions to be taken on each type
of crop on monthly basis. For example during the month of March, fig is
planted, wheat start growing, flowers blossom, silk worm reproduces, it is
the time to sew Cucumbers, sugarcane and saffron, the horses for the postal
system are to be bought …………….. This calendar covers more than hundred
plants. The scholars of 12th century AD, Abdul Karim and AL Taqnari of
Granada gave details of agricultural methods in their manuals.

Muslim rulers were even interested in writing books on agriculture. Yemeni

Governors Omer Ibn Yousaf and Al Abbas Ibn Ali authored books on
agriculture. In “Baber Nama” and “Tuke-e-Jahagiri”, detailed description of
plants and gardens show interest of Mughals of the subcontinent in this filed.
Farming manuals were published in almost every corner of the Muslim world.
This trend raised the status of agriculture to a proper science. Abu

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Mohammad Ibn Al Bataar, a medical scientist of 13th century (AD) wrote “Al
Jamia” which is one of the greatest books in this field. It gives description of
1400 plants in which 300 were discovered by him. It was translated in Latin
language and was studied in Europe till 19th century. During the Abbasid
period, agricultural schools were built. Experimental farms were also
established for research and development in this field.

Paragraphs under Literature on Agriculture are a little boring because of too

many names of books and people...if possible list out all this data in tabular
form under the titles of BOOK, AUTHOR, and DESRIPTION which will sum up
all this information.

Western historians Watson, Glick and Bolens all recognize the fact that
Muslim farmers and Muslim Scholars took revolutionary steps in development
of agricultural knowledge.

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