Che Module 2a

MUKUBA UNIVERSITY
CHE110: Introduction to Chemistry

MODULE 2 A
Mukuba University
Kitwe-Zambia
Science Department
Copyright
© Copperbelt University College 2012.
No part of this module may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means;
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Mukuba University
Science Department
P.0 Box, 20382
Kitwe – Zambia
Website: www.mukuba.edu.zm.
Phone: +260212239003
E-mail: Mukubauniversity@ microlink.zm
Acknowledgements
The Copperbelt University College, Science Department wishes to thank the following for
their contribution to this module:
EDITORS
Directorate of Distance Education (DODE)-

Lusaka
AUTHORS
Mweshi E : Lecturer MU
Muma E : Lecturer MU
Mukonde B: Lecturer MU
Kayamba.F: Lecturer MU
out Content
About Content iii
About this Module 1

How this module is structured .......................................................................................... 1
Welcome to the module on Introduction to Chemistry ..................................................... 1
Module outcomes .............................................................................................................. 3
Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 3
Study skills ........................................................................................................................ 4
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 5
Assignments ...................................................................................................................... 5
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 6
Getting around this Module 7

Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 7
Unit 1 9
Electronic Structure of an Atom ....................................................................................... 9
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Electronic Configuration ................................................................................. 10
1.3 Quantum Numbers .......................................................................................... 19
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 26
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 27
Unit 2 28
The Periodic Table .......................................................................................................... 28
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 28
2.2 Groups and Periods ......................................................................................... 29
2.3 The Periodic Table and physical properties .................................................... 35
2.4 The Periodic Table and chemical properties ................................................... 45
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 55
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 55
Unit 3 57
Chemical Bonding........................................................................................................... 57
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 57
3.2 : Electronic ...................................................................................................... 58
3.2 Lewis Symbols ................................................................................................ 59
3.3. Types of bond ................................................................................................. 60
3.3. Ionic or Electrovalent bond ............................................................................ 60
3.3.1.1 Characteristics of ionic compound ............................................................ 62
3.3.2. Covalent Bonding ........................................................................................ 64
3.3.2.1. Covalent Bonding ..................................................................................... 64
3.3.2.1. Characteristics of Covalent Bonding........................................................ 67
3.3.3. Covalent Network........................................................................................ 67
3.3.3. Non polar and polar Covalent Bonding ....................................................... 68
3.3.4. Dipole moment ............................................................................................ 70
3.3.5. Co ordinate Covalent Bond ......................................................................... 75
3.3.5.1. Characteristic of coordinate compounds .................................................. 79
3. 5 Sigma ( ) bonds and Pi ( ) bonds ................................................................ 89
3.6 Delocalisation of bonding electrons and Resonance hybrids .......................... 92
3.8 Predicting the shape of simple covalent molecules: the VSEPR theory ......... 94
3.9 Hybridization ................................................................................................... 99
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 107
Assessment.................................................................................................................... 108
Answers to Activities .................................................................................................... 110
Activity 1.1 .......................................................................................................... 110
Answers to Assessments ............................................................................................... 115
Readings........................................................................................................................ 117
About this Module

This module is structured as outlined below.
How this module is structured
The module overview
Welcome to the module on

Introduction to Chemistry
This module is part A of Module 2 of Introduction to Chemistry

Courses in the Bachelor of Education Science programme. The
module exposes you to atomic structure, the periodic table,
chemical bonding and chemical equilibrium. These concepts will
help you to understand subsequent topics in chemistry. In addition
the module lays a very strong foundation in chemistry as you
pursue your studies.
To complete this module successfully, you will need to spend three

(3) hours per week studying the module, and make sure you work
out all the activities in each unit. Don’t move to another unit before
you understand the previous unit. In case you need help contact the
course tutors.
You are expected to do all the self marked activities and one tutor
marked assignment which will accompany this module. You are
required to summit the assignment to the nearest resource centre in
your district. This module has five units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting
your study.
1
BasmMMMMM CHE 110: Introduction to Chemistry
The module content

The module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes..
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide
you with a list of additional resources at the end of this module;
these may be books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing this module we would appreciate if you would
take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance

this course.
2
Module outcomes
Upon completion of this module you will be able to:
 describe the quantum mechanical model of an atom.
 discuss the repeating patterns of physical and chemical

properties of different groups and periods.
Outcomes
 explain the chemical bonding, structure and shape of simple
molecules
 Explain chemical equilibrium, and apply le chaterlier’s

principle to chemical systems.
 describe Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis theories of

acids and bases
 calculate the pH of weak and strong and weak acids and

bases
Timeframe
This module is expected to be covered within a period of 100
hours. The 100 hours will include studying the actual module
including all the activities.
How long?
3
Study skills
As an Open and Distance Learner your approach to learning will be
different to that from your school days: you will choose what you
want to study, you will have professional and/or personal
motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your
study activities around other professional or domestic
responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning

environment. As a consequence, you will need to consider
performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress
management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself
in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the
web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the
time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which
you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

study—to familiarize yourself with these issues.
4
Need help?
Should you require help in the course of your studies, do not hesitate to
contact the following course tutors
Help Mr Mweshi E Cell: 0955-881340 / 0969-218224
Email: emweshi@yahoo.com
Mr Muma E Cell: 0977-185244 / 0969735302
Email: eliasmuma@ymail.com
Mr Lupupa M.S Cell: 0968309605
Email: lupupams@yahoo.co.uk
Mr Kayamba. F Cell: 0975811018/ 0977370381
Email; francesbk@gmail.com
Assignments
You will be expected to write at least two assignments in an academic
year. The first assignment is this module
The assignments should be handed in to course tutors during the

residential sessions.
Assignments
You will be required to submit the assignments in the order in which they
are given to you.
5
Assessments
You will be expected to write two tutor- marked test which will be
written during each residential session. You are also expected to answer
the self- marked assessments in each unit of this module.
Assessments
6
Getting around this Module
Margin icons
While working through this module you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around the module.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Outcomes Note it!
Summary Help
7
Unit 1
Electronic Structure of an Atom
1.1. Introduction
Welcome to this unit. In module 1 we discussed that an atom is

composed of neutrons, protons and electrons. In this unit will go in
detail to discuss the structure (electronic nature) of an atom. We
will discuss how electrons are arranged in the volumes of some
definite shapes in various energy levels surrounding the nucleus.
And we will also look at how electrons are accommodated in
different energy levels.
During and upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 Show the arrangement of electrons in orbital using the electronic

configuration notation.
 Use quantum numbers to describe how electrons are

Outcomes
accommodated in different orbitals of various energy levels.
 Discuss the factors that affect the stability of electrons in an

atom
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10 Unit 1
1.2. Electronic Configuration
In module 1 we discussed that an atom consists of protons,

(positively charged), electrons (negative charged) and the neutrons
(without a charge). The neutrons and protons are located in the
nucleus, the core of the atom making up a nucleon and the
electrons are arranged in shell also called energy level around the
nucleus. The energy levels are assigned letters alphabetical letters
starting from K; the first energy level is assigned K, then, L, M, N,
O….
The electrons in different energy levels are arranged in a condition

as any other matter in the universe where they assume a minimum
(lowest) energy state in order to achieve maximum (highest)
stability. This arrangement is based on the ideas that:
 When negative charged electron(s) is close to the positively

charged nucleus they attract each other assuming a lower –
energy state condition with maximum stability due to force of
attraction between them.
 The electrons in the same energy level should be far apart to

avoid repulsion.
Let us now look at H atom as our example. We will use Bohr H

atom theory to explain this. H atom contains 1 proton (+) and 1
electron (-). One electron of H atom will occupy the K energy level
which is close to the nucleus and will have low energy and
maximum stable.
10
Figure 1.1 The Bohr H atom.
Bohr model restricts electrons rotating around the nucleus due to

forces of attraction with the protons in definite volume called
orbits. It was later discovered that electrons in an atom move
around the nucleus without fixed position; difficult to determine its
location and velocity according to Heisenberg uncertainty
principle, making them appear as a negatively charged cloud about
nuclear in a definite sphere called orbitals. When we combine
these two models it is concluded that an atom consists of orbits
which also consist of orbitals; this concept will be discussed later.
Let us also look at He us our example. Unlike H atom, He atom has

2 electrons and 2 protons. He atom will attain a low state energy
and maximum stability by the 2 electrons by;
1. occupying the first orbit where they will be strongly

attracted to 2 protons in the nucleus
2. being far apart to avoid repulsion energy by electrons with

like charges
Figure1.2 The attraction & repulsion forces acting on the He atom
The 2 electrons will be spinning each giving a magnetic field. It

should be noted that when a charged particle is spinning it gives out
a magnet filed. Since they are only two electrons in He they spin in
opposite direction. One will be spinning in one direction say
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12 Unit 1
clockwise direction giving off a magnetic field like the positive (+)
pole of a magnet and vice versa. The electrons will be spinning in
opposite direction to each other and the opposite magnetic field
cancels each make the atom attain low energy state and maximum
stability, unlike if the electrons were spinning in the same direction.
Orbits and orbital
An orbit is a 2D planar where the electrons go round the nucleus

and they don’t fall off because they are attracted to the positively
protons in the nucleus by the electrostatic forces of attraction.
Therefore the electrons will be circulating at same distance away
from the nucleus. The maximum number of electrons an orbit can
occupy is given by 2n2 where n is the energy level. An orbital is
place where the probability of finding an electron is very high. The
orbitals are in 3D with different shapes. They are assigned letter
s,p,d,f,…..and the can only accommodation 2 electrons. The
orbitals are found in energy levels. They are designated and
distributed in different energy levels as follows:
 The first energy level which is closest to the nucleus has one
orbital called the 1s and it can only accommodate two electrons.
The s orbits are spherical shaped
 The second (2) energy level contains two types of orbitals of

slightly different energies (sub level) with the lower energy
level being the 2s orbital and followed by the slightly higher
energy orbitals consisting of the three perpendicular 2p orbitals
The three 2p orbitals are 2 px , 2 p y and 2 pz . These three
orbitals are in 3D of space and are represented mathematically

by three mutually perpendicular axes, the x, y and z as shown
below. Each p orbital can accommodate 2 electrons adding up
to a total of 6 electrons all together. The shape of the p orbital is
given in figure 1.3.
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Figure 1. 3. The 2p orbitals
The second energy level (n=2) has four orbitals; one 2s orbital and
3p orbitals and each orbital can only accommodate 2 electrons, this
energy level can only hold up 8 electrons. The p orbitals are
dumbbells shaped as shown in figure 13.
The repulsion force between 2s and the 2p electrons is minimized

by the fact that the 2p electrons are located in the 3D volume of p
orbital and are away from each other.
 The third energy level (n=3) has three orbitals, namely, the 3s,
3p and 3d with a total number of 9 orbitals; one 3s, three 3p and
five 3d orbitals.
What do you think will be the total number of electrons that can be
accommodated in the third energy level?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
If you don’t know the answer don’t worry; the total number of
electrons in an orbit is when n=3,
Total number of electrons in energy level 3 will be
= 2n2 = 2(3)2 = 18 electrons
Then we know that each orbital can only accommodate 2 electrons.

Theerfore the number of orbitals will be
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14 Unit 1
18/2 = 9 orbitals
The type of orbital in n=3 will be, we know that the first 2 electrons
goes into 3s, then the 6 electrons will go into the 3p orbital 2
electrons in each containing 2 electrons. The remaining electrons
which are 10 will go in the d orbitals, when you divide 10 by 2 we
get that they are 5 d orbitalsThe
fourth energy level has four energy sub levels with a total number of 16
orbitals; 4s, three 4p, five 4d and seven 4f orbitals. Thus the fourth level
can hold up to 32 electrons.
Table 1.1 gives you a summary of the energy level, how orbitals are in
each energy level and the number of electrons each energy level can
accommodate.
Table 1.1 The type orbitals in the first four energy levels
Energy level Number of each type Maximum number.
of orbital of electrons
n s p d f
1 1 - - - 1
2 1 3 - - 4
3 1 3 5 - 18
4 1 3 5 7 32
Having studied the table above try and do the following activity.
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Activity 1.1
What is the maximum number of electrons that can be housed in

shell K, L, and M
What types of sub shells does each shell contain?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
1.2.1 Electronic configuration notation
In module 1, we observed that the atomic number of an element is equal

to the number of protons in an atom of that element. And the number of
protons, in an atom, is equal to the number of its electrons. So the atomic
numbers also gives you the number of electrons in the atom for a neutral
atom.
A general equation can be given by n Xy , where n is the energy level, X

is the sub shell( orbital) and y the number of electron(s) that a sub shell
can accommodate.
Take for example, hydrogen (H) atom which has atomic number 1;
meaning it has only one electron. This one electron will occupy the first
lowest energy level which is 1s, and the electronic configuration notation
for Hydrogen atom will written as H 1s1
The prefix 1 refers to the first energy level, superscript 1 refers to one
electron and the s refers to s orbital in the first energy level. Table 1.2
gives some examples of elements, number of energy levels, the sub shell
and the electronic configuration of each atom.
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16 Unit 1
Table 1. 2: The electronic configuration of some of the elements
Electronic Configuration
Element Atomic Number Notation
Hydrogen 1 H 1s 1
Helium 2 He 1s 2
Lithium 3 Li 1s 2 2s 1
Nitrogen 7 N 1s 2 2s 2 2p 3
Sodium 11 Na 1s 2 2s 2
2p 6 3s1
Aluminium 13 Al 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
Chlorine 17 Cl 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5
The electronic configuration of an atom in the ground state is arranged in

order of increasing energy; the orbitals of lower energy are filled first.
This is called the ‘building up principle’ or Aufbau principle
However, the sub shells in energy levels of an atom begin to overlap at

level 4. The 4s orbital penetrates closer to the nucleus than the 3d
orbital. Consequently, the total energy level of electrons in 4s orbital is
lower than the electrons in 3d orbital. Thus 4s orbital is filled first than
the 3d. Thus the order in which orbitals are filled by electrons is as follows
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p,7s,5f,6d,7p
16
Now that you have studied the table showing the electron configuration
of some the elements do the following activity
Activity 1.2
(a) Write the electronic configuration of the following species; O,

O 2- , Ti and Ti 2+
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………..
(b) Which of the following symbols show the impossible number of

electrons per sub shell : 2p6, 4p8, 1s1, 2s3, 5d10, 6d12 and 3d0
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Another way of representing electronic configurations is the use

boxes to represent orbitals and arrows to represent electrons. Take
for example, the electronic configuration for sodium (Na), which
has an atomic number 11 is shown as follows.
Na 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
↑
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Increasing energy as the
distance from the (+) nuclear increase
The arrows (↑↓) pointing in opposite direction shows the two

electrons in an orbital having opposite spins.
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18 Unit 1
The orbitals with the same energy are drawn with boxes attached to
one another like is for 2p boxes (orbitals) for sodium in the above
example.
Let us now consider nitrogen with the electron configuration
N 1s 2 2s 2 2p 3
How can you represent this electronic configuration using arrows

and boxes to show electrons especially in the 2p orbitals? Lets us
go through this problem together. Like we have seen in the
previous example for sodium 1s 2 and 2s 2 will be drawn as shown
below
N 1s 2 2s 2
↑↓ ↑↓
The remaining 3 electrons in the p orbital will be arranged in this

order. Hund’s rule state that electrons in orbitals of the same
energy must be filled singly first before they are paired. Like the
paired orbitals, the half-filled orbitals are equally stable because the
repulsion are minimizes thus assuming low energy state and
maximum stability. The remaining 3 electron will be arranged as
follows
N 2s3
  
Now do the following activity
Activity 1.3
18
Using Box and arrow notation show the electronic configuration of

the following elements; phosphorus, Manganese, and sulphur.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
Let us now look at how we can describe electrons in an atom using

a set of numbers called the quantum numbers in the next section
1.3. Quantum Numbers

Quantum numbers are a numerical code that describes electrons in an
atom; specify their energy level and their spin. They are four
quantum numbers. These include the Principle quantum number (n),
Azimuthal quantum number (l), and Magnetic quantum number (m)
and spin quantum number (s). we will take about these quantum
numbers in details as we go on in our discussion. The Paulin
exclusion principle tells us that no two electrons in any given atom
can have the same set four identical quantum numbers. It means that
every electron in an atom must differ by at least one of the four
quantum number. This enables each electron to be uniquely identified
by its set of four quantum numbers.. Let us now discuss each of these
quantum numbers in detail.
1.3.1. Principal quantum number (n)
The quantum number tells us which energy level an electron

belongs to. It is given symbol n. denotes the principal shell to
which the electron belongs. The principal quantum number can
have non zero, positive integral values n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc (only
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20 Unit 1
the whole numbers). An electron n =1 has the lowest energy

and is bound firmly to the nucleus. The letters K, L, M, N, O, P
and Q are also used to designate the energy levels or shells of
electrons with an n value of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 respectively.
There is a limited number of electrons for a principal quantum
number and is given by 2n2, where n is the principal number
concerned. Thus,
Principal quantum number (n=) 1 2 3 4
Letters designation K L M N
Maximum number of electrons (2n2 =) 2 8 18 32
1.3.2. Azimuthal quantum number (l)
This quantum number is also called secondary or subsidiary quantum

number. It defines the spatial distribution of the electron cloud about
the nucleus and describes the angular momentum of the electron. In
other words, the quantum number l defines the shape of the orbital
occupied by the electron and the angular momentum of the electrons.
It is for this reason that l is sometimes referred to as orbital or
angular quantum number
For any given value of principal number n, the azimuthal quantum

number may have all integral values from 0 to n-1, each of which
refers to an energy sublevel or subshell. For example, for principal
quantum number n=1, the only possible value for l is 0 (1-1 = 0) it
means that there is one possible sub shell the s-subshell. For n = 2,
there are two possible values of l, l=0 and l=(2-1)=1. This means
that there are two subshells in the second energy level (shell) with
n=2. These sub shell are designated as 2s and 2p. The values for l for
various energy levels are given in the table below.
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Table 1. 3 Values of Azimuthal quantum numbers in the first
four energy levels
Energy Level Azimuthal number Number of Designated
(n) (l) subshells subshells
1 0 1 1s
2 0,1 2 2s,2p
3 0,1,2 3 3s, 3p,3d
4 0, 1, 2,3 4 4s, 4p, 4d,4f
The letters s, p, d, f, and so on correspond, respectively, to l values of

0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on
l= 0 1 2 3 4
s p d f g
Now do the following activity to see if you have captured the

relationship between the Principal quantum number (n) and the
values Azimuthal quantum number (l)
Activity 1.4
Determine the n and l values for the following orbitals; 3d, 4p and 5f
subshells.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
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22 Unit 1
1.3.3. The Magnetic quantum number ( ml )
The quantum number is also called orientation quantum number

because it gives the orientation or distribution of electron cloud.
For each value of the Azimuthal quantum number, l, the magnetic
quantum number, ml , may assume all the integral values between –
l to+l through zero. When l = 2 which corresponds to d subshell
(orbitals) the values for ml will be -2 to +2 through zero. That is
the magnetic quantum numbers ( ml ) will be -2, -1, 0 +1, +2 which

are five numbers. It means that there are five orbitals in which the
electrons in d subshell can be distributed.
Thus -2,-1, 0, +1, +2 are the only possible ml values that can be
assigned to the 10 electrons occupying the d orbitals.
The magnetic quantum number labels the orbitals that make up a

subshell. The number of ml values equals the number of orbitals in
a subshell. The table below shows the relationships between the
quantum numbers.
Table1.4 The relationship between the quantum numbers
Magnetic
Principal Number
Azimuthal
quantum Quantum of
number Quantum Subshell
orbitals
Number, l designation
Number, ml in the
(Subshell)
(n) subshell
1 0 1s 0 1
2 0 2s 0 1
1 2p 1 0 +1 3
3 0 3s 0 1
22
1 3p 1 0 +1 3
2 3d 2 1 0 +1 +2 5
4 0 4s 0 1
1 4p 1 0 +1 3
2 4d 2 1 0 +1 +2 5
3 4f 3 2  1 0 +1 +2 +3 7
1.3.4. The Spin quantum number ( ms )
This quantum number has been introduced to account for the spin
of electrons about there own axis. Since an electron can spin
clockwise or anticlockwise (in two opposite directions), there are
two possible values of ms that are equal and opposite. As quantum
numbers can differ only by unit from each other, there are two
values given to ms ; + 1
2 and - 1 2 depending whether the electron
spins in one direction or another. This spins are also designated by
arrows pointing upwards and down wards as () . Two electrons
with the same sign of the spin quantum numbers are said to have
parallel spins while those having opposite signs of the spin
quantum numbers are said to have opposite spin or anti parallel
spin or paired up spin.
What direction of an electron spin do you think is represented by

+ 1 2 and - 1 2 ? In life the clockwise direction is usually considered
as positive and the anticlockwise movement as negative direction.
Thus the + 1 2 represents the clockwise spin and the - 1 2 the
anticlockwise spin.
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24 Unit 1
Let us now see how we can assign the four quantum numbers to
electrons in a given energy level or sub energy level. Take the two
electrons in a 2s orbital as an example.
We know that the two electrons are in the second energy level
(shell). Thus the Principal quantum for the two electron is 2 (n=2).
The Azimuthal quantum number is equal to n-1= (2-1=1). This
means that there is only one type of orbital in 2s sublevel which is s
and the value of l for the s orbital is zero (l = 0) for all the electrons
occupying the s orbital. The magnetic quantum number for l=1 is
equal to l-1 = 0 and the spin quantum for two electrons will be + 1 2
and - 1 2 .
The description of the electrons in 2s is presented as follows
Electrons n l m s( ms )
e1 2 0 0 + 12
e2 2 0 0 - 12
Activity 1.5
(a) The quantum numbers of an electron are n = 3 and L = 1 what

sublevel does it occupy.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
(b) There are six electrons in the 2p sublevel. Below are the quantum
numbers for three of those elections. Write the missing sets.
24
n l m s
1
e1 2 1 -1 +
2
1
e2 2 1 0 -
2
1
e3 2 1 +1 +
2
…………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Let us now go through what we have learnt in this unit. In the next
unit will discuss how the electronic configuration has been used to
classify elements in groups and periods.
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26 Unit 1
Unit summary
In this unit we have learnt that electrons in an atom are not

restricted in orbits, but they are found in a volume of some definite
shape called orbitals which are found in sub energy levels of the
Summary
main energy levels around the nucleus. Each orbital can only
accommodate up to 2 electrons. The orbitals in the energy levels
near the nucleus (with lower energy levels) are filled first. This is
because electrons want to achieve maximum stability (low energy
state). We also discussed the quantum numbers. Quantum
numbers are a set of four numbers used to describe the exact
orbitals occupied by an electron. These numbers are the principal
quantum number, the Azimuthal quantum number, the magnetic
quantum number and the spin quantum number. The principal
quantum number (n) indicates its relative distance (energy level)
of an electron from the nucleus. It represents the average size of the
electron cloud. The Azimuthal quantum number(l) defines the
shape of the orbital occupied by the electron and the angular
momentum of the electrons. Then the magnetic quantum number
( ml ) it gives the orientation or distribution of electron cloud, it
determines the spatial orientation of an orbital while the spin
quantum number gives definite movement of an electron in an
atom.
26
Assessment
Answer the following questions in the spaces provided
1. Write the ground state electron configuration of the following
Assessment (a) Fe…………………………………………………………..…
(b) Ca ………………………………………………………….…
(c) O 2- ……………………………………………………………..
2. What principle(s) or rule(s) are violated in the following electron

configuration
(a) Boron 1s2 2s3

…………………………………………………………....
………………………………………………………………
(b) Nitrogen 1s2 2s2 2px 2py1
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
(c ) Beryllium 1s2 2px2
…………………………………………………………………....
……………………………………………………………………
* (e) By writing the allowed sets of quantum numbers , show

the maximum number of electrons that can that can be
accommodated into the shell for which the principal
quantum
number is 3
Note that the answers to the above exercise are given at the end of the
module. However, you are encouraged to work through first before
referring to the answers.
*Provide an extra answer sheet for (e) it requires a long solution and the
solution is not given at the end of this module.
27
28 Unit 2
Unit 2
The Periodic Table
2.1. Introduction
Welcome to this unit. Make sure that before you start studying this
unit you have understood the concept of electronic configuration in
the previous unit. You need this knowledge to understand how the
electronic configuration is linked to the chemical properties of
elements in groups and the repeating pattern of physical and
chemical properties shown by the different periods of the periodic
table
 Discuss patterns in physical properties and chemical behaviour

in elements
 Describe similarities shown by elements belonging to the same

Outcomes
group of the periodic table
 Describe the trends within a group and across the period
 Apply electronic configuration to explain the chemical

properties of element in some groups
28
2.2. Groups and Periods
The Periodic Table is basically constructed on the basis of

electronic configuration of atoms of elements. Atoms with similar
outer most electrons have similar chemical properties and are
placed in the same vertical columns called groups. When you move
row by row starting from the top of the periodic table across these
groups you will see that elements are arranged in the order of
increasing atomic number. Each horizontal row is called a period
and it contains elements with the same outer shell of valence
electrons. That is they have the same energy level being filled by
electrons. The groups and periods are clearly shown in table 2.1 on
the inserted pages, showing the long and usual form of the periodic
table.
The table highlights a convenient classification of the elements into

three types. The three types of elements are:
1. The elements in the first two sections comprising Groups 1

(I) through 8 (VIII), are called representative elements.
This category is characterized by stepwise addition of
electrons into the s or p subshells of the atoms. Group 8
elements make up a special set of representative elements
called the noble gases. They are characterized by the fact
that, in each case, the next element down the group starts a
new shell and they all have full outer most shell. Apart from
Helium (1s2) they all have s2p6 configuration in their outer
shell.
2. The third section between group II and III comprises of

elements belonging to transition elements. They interrupt
the representative between group II and III from the fourth
period. These sequences, containing ten elements each, are
29
30 Unit 2
related to stepwise addition of the electrons to d subshell of

the atoms.
3. The third type of elements found in the fourth section of the

periodic table are called the lanthaniods (rare earth
elements from La to Yb) and the actinoid (from Ac to No).
Together , the entire block is called the inner transition
elements. The concept of ‘inner transition elements’ is
related to the progressive addition of electrons in the f
subshell of the atoms.
Let us now discuss and show how the electronic configuration of

elements has been used to categorize elements in groups and
periods.
2.2.1. Groups of the periodic table
All the elements in each group have the same number of electrons
in the outermost sub shell (sub energy level). For groups from I to
VIII, the group number corresponds to the number of electrons in
the outermost sub energy level. The number of electron(s) in the
outermost orbital is called the valency electrons of the elements in
each group. They are called valency electrons because they
determine the valence of the elements in each group. The valence is
the combining power of an element, or the number of electrons an
atom of an element is ready to lose, gain or share during chemical
bonding.
The elements in the same group have a similar electronic

configuration. To understand this let us take a look at the electronic
configuration of some of the elements in groups I, II, III, &VII.
Table 2.2 Electronic configuration of group I elements
Element Atomic number Electronic configuration
30
Lithium 3 Li 1s 2 2s1
Sodium 11 Na 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s1
potassium 19 K 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4 s1
The electronic configuration of these elements in group I show that

all the elements have 1 electron in the outer most s orbital
Table 2.3 Electronic configuration of group II elements
Beryllium 4 Be 1s 2 2s 2
Magnesium 12 Mg 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2
Calcium 20 Ca 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2
It is evident that all the elements in group II have two electrons in

the outermost s orbital
If you look at the electronic configurations of elements in group I

and II you will see that the two groups have s orbital as the last
orbital to be filled. Thus, Group I and II are referred to as s block.
Table 2.4 Electronic configuration of group III elements
Boron 5 B 1s 2 2s 2 2 p1
Aluminium 13 Al 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p1
Gallium 31 Ga 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3d 10 4 p1
31
32 Unit 2
The group III elements have 3 electrons in the outer most shell; the
two electrons in s orbital (s2) and one electron in p orbital (p1).
That the last 3 electrons for Ga are in 4s2 and 4p1. The 4s2 and 4p1
are orbitals of the last shell; however 4s comes before 3d in the
electronic configuration notation because it is filled first than 3d.
Table 2.5 Electronic configuration of group VII elements
Fluorine 9 F 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 5
Chlorine 17 Cl 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 5
Bromine 35 Br 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3d 10 4 p 5
All the elements in group VII have 7 valency electrons in the

outermost orbitals s 2 p 5
When you look at the electronic configuration of the two groups it

is clear that groups III and VII belong to the p block because the
last orbital yet to be filled in these groups is the p orbital.
Activity 2.1
Using the knowledge of electronic configuration assign the

following elements; Oxygen (16), Argon (18), Iron (26),
manganese (25) and cerium (58) to their respective blocks.
……………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………
32
After completing the above activity can you now understand why
each of the following groups; I, II, III, IV, VI, VII, VIII, transition
elements, and the inner transition elements of the periodic table
belong to block representing the subshell? If not try again to write
the electronic configuration of two elements from each of the above
groups and put them in blocks. It is important to understand this
before you go to the discussion of periods in the next section. .
2.2.2. Periods of the Periodic Table
The periodic table has 7 periods representing the filling energy

level from 1 to 7. The period number represents the energy level
being filled. To understand this let us show the electronic
configurations of members of the first two periods. Period 1 has
two members Hydrogen ( H 1s 2 ) and He (He 1s 2 ) the energy level
being filled is the first (1) energy level. Period 2 has eight
members; lithium(LI 1s 2 2s1 ), Berylium (Be 1s 2 2s 2 ), Boron
(B 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p1 ), Carbon (C 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 2 ), Nitrogen (N 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 3 ),
oxygen (O 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 4 ), Fluorine ( F 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 5 ) and neon ( Ne
1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 ). The orbitals being filled in all the members of period

2 are in the second energy level (2s or 2p).
Table 2.9 shows a separated form of the periodic table based on

electronic configuration. The table gives a summery of what we
have discussed above in that it highlights a convenient
classification of the elements into representative (s and p blocks),
transitional elements (the d block) and the rare earth elements (the f
block). The table also affords as a quick count of the number of
electrons in the various subshells.
Now do the following activity to see if you can determine the

period to which an element belong from its electronic
configuration.
33
34 Unit 2
Activity 2.2
Using the electronic configuration determine the periods in which

each of the following elements belong;
17 Cl , 26 Fe , 56 Ba , 37 Rb ,and 88 Ra Justify your answer
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
Before we discuss the general chemical properties of some the

above groups of the periodic table, let us first look at the periodic
trends in terms of the physical properties of element across the
periods and in groups in the next section.
34
2.3. The Periodic Table and physical properties
In this section we will specifically discuss physical properties

trends of the periodic table in terms of; melting points, atomic
radius, ionic radius, electronegativity and first ionization energy of
elements across the periods and down the groups.
2.3.1. Melting point
The melting points depend both on the structure of an element and

on the type of attractive forces holding the atoms together. Using
period 3 as an example: at the far left of the period elements (Na,
Mg and Al) exhibit metallic bonding which increases in strength as
the number of valence electrons increases. Thus the melting point
increases from Na to Al. Silicon in the middle of the period has a
macromolecular covalent structure with very strong bonds resulting
in a very high melting point.
Figure 2.1 Trendes in melting points
Figure 2.1 shows that after the silicon there is a drastic drop in the
boiling points of the element of groups 5, 6 and 7 (P, S, and Cl 2 )
because they show simple molecular structures with weak van der
waals’ forces of attraction between molecules. The noble gases
35
36 Unit 2
(Ar) exist as monatomic molecules (single atom) with extremely

weak forces of attraction thus argon has the lowest melting point in
that period.
From the above discussion what could you say is the trend in terms
of the melting points as move from left to right across the periods?
It is clear from the above discussion that generally the melting

point decreases across the periods as move from left to right with
some interruption on the elements with macromolecular covalent
structure which exhibit a higher melting point.
There are also clear trends in terms of the melting point with
groups. In group 1 the melting point decreases down the group as
the atoms become larger and the strength of the metallic bond
decreases.
Li Na K Rb Cs
Melting Point (k) 454 371 336 312 302
In group 7 the van der waals’ forces between the diatomic

molecules increases down the group so the melting points
increases.
F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
Melting Point (k) 53 172 266 387
Let’s now see if you have understood how the structure of an

element and the type of attractive forces holding the atoms together
affect the melting point of elements by doing the following activity.
36
Activity 2.3
How do the following affect the melting points of elements?
(a) Metallic bonds………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………….
(b) Van der waals’ forces ………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………
2.3.2. Atomic radius
The atom is regarded as a sphere. Therefore the most convenient

dimension to consider is the atom’s radius. The atomic radius is the
distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron. Since the
position of the outermost electrons can never be known precisely,
the atomic radius is usually defined as half the distance between the
nuclei of two bonded atoms.
The radius of a ion in an ionic compound is called ionic radius (the

radius varies with the charge) and the radius of a neutral atom in
elements and covalent compound is called atomic radius. The sum
of the radius of two bonded atoms or ions is the bond length. Take
for example the atomic radii for nitrogen (N) and fluorine (F) are
0.073nm and 0.071nm respectively, we can calculate the N- F bond
length in NF3
37
38 Unit 2
Bond length N- F = the sum of radii of two bonded atoms
 0.073  0.071
 0.144nm
However this is first an approximation the accurate values are

experimentally determined and the experimental value for this bond
length is 0.136nm
Figure 2.2 shows that atomic radius within a given a period (going
from left to right across the table) decreases with the increasing
atomic number and increases down the group.
Figure 2.2 Trends in the atomic radii across the periods and down the
groups.
This is because across the period electrons are being added to the
same energy level, and the number of protons in the nucleus
increases. This increases the attraction of the energy level closer to
the nucleus and hence the atomic radius decreases across the
period. The nuclear charge exits a greater attraction on the
increased electron cloud than the electron repulsion within the
shells this causes the atom to shrink.
38
Within the group the atomic radius generally increases with atomic
number. This is because elements within a group are in different
period and in going from one period to the next, electrons are
added to higher shells.
As you go down in group 2 for example, each step corresponds to

an increase of 8, 18, and 32 in the nuclear charge and number of
electrons in the surrounding clouds. Since there is an increase of
electrons in higher shells the increase in electron repulsion, which
swells the atoms, is more than the increased nuclear attraction.
Thus the size of atoms increases with an increase in the number of
shells down the group.
2.3.3 Ionic radius
The addition of electrons creates a negative ion F + e  F-

(anion) whereas the removal of electrons creates a positive ion
Na  Na +  e (cation).
In a negative ion (F-), there more electrons than protons and the
added electrons increases repulsion between new electron and those
already present causing the cloud to spread out. As a result a
negative ion (F-) is considerably larger than the parent atom.
In the case of a positive ion (Na+) there are more protons because of
the loss of electron(s) (often the whole outer shell) which decrease
the total electron repulsion causing a considerably shrinkage in a
cation. Thus a positive ion (Na+) is smaller than a parent (Na) atom.
In general both cations and anions increase in size down a group,

just like the trend in the atomic radii of their parent atoms, as outer
level gets further from the nucleus.
39
40 Unit 2
Figure 2.3 Trends in the ionic radii across the periods and down the
groups
The ionic radius generally reduces across the periods although

there is an interruption in this pattern when you cross the boundary
of metallic (cations) and non metallic elements (anion). Take
period 3 for example, figure 2.3 shows that the ionic radius
decreases from Na+ to Al3+ , there is an increase in the ionic radius
at P3- the anion this because the gain in electrons increases the
electron repulsion that causes the ion to swell. After P3- the ionic
radius starts to decrease again up to and starts to Cl-
Now do the following activity to see if you have understood the

concept of periodic trends in terms of atomic and ionic radii.
40
Activity 2.4
Using the atomic and ionic radii given below:
Na = 0 .154, Na+= 0.095, B= 0.080, Cl =0.099, Br =0.114,

Sc =0.114, Zn = 0.117
(a) Calculated the bond length of B-Br in BBr3
………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
(b) Explain why Na has a higher radius than Na+
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
(c) Explain why the decrease in the atomic radius for elements Na
to Cl
is 0.055nm whereas the decrease for Sc to Zn is only 0.019nm
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………..
.
41
42 Unit 2
Let us now discuss the ionization energy in the next section
2.3.4 Ionization Energy
This is maximum energy required to remove an electron ( e ) from

a gaseous atom in its ground state. The removal of the second
electron from the positive ion requires the second ionisation
energy.
He(g)  He + (g) + e- +2372KJ/mol
Ionization process First ionization energy
He(g) +  He2+ (g) + e- +5247 KJ/mol
Ionization process second ionization energy
The ionization energy is endothermic. The second ionization is

more than the first ionization energy because more energy is
needed to remove the second electron from a cation with the
increased nuclear attraction of the electron cloud around the
nucleus.
Among the representative element, the first ionization energy

increases irregularly across a period. The first irregularity in period
2 for example is between group II and III. The decrease between
Be and B is due to the completion of an s sub shell ( Be 2s 2 ) and
the start of a p sub shell (B 2p1 ). 2p1 is in a higher energy
level and therefore it is easier to remove an electron from 2p in

boron than in 2s in beryllium.
The second irregularity is the decrease in ionization energy

between group V and VI, this is as a result of the electron
repulsion as an extra electron enters an occupied orbital in oxygen
( 2p 4 ). Thus it is easier to to remove an electron in 2p 4 of oxygen
42
than 2p3 in nitrogen. The three electrons in 2p3 of nitrogen are more
stable than the single pair in 2p 4 because they have less repulsion
force in that each of the three electrons has occupied an orbital
Within a group the first ionization energy decreases down words,

with same exceptions. The transition elements do not conform fully
to these two patterns but we can generalise that among the
representative elements, the first ionization energy increases across
a period and decreases down in a group.
Figure2.4 Increase of ionization energy across the periods and down the
groups
The trends in ionization energies and atomic radii are usually run
opposite to each other. This is because it easier to resume the
electrons from larger atoms than smaller ones. The reason for this
is that the outer, or valency electrons in smaller atoms, being closer
to the nucleus and less “shielded” by interviewing shells, are more
attached to the nucleus.
43
44 Unit 2
2.3.5 Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a relative measure of the attraction that an atom
has for a shared pair of electrons when it is covalently bonded to
another atom. As the size of an atom decrease the electronegativity
increases, so the value increases across a period and decrease down
a group. The figure below shows that the three most electro
negative elements are fluorine (F), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O).
H
2.1
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Cl
0.9 3.0
K Br
0.8 2.8
2.5
Figure2 5: Increase of electronegativity across the periods and up the

groups
The figure shows that electronegativity increases as go across the

period from left to right and up the group.
44
2.4. The Periodic Table and chemical properties
We have already discussed that modern periodic table has atoms of

elements listed in order of increasing atomic number. The
numbered vertical columns are called groups (families) and
elements in the same group have similar chemical properties, this is
because they have a similar electronic configuration. Thus we are
going to discuss the chemical properties of elements by specifically
discussing some of the groups of the periodic table. The major
trend, in terms of chemical properties, as you move across the
periods from left to right is that the elements loses their metallic
nature and become non metals. Metals are elements that react
(combine) with other elements by losing their valency electrons.
While non metals react by gaining or sharing of electrons. The
periodic heavy line that crosses groups III to VII, zigzags among
these border line elements, serving as an approximate boundary
between the metals, on the left, and the non metals, on the right.
Let us now discuss the general chemical properties of the following

groups: I, II, VII and the first row of the transition elements.
2.4.1 Group I elements; Alkali metals

These elements have one electron in the outer most shells (in the s
sub shell) of their atoms. They are all very reactive metals and are
stored under liquid paraffin or oil to prevent them from reacting
with air. They react by losing their outer electron to form the metal
ion. The general ionic equation for this loss of an electron can be
written as follows:
M  M   e
M represents any member of the alkali metals
45
46 Unit 2
The reactivity in this group increases down the group. This because
as you down the group the number of energy levels increases, the
outer electron is successively in higher energy levels and less
energy is required to remove it due to the higher energy it posses,
the increased distance from the nucleus and the electron shielding.
The alkali metals are strong reducing agents because they easily
lose electrons.
Most of the compounds of the alkali metals are therefore ionic and
the alkali metals have an oxidation state of +1 in their compounds.
They are called alkali metals because they can react with water to
form an alkali solution of the metal hydroxide and hydrogen.
2 Na ( s )  2 H 2O (l )  2 NaOH (aq )  H 2 ( g )
They burn in oxygen to form normal oxides, peroxide and super-

oxide. The nature of the oxide depends on the metal.
4Li(s) + O 2 (g)  2Li 2 O(s) Normal oxide
2Na(s)+O 2 (g)  Na 2O 2 ( s) A peroxide
K(s) + O 2 (g)  KO 2 (s) super oxide
All these oxides are basic in nature.
They form water soluble, thermically stable carbonates. With an

exception of Li 2 CO3 which can decompose with strong heating in
a burnsen flame. They form solid hydrogen carbonates (bi-
carbonates), which decomposes on heating. Take for example
sodium bi- carbonate ( NaHCO3 ), the baking powder, decomposes
into sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide.
NaHCO3 (s)  Na 2 CO3 (s) + H 2O(l) + CO 2 (g)
46
Lithium bi-carbonate ( LiHCO3 ) is an exception it only exist in

solution.
Alkali metals react with chlorine and bromine to form ionic salts.
2Na(s) + Cl 2 (g)  2NaCl(s)
2k(s) + Br2 (s)  2KBr(s)
Their salts are usually colourless or white and are ionic not
hydrolysed in solution. They don’t react with water but only
dissolve. They form nitrates that decompose to nitrites and oxygen
on strong heating with an exception of lithium that decomposes to
oxide. The general equation for the decomposition of nitrates of the
alkali metals is:
2MNO3 (s)  2MNO 2 (s) + O 2 (s)
M is an alkali metal apart from lithium.
2.4.2 Group II elements alkali earth metal
The chemistry of these elements (except beryllium) is dominated

by their tendency to lose two electrons in their outer most shell (in
s subshell) and their compounds are generally ionic.
M  M 2+ +2e-
The metals tend to be less reactive than the alkali metals because
removal of two electrons requires move energy. Reactivity in this
group also increases down the group.
47
48 Unit 2
Some chemical properties of group 2 metals (with the exception of

Beryllium, which from mostly covalent compounds) are:
They burn in air to form normal oxide.
2Ca(s) + O 2 (g)  2CaO(s)
Ca, Sr and Ba react with cold water to form the hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + H 2O(l)  Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
While magnesium reacts slowly with cold water, but rapidly with
steam to form the oxide
Mg(s) + H 2 O(g)  MgO(s) + H 2 (g)
The metals react with acids (aqueous) to liberate hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
Their carbonates decompose on strong heating into carbon dioxide

and oxide.
CaCO3 (s)  CaO(s) + CO 2 (g)
The Nitrates of alkali earth metals decompose on heating into the

oxide, brown gaseous nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
2Mg(NO3 ) 2 (s)  2MgO(s) + 4NO 2 + O 2 (g)
Their hydroxide are not thermically stable as those of the alkali

metals, they decompose on heating.
Ca(OH)2  CaO(s) + H 2O(l)
48
2.4.3 Group VII elements: The Halogens
The members of this group have seven valency electrons; with a

general structure ns 2 np 5 where n is greater than 1. They combine
by accepting an electron to form a negatively charged ion or by
sharing an electron to form a covalent bond. Some of their common
properties are:-
They are non metallic elements which exist as diatomic

molecules F2 , Cl2 Br2 and I 2 and they are volatile elements.
Fluorine
and Chlorine are gases at room temperature, bromine is a liquid

whereas iodine is a volatile solid it sublimises when warmed.
Halogens combine directly with most metal to form ionic solids.
2Na(s) + Cl 2 (g)  2NaCl(s)
They form gaseous (with an exception HF) covalent hydride with

general formula HX. The thermal stability of these hydride
decreases down the group. The hydrides form acidic aqueous
solution.
HCl(g) + H 2O(l)  H 3O + (aq) + Cl- (aq)
HCl(aq)  H + (aq) + Cl - (aq)
The presence of halide ions in solution can be detected by adding

silver nitrate solution.
The silver ions react with the halide ions to form a precipitate of
silver halide (salt) with a general equation
Ag + (aq) +X - (aq)  AgX(s)
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3 (aq)
49
50 Unit 2
Ag (aq)
+
+ NO3(aq)
-
+ Na (aq)
+
+Cl(aq)
-
 AgCl(s) + Na (aq)
+
+ NO3(aq)
-
The NO3(aq)
-
and Na (aq)
+
ions are left out in the net ionic equation
because they are spectator ions.
Ag + (aq) + Cl - (aq)  AgCl(s) White precipitate (ppt)
AgBr (Cream ppt)
AgI (Yellow ppt)
Their silver salts become increasingly covalent from AgF to AgI.
Halogens are good oxidizing agent and their reactivity decreases

down the group as the outer shell is increasingly at higher energy
level and further from the nucleus. Thus the increase in the number
of electrons between the nucleus and the outer shells decreases the
attraction for an extra electron. It follows then that chlorine is a
stronger oxidising agent than bromine, so it can remove the
electron from bromine ions in solution to form chloride ions and
bromine similarly both chlorine and bromine can oxidize iodine
ions to form iodine.
Cl 2 (g) + 2Br - (aq)  2Cl - (aq) + Br2 (g)
2.4.4 The First Row Transitional Elements

A transitional element is defined as an element that posses an incomplete
d sub-level in one or more of its oxidation states. This is shown by the
table below showing the electronic configuration of the first row of
transition elements.
Table Electronic configuration of the first row transition elements
Scandium 21 Sc [ Ar ]4 s 2 3d 1
Tin 22 Ti [ Ar ]4 s 2 3d 2
Vanadium 23 V [ Ar ]4 s 2 3d 3
50
Chromium 24 Cr [ Ar ]4 s1 3d 5
Manganese 25 Mn [ Ar ]4 s 2 3d 5
Iron 26 Fe [ Ar ]4 s 2 3d 6
Cabot 27 Co [ Ar ]4 s 2 3d 7
Nickel 28 Ni [ Ar ]4 s 2 3d 8
Copper 29 Cu [ Ar ]4 s1 3d 10
Zinc 30 Zn [ Ar ]4 s 2 3d 10
[Ar] is the core representing 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 the electronic

configuration of Argon (Ar)
Which elements from the above table do not conform to the

definition of a transition element? Justify your answer using the
electronic configuration.
It is clear when you look carefully at the above table that there
same elements which have a configuration which does not
completely conform to the definition of a typical transition element
or to the order in which 4s and 3d should be filled. These elements
are; Scandium (Sc), Zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and chromium (Cr).
Scandium is not a typical transitional metal because its common

ion Sc3+ has no d electrons. Zinc contains a full d sub level in all its
oxidation states thus it is not a transition metal. While copper and
chromium are typical transition elements it just that it is more
energetically favourable for the atoms of these two elements to
half – fill s sub energy level and completely fill the d sub level
respectively so they only contain only one 4s electrons. In Cu2+ ion
(oxidation state) copper has incomplete d (Cu2+[Ar] 3d 9 ) it first
lose the one electron in 4s and the second one in 3d.
51
52 Unit 2
Characteristics of Transitional Elements

Transition elements have variable oxidation states and when they
lose electrons, they lose the 4s electrons first. Thus all the
transitional elements can show an oxidation state of +2. Some of
the transitional elements can form the +3 or +4 ions, for example
Fe3+ and Mn4+. The M4+ ion is rare and in the higher oxidation
state the element is usually found not as the free metal ion but
either covalent bonded or as an oxyanion such as MnO 4 -
Some common examples of variable oxidation states in addition to

+2 are;
Cr(+3) in CrCl3 chromium (III) Chloride
Cr (6) in Cr2O72 dichromate (VI) ion
Mn(+4) in MnO 2 manganese (IV) oxide
Mn(+7) in MnO -4 manganate (VII) ion
Fe(+3) in Fe 2O3 iron (III) oxide
Cu(+) in Cu 2 O copper (I) oxide
They form coloured ions (compounds). In free ion the five d

orbitals are degenerate (of equal energy). However, in complexes
the d orbitals are split into two distinct levels the energy differences
between the two energy levels corresponds to a particular wave
length or frequency in the visible region of the spectrum. When
light falls on the complex, energy of a particular wave length, is
absorbed and electrons are excited from the lower energy level to
the higher levels. Copper (II) ion (Cu2+) for example appears blue
because its complementary colour to the wave lengths that has been
absorbed.
52
In other words when white light passes through a solution of a

transitional metal complex, d electrons of lower energy absorb
some of the light and be promoted to the higher energy level, there
by absorbing some of the visible light. The unabsorbed light is
responsible for the colour observed.
They form complex ions because of their small size d – block ions
that attract species that are rich in electrons. Such species are
known as ligands. Ligands are neutral molecules or ions which
contain a non bonding pair of electrons. These electron pairs can
form co-ordinate covalent with the metal ion to form complex ions.
A common ligand in water and most (but not all) transition metal
ions exist as hexahydrated complex ion in aqueous solution, an
example of such complex ion is
[Fe(H 2O ) 6 ]3 Hexahydrated iron (III) ion.
Many transition metal and their compounds are very efficient

catalysts. A catalyst alters the rate of a reaction by providing an
alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy.
Transition complexes are able to do this because they can exist in a
variety of oxidation states. Reactants can be brought into close
contact with each other by becoming reversibly attached to the
catalyst. Some common examples include:
2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g)  25  2SO 3 (g) in contact process

V O (s)
2H 2 O 2 (aq) 
MnO 2 (s)
 2H 2 O(l) + O 2 (g) in decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide.
53
54 Unit 2
Activity 2.5
You are provided elements with the following electronic

configurations in the ground state; P 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 N
1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4s 2 3d 6 Q 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 5 and M
1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4s1 .
(a) Which element rarely reacts with other elements? Justify your
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
(b) Identify the element which is likely to have a variable oxidation

states? Justify your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
(c) Which element is the most reactive? Justify your answer
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………....
If you are through with this activity let as now reflect on what we
have discussed.
54
Unit summary
In this unit we discussed that elements in a periodic table are placed

in the order of increasing atomic number. Elements with the same
number of valency electrons are placed vertically in the same
Summary
group. The groups are numbered from I to VIII (or 0). The
transition elements are located between groups II and III. Elements
in the same group tend to have similar chemical and physical
properties. Elements with the same outer shell of valency electrons
are placed horizontally in the same period. We also discussed that
there is a repeated pattern of physical and chemical properties
shown by the different periods. These periodic trends can clearly be
seen in atomic atomic, radii, ionic radii, ionization energies,
electronegativities and melting points.
Assessment
1. You are presented with the following elements; P

1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 4 and
Assessment
Q 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 3
(a). In which period and group each of this elements found?
Justify your answer using the electronic configurations of these
elements.
...…………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
55
56 Unit 2
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….
(b). Which element has higher first ionization energy between P
and Q.? Give a reason for your answer
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2*For each of the following elements, write the electronic

Configuration for each element, state the name of group to
which each of these elements belong and state one chemical
property of each group
(a) 39
19 Q (b) 24
12 N (c) 199 M .
Note that the answers to the above exercise are given at the end of
the module. However, you are encouraged to work through first
before referring to the answers.
*Provide an extra answer sheet for (e) it requires a long solution and the
solution is not given at the end of this module.
56
Unit 3
Chemical Bonding
3.1. Introduction
We have been looking at the properties of an atom. And we will

now look at the one of the basic property of an atom. This basic
property is, atoms combine to form a molecules or compounds. The
question is, why do atoms combine? The reason is simple. Atoms
combine to become stable. Atoms with the outermost shell that is
not completely filled are unstable and would combine to fill their
outermost shell. In this unit we are going to explore how atoms
combine to form compounds and molecules. When atoms combine
they form what is called a chemical bond.
A chemical bond is an attraction between particle (atoms, ions or

molecules) that allows the formation of chemical substances that
contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electrostatic
force of attraction between opposite charges, either between
electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction. The
strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are "strong
bonds" such as covalent or ionic bonds and "weak bonds" such as
dipole–dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and
hydrogen bonding.
The formation of a chemical bond usually involves the outermost

shell electrons of atoms. These electrons are called valence
electron.
57
58 Unit 3
 Discuss various types of chemical bonding in simple

substances
 Describe the structure of simple molecules

Outcomes
 Draw the shape of simple molecules
58
3.2. Lewis Symbols
In the study of chemical bonding, only the valence electrons are

taken into consideration. Valence electron(s) are the electrons in
the outermost shell of an atom. These electrons are shown by use of
the notation called Lewis symbols. Lewis symbols are represented
by dot (.) or cross(x), known as Lewis dot or cross symbol. To
construct the Lewis symbol for an element, we write its symbol
surrounded by a number of dots(X’s or circle, etc.), each of which
represents one electron in the atom’s valence shell. The Lewis
symbol for Group A elements are shown in table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Lewis symbols for Group A elements.
Activity 3.1
What is the Lewis symbol for germanium (Z=32)?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
59
60 Unit 3
3.3. Types of bond
Chemical bonds are divided into two classes depending on what

types of combination has taken place. The types of bond an atom
will under go will depend on the electronegativity difference
between the atoms. If the electronegativity between the bonding
atoms is large, the atoms can only bond by transferring of
electrons. This type of bonding is most common between non metal
which are of high electronegativity and metals which are of low
electronegativity but high electropositive. If the electronegativity
between the bonding atoms is small, the atoms can only bond by
sharing of electrons. This type of bonding is most common
between non metals which are of high electronegativity. The
Chemical bond determines the chemical property of the molecule
or compounds. They are four types of bonding. These are,
1. Ionic or electrovalent bonding
2. Covalent bonding
3. Coordinate bonding
4. Metallic bonding
We will more concentrate on ionic bonding and covalent bonding
3.3. Ionic or Electrovalent bond
This is the type of bonding which involve the transfer of valence
electrons from one atom to another to allow the atom attain the
maximum number of electron in the outermost shell and become
stable with minimum energy. Ionic or electrovalent bonding takes
place between a metal and non metal with large electronegativity
difference. A metal loses its valence electron(s) to form a positively
charged particle called cation.
60
Metal → (Metal) + +
A non metal then gains the electron(s) the metal lost to form a
negative particle called anion.
Non metal + → (Non metal)-
The two opposite ions will then get attracted to each other to form a
neutral compound. For example
(Metal) + + (Non metal) - → neutral compound
Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
Sodium metal will loose its valence electron in 3S1, to form

Sodium positively charged ion. The ion is stable because it has
eight electrons in the outermost and has attained lower potential
energy.
Chlorine atom will gain the electron that sodium has lost to form a
chloride ion which equally become stable because it has now eight
in the outermost shell. And it has also attained a lower potential
energy.
61
62 Unit 3
A positively charged ion and a negatively charge ion then get

attracted to each other because they experience electrostatic forces
of attraction.
Na+ + Cl- NaCl
The compound formed has a crystalline structure held together by

electrostatic forces as show below,
Fig: 3.1. Crystalline structure of NaCl.
In your own time you can also look at other examples such formation
MgO, MgCl2 and MgCl3.
62
3.3.1. Characteristics of ionic compound
Ionic compound have the following characteristics,
1. These are compounds formed by atoms from different

elements by forming ions as a result of electron transfer, i.e.
made up of positively charged and negatively charged ions.
2. Due to the presence of ions, theses compounds conduct

electricity in solution or molten state.
3. These compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in

organic solvents.
4. These compounds are held to each other by high

electrostatic force of attraction, they require high energy to
break and combine, and therefore these compounds will
have high melting point and boiling point.
5. There are non volatile (can not easily evaporate) and are
solid at room temperature and pressure (RTP)
Activity 3.2
(a) Explain the formation of an ionic bond between one atom of

potassium and one atom of chlorine on the basis of octet rule
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
(b). How is the concept of electronegativity used to predict the

bond types?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
63
64 Unit 3
3.4. Covalent Bonding
This is the type of bonding where the electronegativity difference

between the atoms is small and the atoms combine by sharing
electrons. This bond is also known as molecular bond. It consists
of a shared pair of electrons. The shared pair of electrons is
represented by a single dash line (-) or (:). Covalent Bonding is
formed between non metals. Covalence is the number of electrons
an atom shares with another atom. Covalence of elements is by the
equation below
Covalence is given by the maximum number of in the

outermost shell minus the number of electrons in outer
most shell
For example
What is the Covalence of Chlorine?
Chlorine has 17 electrons so the electronic configuration for

Chlorine is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
The outer most energy level for chlorine has 7 electrons; 2 from the
3s and 5 from the 3p orbitals, therefore the covalence for chlorine
is given by
Covalence = 8 -7
=1
Covalence for chlorine is one meaning it has one electron to share
3.4.1. Types of covalent Bonding
Single bond
This is the type of bonding where the bonded atom have only
shared pair
64
Example of single bond molecule include
Hydrogen
Hydrogen has one valence electron and n=1, meaning it can

accommodate a maximum number of two electrons. So two
Hydrogen atoms will share a paired of electron each contributing
one electron
Hydrogen molecule can represented H-H or H: H
Chlorine
Chlorine has seven valence electrons and n=3, meaning it can

accommodate a maximum number of eight electrons in the
outermost shell, therefore covalence for chlorine is one. So two
Chlorine atoms will share a paired of electron each contributing
one electron
Chlorine molecule can represented Cl-Cl or Cl:Cl
Water
Water is made of two Hydrogen atoms and one Oxygen atoms.

Oxygen has six valence electrons and n=3, meaning it can
accommodate a maximum number of eight electrons in the
outermost shell. Hydrogen has one valence electron and n=1,
meaning it can accommodate a maximum number of two electrons.
65
66 Unit 3
So two Hydrogen atoms will share electrons with one Oxygen atom
each Hydrogen atom contributing one electron to form two
covalent bonds with Oxygen.
A water molecule can represented
Double bond
A double covalent bond is formed when two atoms of the molecule

share two pairs of electrons. For example,
Carbon dioxide
Carbon atom has four valence electrons and each oxygen atom has
six valence electrons.
The molecule of Carbon Dioxide is represented by
Triple bond
A Triple covalent bond is formed when two atoms of the molecule

share three pairs of electrons. For examples,
Nitrogen
66
The molecule of Nitrogen is represented by
3.4.2. Characteristics of Covalent Bonding
1. Covalent bond is formed between two atoms when they

equally share one, two or three pair electrons with each
other.
2. They have low melting point and melting point because they
are characterised by weak electrostatic forces of attraction.
3. They are soluble in organic solvent such as ethanol and

phenol, and insoluble in inorganic solvent such as water.
4. They are volatile and are mostly gases or liquids at RTP.
5. They do not conduct electricity in neither molten nor liquid

state.
3.4.3. Covalent Network
Some atoms are capable of making multiple covalent bonds that

rise to a large or macromolecule in which the bonding is
continuous from atom to another atom and the bond is throughout
the structure. Most resulting structures are crystalline. For example,
many carbon atom covalent bonds can be condensed to form a
crystalline structure. The structure formed depends on the
arrangement of the carbon atom covalent bond.
Graphite is made of layer of carbon with weak covalent bond and

the layer is able to slide against one another. Graphite is soft and
has low density .It also able to conduct electricity because only
three of the four valence electrons of each carbon atoms are
involved in the formation of covalent bonds between adjacent
atoms: the remaining electron is delocalized, but between the layers
of carbon atoms.
67
68 Unit 3
Diamond is not made up of the layer like in graphite but instead

their bonds are rigid and are very strong. The bonded atoms are
strongly held to one another. Diamond is hard and it has high
density. The structure of diamond and graphite are give below
Figure 3.2 diamond and graphite crystal lattices
Silicon and Germanium are also characterised by many condensed

covalent bond that give raise a macro crystalline molecule. They
conduct very small electrical current: they have more electrons than
carbon and they are superimposed on the strictly localised bonding,
a more generalized type of metal – like bonding. They are mostly
used as semiconductors.
3.4.4. Non polar and polar Covalent Bonding
Non polar covalent bonds
This is the bond formed when atoms of the same element combine
to make a molecule. The electronegativity difference between the
bonded atoms is zero since the electronegativity of the atoms is the
same and they cancel one another when the atoms combine. The
molecule will not possess any ionic character because no partial
charges will be formed on neither atoms. The electrons will be
shared equally and they will lie in the middle of the bond. We can
now suggest that a diatomic molecule, for instance, Hydrogen or
Chlorine have two identical nuclei that attract the pair of electrons
equally and the shared pair of electrons lie on the middle of the
bond. These molecules are non-polar. For example
68
Note that, a non-polar covalent bond may be defined as a bond

existing between two atoms having the same electronegativity
values (that is, identical or homo-nuclear atoms) having no charge
separation between them
Polar covalent bonds
This is a bond formed when atoms of the different elements

combine to form a molecule. The atoms that combine have
different electronegativity because they are of different elements.
The shared pair of electrons will not be shared equally and will be
attracted more to the side where they is a more electronegativity
atom hereby creating a partial negative charge. The other atom
creates a partial positive charge because the shared pair of electrons
somewhat moves away from it. For example, Hydrogen Chloride
is made of two different atoms with different electronegativity.
Chloride is more electronegativity than Hydrogen and will pull the
shared pair of electrons towards its side creating a partial negative.
Since the shared pair of electrons some what moves away from
Hydrogen. Hydrogen creates a partial positive charge pole as
shown on the below
Figure3.5 partial charges in a polar covalent molecule
69
70 Unit 3
From the above discussion it follows that a polar covalent bond may be
defined as a covalent bond existing between two atoms having slightly
different electro negativities (that is, different atoms) and having charge
separation between them.
3.4.5. Dipole moment
A dipole moment is product of the bond length (l) and the charge
(q) of the atoms in the molecule. Non polar molecules have no
dipole moment because there shared pair of electrons are
experiencing equal pull of attraction from both side of the atoms
that have equal electronegativity. Since the pull of attraction on
either side of the molecule is the same, the net electronegativity of
the molecule is cancelled. The molecule will have no charges and
will be symmetric.
Polar molecules have dipole moment because the shared pair of

electrons in these molecules is not equal. The atoms in the
molecule have different electronegativity. The shared pair of
electrons will be unequally shared by the atoms in the molecule
because of there difference in electronegativity. The molecule will
have a net electronegativity which will make each atom in the
molecule have partial charge. Since the shared pair of electrons is
not equally shared the molecule is asymmetric
The dipole moment of a molecule is represented by an arrow with a

crossed tail. The arrow is directed from the positive end to negative
end of the dipole. For example, the dipole moment of HCl
molecule can be represented as shown below.
70
It is important to note that the dipole moment value of a given

molecule can be used to predict whether the given molecule has
symmetrical or unsymmetrical shape. The following points are
worthwhile knowing:
1. Structure of homo-nuclear diatomic molecules of A2 type.

Molecules of this type (for example, H2, N2, O2, Cl2,) have
zero dipole moments and hence have symmetrical dumbbell
shape.
2. Structure of hetero-nuclear diatomic molecules of AB type.

Molecules of this type (for example HF, HCl, HI, CO, NO,
CIF) have some value of dipole moment and hence have
symmetrical dumbbell shape.
3. Structure of tri-atomic molecules (a) triatomic molecules

like CO2, BeCl2, and Hg Cl2, have zero dipole moment and
hence are linear in shape (symmetrical shape). Let us
consider CO2 as an example. In this molecule (O=C=O)
both carbon-oxygen bonds are polar but the overall
molecule is non-polar because of its symmetrical linear
geometry. The dipole moment of one C=O bond cancels the
dipole moment of the other C=O bond lying on the opposite
side. Thus the resultant dipole moment of CO2 molecule
becomes zero.
Figure 3.7 linear geometry of CO2, BeCl2, and HgCl2
On the same line of argument it can be explained that the

dipole moment of BeCl2, and HgCl2 molecules are also zero
and hence these molecules, have linear geometry.
71
72 Unit 3
(b) Tri-atomic molecules such as H2O, H2S, SO2, have some value
of their dipole moment and hence angular shape
(unsymmetrical shape). As an example let us consider H2O
molecule.
Figure 3.8 water molecule has dipole moment
This molecule has two identical O-H bonds. Due to the

unsymmetrical structure of the molecule, the dipole
moments of two O-H bonds do not cancel each other and
hence the net dipole moment of H2O is not zero but it has
some dipole moment value.
4. Structure of tetra-atomic and penta-atomic molecules
Tetra-atomic molecules like BF3, BCl3 and SO3 have zero

dipole moment hence have symmetrical trigonal
geometry. Each of these molecules has identical bonds.
Let us consider BF3, molecule as an example. This
molecule has three B-F polar bonds but the overall
molecule is non polar because of its symmetrical
geometry, the dipole moments of the three B-F bonds
cancels each other and hence the resultant dipole moment
of BF3 becomes zero.
Figure 3.8 BF3 molecule has zero dipole moment
72
Like in BF3, the dipole moment for BCl3 and SO3

molecules are also zero because the three bonds in each of
the two molecules cancels each other such that their
resultant dipole moment in each molecule becomes zero
as well.
Now suggest a reason why the tetra-atomic molecules like

NH3, NF3, PH3 and PCl3 have dipole moments and why
penta-atomic molecules such as CCl4, CF4, SiF4, and CCl4,
have zero dipole moments?
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………….
In order for you to answer these questions it is important

to remember that molecules with symmetrical geometry
have a net dipole moment of zero and that molecules with
unsymmetrical geometry have some dipole moment
value.
Let us study the geometry of NH3? Is it symmetrical or

unsymmetrical? If you observe it very carefully, you will
notice that it is actually not symmetrical.
Figure 3.10 NH3 has dipole moment
Although the tetra-atomic molecules such as the one in

figure 3.2 has three identical N-H bonds, they are not
able to cancel one another because N has extra one
unshared lone pair of electrons which gives the resulting
structure an unsymmetrical shape. NH3 has a dipole
moment.
73
74 Unit 3
As for penta-atomic molecules such as CCl4 mentioned

above, due to their molecules being symmetrical in shape
Figure 3.11 CH4 molecule has zero dipole moment. The four C-H
bonds cancel each other.
The dipole moments of the four bonds (present in each

molecule) cancel each other and hence the net dipole moment
becomes equal to zero.
Activity 3.3
With the help of a diagram explain why CH3Cl has some value of dipole
moment.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Table 3.2 gives a summary of the difference between polar

covalent bond and non-polar covalent bond.
Table 3.2: differences between polar and non-polar bonds
Polar covalent bond Non-polar covalent bond
Is that covalent bond which has Is a normal covalent bond which

some amount of polar or ionic does not have any amount of polar
character(that is polarity) character
The bond is established between This bond is established between

the atoms which have small two atoms which have no
74
difference in their electronegativity difference in their electronegative

values values
Electron pair constituting the polar The electron pair constituting the
covalent bond is not equally non-polar covalent bond is equally
attracted or shared by two atoms attracted or shared
Occurrence of partial charges on No charges occurs on the atoms

the atoms involved involved
Due to charge separation in polar Since there is no charge separation

molecules theses have higher in non-polar molecules, these
melting and higher boiling points molecules have low melting and
low boiling points
3.5. Co ordinate Covalent Bond
This is type of covalent bonding where the shared pair electrons

come from one atom. Thus in the formation of this bonding, one
atom donates an electron pair while the other atom accepts it. The
atom donating the electron pair is called donor while the atom
accepting it is called acceptor. The atom acting as a donor must
have one unused pair of electrons (called lone pair of electrons)
which may be donated by it to the acceptor atom. The acceptor
atom must have an empty orbital to accept the lone pair of
electrons. Coordinate bond is represented as A  B where A acts as
a donor and B behaves as an acceptor.
Figure 3.12 formation of a coordinate bond
75
76 Unit 3
Although the arrow head indicates the origin of the electrons, once
the coordinate bond is formed it is in no way different from an
ordinary covalent bond.
In the formation of a coordinate bond, a partial positive charge is

developed on donor atom and an equal partial negative charge is
developed on the acceptor atom. Thus a coordinate bond A  B
should be represented as A  B . Due to the development of

 
partial Charges, the coordinate bond become slightly polar and

hence is called semi-polar or dative bond. Coordinate bond has the
properties of both covalent bond and ionic bond and, therefore, has
also been called co-ionic bond. Coordinate bond is a union of one
electrovalent and one covalent.
Exception to the octet rule
When a molecules has an odd number of valence electrons such

molecules are called odd electrons molecules. For example,
consider nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), molecules.
In the molecule nitric oxide (NO), Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons
and oxygen has 6 valence electrons adding to a total of eleven
valence electrons which is an odd number. Similarly for Nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) has an odd seventeen valence electrons. It is
impossible to divide an odd number of electrons so that each atom
of the molecule has eight (even number) of electrons to satisfy the
octet rule. Following are the Lewis structure of NO and NO2
molecules.
In coordinate covalent bonding the substance that donate a pair of

electrons is called a Lewis base it has satisfied the octet rule and
76
the substance that accepts the pair of electrons is called Lewis acid
and has not satisfied the octet rule because it has some empty
orbitals that can accept a pair of electrons.
Let us now look at some examples of molecules and ions

containing coordinate bond.
Formation of ammonium ion, (NH4 +)
This takes place between ammonia and a Hydrogen ion (proton).

Ammonia molecule has the central N atom that is linked to three H
atoms and has an unshared pair of electrons. The H+ ion has an
empty 1s orbital that can accept a pair of electrons. NH3 will donate
its unshared electrons to H+ forming ammonium ion.
Figure 3.14 ammonia molecule donating a lone pair of electrons to H +
Formation of Hydronium ion, (H3 O+)
The oxygen atom in a water molecule is attached to two H atoms

by two covalent bonds. There are still two unshared pairs of
electrons on O atom. O atom donates one of these pairs of electrons
to an empty 1s orbital of H+ ion and the hydronium ion is thus
formed.
77
78 Unit 3
Figure 3.15 water molecule donating a pair of electrons to H+
Formation of Fluoroborate ion, BF4-.

It is formed when a boron trifluoride (BF3) shares a pair of
electrons supplied by fluoride ion (F-).
Figure 3.16 F- donating a pair of electrons to bf3-.
Formation of Ozone
Oxygen molecule is made of two oxygen atoms joined by two
covalent bonds. Each O atom in O2 has two unshared pairs of
electrons. When one pair of these is donated to a third O atom
which has only six electrons, a coordinate bond is formed. Thus the
Lewis structure of ozone may be represented as:
Fig 3.16: Oxygen atom donating an electron pair to Oxygen atom.
Coordinate Covalent bonding of NH3 and BCl3
The N atom of ammonia molecule (NH3) has a lone pair of

electrons while B atom in boron trichloride (BCl3) is short of two
electrons than stable octet. An addition compound is formed as the
N atom donates its lone pair to atom of BCl3.
78
Figure 3.18 Ammonia molecules donating an electron pair to BCl3.
Activity 3.4
Draw the structures of the following molecules/ions?
1. Sulphate ion, SO2-4
2. Nitromethane, CH3NO2
3. Aluminium Chloride, Al2Cl6
3.5.1. Characteristic of coordinate compounds
Some of the characteristics of coordinate compounds are

summarised below:
79
80 Unit 3
1. Once a coordinate bond is formed, it becomes identical to a

normal covalent bond and hence it is difficult to
differentiate it from a covalent bond.
2. Space isomerism. Coordinate bond is rigid and has

directional properties. It is for this reason that the
coordinate bond compounds have definite geometry and
exhibit space isomerism.
3. Solubility. Coordinate compounds are soluble in organic

solvents (non-polar solvents such as benzene, tetra
chloromethane) and insoluble in water (polar solvent)
4. Electrical conductivity. Coordinate Compounds do not

dissociate into ions when dissolved in water or melted and
hence do not conduct electricity. That is, these compounds
behave as non-conductors of electricity.
5. Melting and boiling points. Since a coordinate bond is a

union of one electrovalent and one covalent bond, the
volatility of these compounds lies between that of covalent
and ionic compounds. Thus, their melting and boiling points
are relatively higher than those of the covalent compounds
and lower than those of ionic compounds.
6. Stability. Coordinate covalent compounds are stable like

normal covalent compounds with the exception of those
compounds in
Writing covalent bonds using Lewis structures
When you want to write the Lewis structures you follow the
following steps
80
1. Write the skeleton structure for the molecule or ions. A more

electronegative atom should be in the centre. Hydrogen and
Halogens are normally at the terminal.
2. . Calculate the total number of valence electron by finding the
sum of valence electron of the atom in the molecule. If the
molecule is a polyatomic anion the number of negative charge
is added to the total number of valence electrons of the
molecule. For example, SO42- this number ion, we add two
more electrons because two negative charge indicate that there
are two more electrons than are provided by a neutral atom.
In a polyatomic cation, the numbers of positive charges are
subtracted from the total number of valence electrons for the
molecule. Thus for NH4+ ion, we subtract one electron from
the total number of valence electrons because one positive
charge indicates a loss of one electron from the neutral atoms.
3. Draw a single covalent bond between the central atom and
each of the surrounding atoms or place one pair of electrons
from each bond.
4. Distribute electrons to the atoms surrounding the central atom
or atoms to complete the octet for these surrounding atoms.
The valence shell of Hydrogen atom requires only two
electrons to complete its octet valence.
5. . Place any additional electron(s) on the central atom they are
not involved in the bonding
6. If the central atom does not complete its octet, double and
triple bond are written in between the surrounding atoms and
the central atom using the lone pairs on the surrounding
atoms.
For example write the Lewis structure for carbon tetra bromide. To
answer this question you follow the following steps.
1. The skeleton structure for carbon tetra bromide (CBr4) is
81
82 Unit 3
2. The total number of valence electrons in CBr4 is 32(4(0ne

carbon atom) plus 7 x (4 bromide atoms).
3. Place one electron pair or one dash between the central atom
(carbon atom) and each of the surrounding bromine atoms
4. Distribute the remaining electrons (32-8=24) to the

surrounding atoms to complete their octet.
Activity 3.5
Write the Lewis structure of the following molecules and ions

in
1.COS.....................................................................................................
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2.C2H2....................................................................................................
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3.H3O+....................................................................................................
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3.6. Metallic bonding
82
The peculiar type of bonding which holds atoms together in a metal

crystal is called metallic bonding. A metallic bond is the
electrostatic force of attraction that the neighbouring positive
metallic ions have for the delocalised electrons.
Many theories have been proposed to explain the metallic bonding.

Here we will discuss the simplest of them all: The Electron Sea
Model.
The following are the postulates of the Electron Sea Model:
In a metal, atoms are packed together in what is known as close-

packed structure. Because the atoms are in such close contact there
is considerable overlapping of vacant orbitals on one atom with
similar orbitals of adjacent atoms, throughout the metal crystal
(interaction between the atomic orbitals of a given atom and the
atomic orbitals of all its immediate neighbours. These interactions
are similar to those which give molecular orbitals in covalent
compounds). Thus, it is possible for an electron to be delocalised
and move freely in the vacant molecular orbital encompassing the
entire metal crystal. The delocalised electrons no longer belong to
individual metal atoms, but rather to the crystal as a whole.
As a result of the delocalisation of valence electrons, the positive

metal ions that are produced remain fixed in the crystal lattice
while the delocalised electrons are free to move about in the vacant
space in between. The metal is thus pictured as a network or lattice
of positive ions of the metal immersed in a sea of electrons or gas
of electrons. This relatively simple model of metallic bonding is
referred to as the Electron Sea Model or the Electron Gas Model
83
84 Unit 3
Figure 3.19 Model for metallic bonding
This delocalized electrons account satisfactory for most of the

characteristics properties of metals. The cations are not pushed
apart by repulsion between the atomic nuclei because between any
pair of the cations is the delocalised electron cloud.
3.6.1 General characteristic properties of metallic

bonding
Now that we are familiar with the Electron Sea Model of metallic
bonding, let us see how the same model explains most
characteristic physical properties of metals.
1. Lustre or reflectivity. When delocalised mobile electrons of the

jump from a lower energy level to higher energy, they absorb
energy and as the jump back to the lower energy level, they
emit energy in form of light that gives the metal its reflectivity
properties
2. Electrical conductivity. Metals are generally good conductors

of electricity, because the metallic crystal has mobile or
delocalised electrons that allow transfer of an electric field from
one point to the other.
3. The have high melting and boiling point because they are
characterised strong electrostatic forces of attraction that exist
between a metal ion and an electron.
4. They are solid s at RTP
Having looked at ionic, covalent and metallic bonding, let us now

look at the table below to see how these types of bonding relate to
each other in relation to their respective general characteristics.
84
Table 3.3 Properties of substances as classified by bonding type

Electrical
Type of
conductivity Boiling Unit Examples
bond
Solid liquid pt. Range particle
High Sodium
(700 C to
0
chloride,
Ionic No yes 36000C) Ion copper
sulphate
Covalent Low Atom
molecule No no (-253 C 0
Molecule
to 600 C) 0
Covalent Very high Diamond,

network No no (2000 C 0
Atom silicon
to dioxide
6000 C)0
High to Copper,
Metallic Yes no very high Atom sodium
(375 C to
0
60000C)
Activity 3.6
Using the Electron Sea Model of metallic bonding explain why

metals are generally ductile and malleable?
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85
86 Unit 3
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Now, let us look at another type of bonding known as hydrogen

bonding.
3.7. Hydrogen bonding (H-bonding)
We can define H-bonding as the electrostatic attraction between

Hydrogen atoms of one molecule and an electronegative atom of
another molecule.
This bond is formed between
Figure 3.20 Hydrogen bonding in H2O, NH3 and HF
H-bond is represented by a dash or dotted lines. It may be noted

that: only oxygen, nitrogen and fluorine which have very high
electronegativity and small atomic size, are capable of forming
hydrogen bonds. In addition, hydrogen bonding results in long
chains or clusters of a large number of ‘associated’ molecules like
many tiny magnets. Like a covalent bond, hydrogen bond has a
preferred bonding direction; this attributed to the fact that hydrogen
bonding occurs through p orbitals which contain the lone pair of
electrons on the atom involved. In comparative terms, hydrogen
bond is longer and much weaker than a normal covalent bond.
86
H-bonds only occur between molecules in which the hydrogen is

bonded to strongly electronegative element such as fluorine,
oxygen or nitrogen; as they occur in liquid hydrogen fluoride,
water or ammonia but not in hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulphide
or phosphate. Hydrogen bonds also occur in many compound
containing – OH and NH 2 groups.
Activity 3.7
List and describe two conditions that are necessary for the
formation of hydrogen bonding.
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They are two types Hydrogen bond. These include
Inter-molecular H bonding that takes between Hydrogen from one

molecule and a more electronegative atom from another molecule.
Intra-molecular H-bonding is that which takes place between two

atoms present in the same molecule. That is, bond formed between
the hydrogen atom and the electronegative atom present within the
same molecule. It results in the cyclisation of the molecule.
Molecules exist as discrete units and not in associated form. Hence
intermolecular hydrogen bonding has no effect on physical
87
88 Unit 3
properties like melting point, boiling point, viscosity, surface

tension and solubility. Examples of H-bonding taking place
between atoms within the same molecule include the following:
3.7.1. Characteristics of hydrogen-bond containing

compounds
 H-bonding cause’s anomalously high boiling points in
water, alcohol and carboxylic acid and other compounds
were they happen to be present.
Figure 3.24 boiling points of some hydride
 H-bonded liquids have high enthalpies of vaporisation

because energy is required to break up the aggregated
molecules before they are vaporised as single molecules.
 High solubility of some covalent compounds
 Three dimensional crystal lattice. Hydrogen bonds are
directional and pretty strong to form three dimensional
lattice.
 Abnormally high melting points.
88
Activity 3.8
H-bonds occur in many compounds containing –OH and –NH

groups. List compounds in which H-bonding occurs.
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3. 8. Sigma ( ) bonds and Pi ( ) bonds
A covalent bond is of two types depending on the type of

overlapping between the two atoms. These being
1) Sigma ( ) bonds
2) Pi ( ) bonds.
1) Sigma ( ) bonds
Where there is end to end or head to head overlapping of atomic

orbital’s along the inter nuclear axis, the bond formed is called
Sigma ( ) bond. This kind of overlap result in a single bond that the
strongest, shortest and is able to rotate
It can be formed by the overlap of two s- orbitals. (That is s-s

overlapping. Here s-orbital of one atom overlaps with the s-orbital
of another atom. An example of this type of overlapping is that
which occurs in the formation of hydrogen molecule from two H-
atoms
89
90 Unit 3
Figure3.25 Sigma bond; s-s overlapping
A sigma bond can also be formed by overlap of one s- orbital with

a p- orbital. In this type of bonding s-orbital of one atom overlaps
with the half filled p-orbital of the other atom as shown below.
This type of orbital overlap occurs in chemicals such as HF, HCl
Figure 3.26 Sigma bond; s-p overlapping
This bond can also be formed by the overlap of two p-orbitals

linearly oriented as shown in the diagram below.
Figure 3.27 Sigma bond; p-p ‘head to head’ overlapping
It is important to note that a sigma ( ) molecular bond is

symmetrical about the line joining the two nuclei and is non –
directional.
pi ( ) bond
This type of covalent bond is formed by side to side overlap of the
half filled atomic orbitals. It is also called lateral or sidewise
overlap. Pi bond are weak, long and cannot rotate. This type of
90
overlapping takes place perpendicular to the inter nuclear axis as

shown below.
Figure 3.28 pi ( ) bond; lateral or side-wise overlapping
A pi ( ) bond consists of two separate volumes of electron density,

one above and one below the two atomic nuclei. A pi ( )
molecular orbital from which it is formed is directional.
a. It can be formed by the overlap of two p-orbitals from

adjacent atom, laterally oriented with opposite spins.
b. Pi ( ) bonds are also formed by the overlap of a p and a d
orbitals.
Sigma ( ) bonds are stronger than pi ( ) bonds. This is because

the extent of overlapping in a sigma ( ) bond is greater than in a
pi ( ) bond as such, more energy is evolved in Sigma ( ) bond
formation. Sigma ( ) bond leads to more stability.
Pi ( ) bonds are formed only when the atoms are already linked by
a sigma ( ) bond. Pi ( ) bonds exist in double and triple bonds.
A single bond cannot form a pi ( ) bond. It therefore, follows that:
C=C the double bond here consists of one sigma ( ) bond and one
pi ( ) bond.
And that nitrogen molecule consists of the three bonds which are
not identical; one is a sigma ( ) bond and the two remaining are pi
( ) bonds. The diagram below shows the formation of nitrogen
molecule.
91
92 Unit 3
Figure 3.29 Formation of nitrogen molecule
Activity 3.9
Tabulate the differences that exist between sigma ( ) bond and Pi

( ) bonds.
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3.9. Delocalisation of bonding electrons and Resonance

hybrids
There are some molecules and ions which cannot be accurately

represented by a single, simple, structural diagram. A ‘dot-and-
cross’ model reveals the possibility of two or more structures in
which the atomic nuclei remain in the same relative position while
the disposition of bonding electrons varies: such structures are
known as canonical structures.
92
The actual molecule or ion exists as a blend of the canonical

structures in which some of the electrons are delocalised. That is,
they do not occupy bonding orbitals between any two particular
atoms but spread their influence over the whole molecule or ion.
Structures with delocalised electrons are known as resonance
hybrids. They are of lower energy and therefore, greater stability
than any one of the canonical structures; the energy difference is
known as resonance energy. For example, the nitrate ion is derived
from nitric acid:
Figure 3.30 Resonance structures for Nitrate ion using a ‘dot and cross
model
Plainly, each of the bonds could occur between the nitrogen atom
and any one of the oxygen atoms, giving rise to three posible
canonical structures:
Figure 3.31 Resonance structures for Nitrate ion
However, experimental work has shown that the nitrarte ions exist
in only one form, which is completely symmetrical, having three
bonds of equal length at angles of 1200 to one another. The
explanation is that the nitrate ion is a resonance hybrid, with the
electrons delocalised and shared equally. This is represented with
the delocalised electrons shown as dotted lines:
93
94 Unit 3
Figure 3.32 Resonance hybrid for Nitrate ion
Evidence to support the concept of delocalization of electrons and

the existence of resonance hybrid is derived from measurements of
bond length and angles and of heats of formation of the structure.
The molecule is highly negatively charge and has a large size.
3.10. Predicting the shape of simple covalent molecules:

the VSEPR theory
Since the covalent bond is directional, molecules have definite

shape. These can be predicted by the valence shell Electron Pair
Repulsion (VSEPR) theory of sidgwick – Powell which assumes
that bonding pairs of electrons in a molecule will take up position
as far apart as possible owing to their mutual repulsion.
Thus two pairs of bonding electrons will give a linear molecule,

three pairs will result in a trigonal planar shape, and four pairs will
result in tetrahedral shape.
The presence of unbounded electrons in a molecule affects the

shape.
 The lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom of the

ammonia molecule exerts a repulsive force which gives the
molecule a pyramidal shape with bond angles of 107 o
between the N – H bonds: The repulsive force of a lone
pair is greater than that of a bonded of a bonded pair,
resulting in the reduction of the angle of a regular
tetrahedron.
94
 Two lone pairs of electron have even greater repulsive

force than that of the lone pair of electrons. In water, this
gives a bent planar shape with an angle of 105 o between
the H – O bonds. When water freezes to ice the molecules
effectively became tetrahedron with two corners of the
tetrahedron being occupied by the lone pairs of electrons.
Let us now look at the following shapes in the table. A careful

study of these shapes will help us determine the shape of
simple molecules.
95
96 Unit 3
Figure 3.35 Shapes of molecules in relation to number of electron pair
With respect to the shapes of simple molecules studied above, let

us now examine some specific molecules drawn below in more
details. We shall first start by studying their Lewis structures before
we can finally settle down to work out their specific, individual
shapes.
To work out the shape of a molecule, we have to follow the steps

outlined below:
1. Write the formula to display all electron pairs by dashes (-) and
all non – bonded pairs by dots (:)
2. Assume the electron pairs (bonded and non - bonded) move

equally as far apart as possible from each other but treat a
double bonded pair (=) as single bonded pair.
3. Adjust any bond angles affected by the rule that repulsion

between a non-bonded and a bonded pair is greater than that
between two bonded pairs and that two non-bonded pairs repel
each other even more strongly.
96
97
98 Unit 3
Figure 3.36 Geometry of various molecules using VSEPR theory.
Limitation of valence bond theory
Valence bond theory proposed by Heitler and London in 1927

explains the bonding in simple molecules. According to this theory
a covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electron between the
participating atoms. This results if the overlapping between the half
filled atomic orbitals takes place and the strength of the bond
formed dependes upon the extent of overlapping between the
atomic orbitals of two atoms. Though the valence bond theory
explains the geometry of many molecules and ions yet it has
under mentioned limitations:
1. The presence of other nuclei should affect the electronic

arrangement of all the atoms in the molecule.
2. Sometimes a single electronic structure does not explain all
known properties of the molecule or ion and we have the
many electronic structures called resonating structures.
3. Valence bond theory fails to explain the bonding in electron
deficient compounds
4. It fails to explain the paramagnetic character of oxygen
molecule.
98
Activity 3.10
Using the knowledge you have acquired on VSEPR theory, work

out the shapes of the following molecules:
(a) NH4+
(b) BF3
(c) SO3
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3.11. Hybridization
According to this concept, we can mix any of atomic orbitals of an

atom, which differ in energy only slightly to form new orbitals
called hybrid orbitals. The mixing orbitals generally belong to the
same energy level (say 2s and 2p orbitals may hybridize). The total
number of hybrid orbitals formed after mixing is invariably equal
to the number of atomic orbitals mixed or hybridized. An important
characteristic of hybrid orbitals is that they are all identical in
respect of energy and directional character. They, however, differ
from the original atomic orbitals in this respect. They may also
differ from one another in respect of their arrangement in space.
99
100 Unit 3
Like pure atomic orbitals, the hybrid orbitals of an atom shall have
a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins. Hybrid orbitals of
an atom may overlap with other bonding orbitals (pure atomic or
hybrid) on other atoms to form molecular orbitals and hence new
bonds.
We can define hybridization may be defined as the phenomenon of

combining or mixing up or merging of orbitals of an atom of nearly
equal energy, giving rise to entirely new orbitals equal in number
to the mixing orbitals and having same energy contents and
identical shapes. Hybridization takes place before bonding.
Hybridization is of significant importance in determining the shape

and geometry of the molecules formed from such orbitals.
Depending upon the number and nature of orbitals undergoing
hybridization, we have various types of hybrid orbitals. For
instance, s,p and d orbitals of single atoms may be hybridized in the
following manner discussed under types of hybridization below:
Types of hybridization
They are as follows: sp, sp 2 and sp 3
(i) sp 3 Hybridization
This is the combination of one s-orbital and three orbitals

yielding four equivalent sp 3 hybrid orbitals which are arranged
tetrahedrally. Thus, all the HCH angles are equal to 109.50. For
instance, in methane.
The ground state electronic configuration of carbon is
6 C  152 2 s 2 2 px1 2 Py1 2 P2
10
0
Figure 3.37 Ground state electronic configuration of carbon
On excitation (by absorbing energy) an electron is promoted from the

2s orbital to the vacant 2p orbital giving
structure 1s 2 s 2 p x 2 Py 2 P2 . So the excited state electron
2 1 1 1 1
configuration is
6 C *  1s 2 2s 2 2 px1 2 p y1 2 pz1
Figure 3.38 Excited state of carbon
The diagram below shows various states of a carbon atom; the

orbitals are undergoing sp3 hybridization. It also illustrates the same
concept of hybridization as done in the above diagram.
It is proposed that from 2s orbital, being quite near in energy to 2p

orbital, one electron may be promoted to the vacant 2pz orbital thus
obtaining the excited atom. It is assumed that the orbitals of carbon
first undergo hybridization before forming bonds. In the excited
atom all the four valence shell orbitals may mix up to give identical
sp3 hybrid orbitals also four in number. Each of these four sp3
orbitals possesses one electron and overlaps with 1s orbitals of four
H-atoms thus forming four equivalent bonds in methane molecule.
Due to the tetrahedral disposition of sp3 orbitals, the orbitals are
inclined to an angle of 109.50. This as stated earlier, makes all the
HCH angles equal to 109.50.
10
1
102 Unit 3
Figure 3.39 sp3 hybridization of carbon atom
This change provides carbon with four unpaired electrons prior

(before) bond formation. The 2s orbital mixes completely with the
three 2 p orbitals to produce four equivalents sp 3 hybrid orbitals
which are directed towards the corners of a regular tetrahedral.
Since they are formed from one s and three p electrons this is
known as sp 3 hybridization. We shall use methane to serve as an

example of sp3 hybridization.
Figure 3.40 four sp3 orbital overlapping with 1s orbitals
Upon hybridization a carbon atom is now bonding with four

hydrogen atoms, each contributing one s electron, now leads to the
tetrahedral molecule of methane with four symmetrical molecule
orbitals each occupied by two electrons, as predicted by the
electron repulsion theory.
sp2 Hybridization
When three out of the four valence orbitals of a carbon atom

hybridizes, we have three sp 2
hybrid orbitals lying in a plane and
inclined at an angle of 120 . If 2s, 2p and 2p orbitals of the excited
0
cabon atom are hybridized, the new orbitals lie in the xy plane
while the fourth pure 2p orbital lies at right angles to the hybridized
orbitals with its two lobes disposed above and below the plane of
hybrid orbitals.
10
2
Two such carbon atoms are involved in the formation of alkenes

(compounds having double bonds). In the formation of ethane two
carbons atoms (in sp2 hybridization state) form one sigma bond by
‘head-on’ overlap of two sp2 orbitals contributed one each by the
two atoms. The remaining two sp2 orbitals of each carbon form
 bonds with hydrogen atoms. The unhybridized 2p orbitals of the
two carbon atoms undergo a side-wise overlap forming a  bond.
Thus, the carbon to carbon double bond in ethane is made of one
 bond and one  bond. Since the energy of a  bond is less than
that of a  bond, the two bonds containing the ethane molecule are
not identical in strength. The molecule is a planar one. Thus, sp2
hybridization is as a result of a combination of one of the 2s
orbital and two p orbitals which are directed in space to the
corners of a regular triangle with a bond angle of 120o .
Figure 3.41 sp2 hybridization of boron atom
Figure 3.42 orbital structure and geometry of BF3
10
3
104 Unit 3
Having discussed sp2 hybridization in a carbon atom can you now

suggest why boron despite having only one bonding orbital 2px can
form compounds such as BCl3 , BF3 and BH3. In order to answer
this question we will first write the orbital electronic configuration
of boron (B) as 1s2 ,2s2 , 2px 1 ,2p y
0
, 2pz 0. Before boron reacts it
will undergo hybridization. What actually happens is that two
electrons of 2s orbital get unpaired when it is excited. One of these
unpaired electrons thus gets promoted to the vacant 2py orbital
lying close to it. Thus in the excited state of boron there are three
half filled orbitals available for bonding. Thus after excitation
boron will have the following electronic configuration: 1s2 , 2s1 ,
2px 1 , 2py 1 ,2pz 0.
sp hybridization
We shall consider here the sp hybridization of Carbon. This type of
hybridization is met in alkynes (compound having a triple bond
between two carbons). Here one 2s and only one 2p orbital
hybridize to form two equivalent collinear orbitals: one of the two
sp hybrid orbitals on each of the two carbons in ethyne molecule
may be used in forming a  bond between them. This leaves two
pure 2p orbitals (2py and 2pz) on each carbon atom. These pure 2p
orbitals are capable of forming two  bonds by side-wise overlap.
The hybridization of an s orbital with a single p orbital gives rise to
linear molecules such as the triple bonded ethyne. Thus, ethyne
molecule contains one  and two  bonds between the two carbons
and each carbon is linked with one H-atom through  bonds.
10
4
Figure 3.43 sp hybridization of excited carbon atom
The sp hybridization of Be proceeds as shown in the diagram

below
Figure 3.44 sp hybridization of Be atom in the excited state
Now that we have discussed the concept of hybridization, let us do

the following task:
Activity 3.11.
10
5
106 Unit 3
The molecules of CH4, (methane), NH3 (ammonia) and H2O (water)

all involve sp3 hybridization of the central atom but the bond angles
in these molecules are 109028’, 107018’and 104030’respectively.
Explain why this so.
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10
6
Unit summary
In this unit we discussed chemical bonding of various types

namely, ionic, covalent, metallic, polar and hydrogen bonding. We
observed that atoms react in order to attain a stable electronic
Summary
configuration of the nearest noble gas. In addition, we noted that
atoms attain the stable electronic configuration by either
transferring of electrons from their outer most shell or by sharing of
one, two or three electron pairs between the valence shell of both
the combining atoms: The transfer of electrons or sharing of
electron pairs gives a stable configuration of 8 electrons to the
valence shell of both the atoms. Pauline’s concept of
electronegativity was seen to be valuable in determining whether a
compound will be electrovalent or covalent. Intermediate Bonding
of various types was also discussed. This included the polar
bonding in which a cation, depending on its size and charge can
distort the electron cloud of an anion involved.
Furthermore, we addressed the question of determining the shape

of simple covalent molecules. With respect to this, were greatly
benefited from the use of valence electron theory: that two pairs of
bonding electrons gives a linear molecule, three pairs resulted in
giving us a trigonal planar shape and four pairs resulted in yielding
a tetrahedral shape. We also learnt that the presence of unbounded
electrons in a molecule affects the shape. As a result of this,
molecules of the same sp2 may have different shapes. In this unit
we also made good effort to look at resonance structures too.
10
7
108 Unit 3
Assessment
Assessment 1. Using the knowledge that you have learnt on bonding, explain
why a metal is able to conduct electricity
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2.When a chemical bond between two atoms is formed, the

potential energy of the system
(a) decreases (b) increases (c) remain the same (d) cannot be
predicted
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3. According to valence bond theory, a bond between two atoms is

formed when
(a) half filled atomic orbitals overlap (b) fully filled atomic orbitals
overlap (c) non bonding atomic orbitals overlap (d) electrons of the
two atoms overlap.
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4. The strength of a bond depends upon
10
8
(a)free rotation about  bond (b) extent of overlapping between the

orbitals (c) resonance in the molecule (d) whether the overlap is
axial or sidewise
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5. sp3 hybridization leads to
(a) trigonal geometry with bond angles 1200 each
(b) tetrahedral geometry with bond angles 900 each
(c) square planar geometry with bond angles 900 each
(d)tetrahedral geometry with bond angle angles 109.50 each
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6. In sp3, sp2 and sp hybridized carbon atom the p character is

maximum in
(a) sp3 (b) sp2 (c) sp (d) all have equal p-character
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7. The carbon-carbon length is shortest in
(a) ethyne (b) ethene (c) ethane (d) CH4
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8. Since an isolated Be atom in its ground state has the electronic

configuration 1s2, 2s2 one would expect it to be chemically inert
like He (particularly that it has all its orbitals filled ( non bonding
orbitals)). Explain why unlike Helium, Be reacts, for instance, with
fluorine.
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10
9
110 Unit 3
Answers to Activities
Activity 1.1
S (2 electrons), p(6electrones), d(10 electrons) and f(14 electrons)
Activity 1.2
(a) O 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4 , O 2-1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 , Ti [Ar] 4s 2 3d 2 , Ti 2+ [Ar]3d 2
(b) 4p8 , 2s3 , 6d12 and 3d 0
Activity 1.3
1S 2S 2p 3S 3P
P         
1S 2S 2p 3S 3P 4S 3d
Mn               
1S 2S 2p 3S 3P
S         
Activity 1.4
(a) 3d n= 3 l = 1 , 4p n=4, l = 2 and 5f n = 5 l= 3
Activity 1.5
(a) 3p
(b) e n l m s
1
e4 2 1 0 
2
1
e5 2 1 -1 
2
1
e6 2 1 +1 
2
11
0
Activity 2.1
Oxygen, carbon, and argon in p block
Iron and magnesium in d block
Activity 2.2
Cl period 3, Fe period 4, Ba period 6, Rb period 5 and Ra period

7
Activity 2.3
(a) The stronger the metallic bonds the higher the melting point
(b) The stronger the vandervaal’s forces the higher the melting
poin
Activity 2.4
(a) B- Br = 0.194nm
(b) Na has a larger radius than Na  because of the increased

nuclear
attraction and the reduction in electron repulsion in Na 
(c ) There is an increase in sub levels from Na (s block) to Cl (p

block)
While from Sc to Zn the increase in atomic number is within

the same
sub energy levels (s and d)
Activity 2.5
(a) P because it is stable, it has a complete filled outer most shell.
(b) N It can easily lose the two electrons in 4s to acquire +2

oxidation
state it can also lose an electron in 3d to acquire +3
(c) M It can easily the only electron in 4s
Activity3.1
(a) One electron from the valence-shell of sodium atom is

completely transferred to the valence-shell of chlorine atom.
11
1
112 Unit 3
This transferring of one electron from sodium to chlorine atom

gives a stable configuration of electrons to the valence-shell of
both atoms.
(b)When electronegativity difference between the two atoms

involved in a reaction is very large, an ionic bond is established.
And a covalent bond is formed if electronegativity difference
between the two atoms is small.
Activity 3.2
This is because CHCl has unsymmetrical tetrahedral structure; this

molecule has three C-H bonds and one C-Cl bond. Since all the
four bonds are not identical, the dipole moments of these individual
bonds are not able to cancel each other. Hence the molecule has
some value of dipole moments.
Activity 3.3
1.
2.
3.
11
2
Activity 3.4
In metals the positive ions are surrounded by a sea of electrons that

‘flows’ around them. If one layer of metal ions is forced across
another, say by hammering, the internal structure remains
essentially unchanged. This allows metals to be ductile and
malleable.
Activity 3.5
The following conditions must be met foe the formation of H-

bonding in compounds:
1. The presence of highly electronegative atom..
2. The presence of the atom with small size.
Activity 3.6
Water, alcohols, carboxylic acids, DNA molecules ( H-bonds form
‘bridges’ that maintain the spiral shape of DNA.)
Activity 3.7
Sigma bond Pi bond
It is formed by end to end It is formed by side-wise

overlapping of half filled atomic overlapping of half filled p-
orbitals orbitals only
Overlapping takes place along Overlapping takes place

internuclear axis perpendicular to internuclear
axis
stronger Weaker
The bond can be present alone The bond is always formed in

addition to sigma bond
11
3
114 Unit 3
s and p orbitals can participate Only p-orbitals can participate

in the formation in the formation of Pi bond
There is free rotation about There is no free rotation about

sigma bond and geometrical Pi bond and geometrical isomers
isomers are not possible are possible
Activity 3.8
(a)
(b)
11
4
(c )
Activity 3.9
The presence of unbonded electrons in a molecule affects the shape

of a molecule or ion. The lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen
atom of the ammonia molecule exerts a repulsive force which gives
the molecule a pyramidal shape with bond angles of 1070 between
the N-H bonds.
In the water, the oxygen atom carries two lone pairs of electrons
which occupy the outer most orbitals. This results in a bent planar
shape with an angle of 104.90 between the H-O bonds. The
repulsive force in water is even far greater than one arising from a
single lone pair of bonding electrons in water.
As for methane it has four pairs of bonding electrons. As a result of

this, it has the least repulsive force ( between C-H bonds).
Answers to Assessments
Unit 1
1. (a) Fe[ Ar ]4 s 2 3d 6
(b) Ca 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4s 2
( c) O 2- 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
2. (a) Boron 1s 2 2s 3 the broken rule in this configuration is that
11
5
116 Unit 3
S sublevel can only hold up to 2 electrons.( 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p1 )
(b) Nitrogen 1s2 2s2 2px 2py1 the 2p orbitals are not separated
because
they all have the same energy level
(c) Beryllium 1s2 2px2 : the Aufbau principle is violated the

two
electrons are supposed to occupy the 2s sublevel with a

lower
energy than 2
Unit 2
1. (a) P is in group 6 (VI)
Because it has 6 electrons in the outer most enegy level
( 2s 2 and 2p 4 )
It is in period 2
Because the orbital ( 2p 4 ) being filled is the second level
Q is in group 5 (V)
Because it has 5 electrons in the outer most energy level (
2s 2 and 2p3 )
(b) Q has a higher ionization energy than P , because it requires

less
energy to remove an electron from 2p 4 of P because the

fourth
electron is experiencing repulsion force from the pair

electron in
one the three p orbitals the electrons
Unit 3
1. This is because metal crystals have delocalized electrons:
The mobile electrons are free to move through the vacant
space between metal ions. When an electric voltage is
11
6
applied at the two ends of a metal wire, it causes the electrons

to flow in a given direction.
2. a
3. a
4. b
5. d
6. a
7. c
8. This is due to the point that Be’s 2s orbital though complete,
possesses another empty 2p level lying in the same shell.
This is not so for He (1s2). Be atom undergoes hybridization
before it forms bonds. The excited atom acquires the
structure 1s2, 2s1, 2p1. At this stage the atom can form two
bonds by suitable overlaps with two fluorine atoms.
Readings
There are a number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested

links are:
11
7
118 Unit 3
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
1. P. Mathews (1992). Advanced Chemistry, , Cambridge

University Press,
Important
note : If you 2. Brescia F., Arent J.,Meislich H., and Turk A (1987).General
have not yet
done so, Chemistry, 5th Ed Academic press; New York
please
review the
3. Atkinson A. (1983). Certificate Chemistry, 4th Ed , Longman; Hong
Kong
11
8

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MUKUBA UNIVERSITY

CHE110: Introduction to Chemistry

© Copperbelt University College 2012.

Directorate of Distance Education (DODE)-

About Content iii

About this Module 1

Getting around this Module 7

About this Module

How this module is structured

The module overview

Welcome to the module on

This module is part A of Module 2 of Introduction to Chemistry

To complete this module successfully, you will need to spend three

The module content

 An introduction to the unit content.

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

 Course content and structure.

 Course reading materials and resources.

 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance

Upon completion of this module you will be able to:

 describe the quantum mechanical model of an atom.

 discuss the repeating patterns of physical and chemical

 Explain chemical equilibrium, and apply le chaterlier’s

 describe Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis theories of

 calculate the pH of weak and strong and weak acids and

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning

We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

Help Mr Mweshi E Cell: 0955-881340 / 0969-218224

Mr Muma E Cell: 0977-185244 / 0969735302

Mr Lupupa M.S Cell: 0968309605

Mr Kayamba. F Cell: 0975811018/ 0977370381

The assignments should be handed in to course tutors during the

Getting around this Module

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

Activity Assessment Outcomes Note it!

Electronic Structure of an Atom

Welcome to this unit. In module 1 we discussed that an atom is

 Show the arrangement of electrons in orbital using the electronic

 Use quantum numbers to describe how electrons are

 Discuss the factors that affect the stability of electrons in an

1.2. Electronic Configuration

In module 1 we discussed that an atom consists of protons,

The electrons in different energy levels are arranged in a condition

 When negative charged electron(s) is close to the positively

 The electrons in the same energy level should be far apart to

Let us now look at H atom as our example. We will use Bohr H

Figure 1.1 The Bohr H atom.

Bohr model restricts electrons rotating around the nucleus due to

Let us also look at He us our example. Unlike H atom, He atom has

1. occupying the first orbit where they will be strongly

2. being far apart to avoid repulsion energy by electrons with

Figure1.2 The attraction & repulsion forces acting on the He atom

The 2 electrons will be spinning each giving a magnetic field. It

Orbits and orbital

An orbit is a 2D planar where the electrons go round the nucleus

 The second (2) energy level contains two types of orbitals of

orbitals are in 3D of space and are represented mathematically

Figure 1. 3. The 2p orbitals

The repulsion force between 2s and the 2p electrons is minimized

Total number of electrons in energy level 3 will be

= 2n2 = 2(3)2 = 18 electrons